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PSYC37: Chapter 5
- Intelligence highly researched topic in psychology
o Definition to this is very elusive; filled with controversy and mystery
- Psychometrians- better at measuring intelligence than conceptualizing it
- Most tests we use is based on a specific theory of intelligence and its meaning to what
intelligence is
Definitions of intelligence
- Before giving a definition, one must know what a definition is
o Sternberg:
Operational definition-defines concept based on how its measured
In 1923 boring defined intelligence as what the test tests
2 short coming to this definition
Circular- tests were made to measure intelligence not define it
Blocks further understanding- foreclose discussions on adequacy
of theories of intelligence
Another problem is that is everything is based on operational definitions
then only the old tests that helped prove it are valid. Anything new would
be put in reference with the old tests.
This puts innovation and new possible ideas for definitions on hold
Real definition- seeks to tell us the true nature of the thing being defined
Expert definitions of intelligence
- Sternberg&Detterman (1986) gathered and edited the definitions of intelligence from
others:
o Spearman(1904,1923)- general ability that involves mainly the education of
relations and correlates
o Binnet and Simon (1905) - Ability to judge well, to understand well, to reason
well.
o Terman(1916)- Capacity to form concepts and grasp their significance
o Pinter(1921)- Ability of the individual to adapt adequately to relatively new
situations in life
o Thorndike(1921)- Power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact
o Wechsler(1939)- Aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment
o Piaget(1972)- Generic term to indicate the superior forms of organization or
equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the physical and social
environment
o Sternberg(1985a,1986)- mental capacity to automatize info processing and to emit
contextually appropriate behaviour in response to novelty; Includes:
Meta-component
performance component
knowledge-acquisition component
o Eysenck(1986)- Error-free transmission of info through cortex
o Gardner(1986)- Ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products that are
valued within one or more cultural settings
***PAGE 153***
- Problem with the above is that cultural factors were not given consideration because this
is all based on western perspective
- Even in other definitions there are two themes that occur consistently:
o Capacity to learn from experience
o Capacity to adapt to one’s environment
Layperson and Expert Conceptions of Intelligence
- In a study done by Sternberg and colleagues it was found that the conception of
intelligence by experts and laypersons were very similar. Both held the same importance
in terms of the kinds of intelligence that are crucial
o Lay persons:
Practical Problem-Solving Ability
Verbal Ability
Social Competence
o Experts:
Verbal Intelligence
Problem-Solving Ability
Practical Intelligence
- Intelligence test don’t measure practical intelligence is because of inertia
o Blinded accepted historical incomplete conceptions of intelligence
o Everything has been more conservative
o Not much has changed
- But soon tests will evolve with a little innovation
o Everyday problem Solving Inventory
A primer of Factor Analysis
- 2 forms of factor analysis:
o Confirmatory- confirm test scores and variables fit a specific pattern predicted by
theory; essential in validating other tests
o Exploratory- summarizes interrelationships among a large number of variables in
a concise and accurate manner as an aid in conceptualization
- Factors are another name for variables when speaking about tests
- Correlation Matrix- beginning point of facto analysis; a table that tells you all the
interrelations between the all the variables.
- Factor Matrix- table of correlations known as factor loadings
o Factor loadings- indicates the weighting of each variable on each factor
Each factor is a precise statistical combo used in analysis; derived from
adding and subtracting fractions of other tests.
Geometric representation of Factor Loadings
-usually there are about three factors as reference axes for a 2/3D space.
The rotated Factor matrix
- An important point that position of reference axes is random.
o Some data will cluster at a specific point but it can be rotated do a different
position and it does happen.
o Sometimes it is done to eliminate negative factor loadings
Rotation to positive manifold- computer programming seeks to eliminate
as many of the negative factor loadings as possible
Rotation to simple structure- Computer programming seeks to simplify
the factor loadings so that each test has significant loadings on as few
factors as possible.
Galton and Sensory Keeness
- 1st intelligence theory during brass instrument era
- Based on theory by Sir Francis Galton & J. Mckeen Cattell
o Outward events inform reaches us through our senses and the larger your field is
the more you can take in and the more intelligence you have
This theory was a psychometric dead end
Used in Reaction Time- Movement Time apparatus
Reaction time-time subject takes to react
Movement time- how long it takes to move finger from one place
to another based on reaction to stimulus
Spearman and the g Factor
- Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence consisted of 2 kinds of factors:
o A single general factor-g
o Numerous specific factors- s1,s2,s3…
- Wanted to know how many number factors was involved with what was being observed
for a certain factor
- Spearman viewed participants performance to be influenced by these 2 factors
o Since specific factors change between the type of test and participants it was
found that it was the g factor that had more of an influence on a persons
performance
o Said g factor is the energy or power that serves in common the whole cortex while
s factors to have a physiological substrate localized in group of neurons serving
the particular kind mental operation used for the test/subtest
Thurstons and the primary mental abilities
- Developed a facto analysis capable of searching correlations matrices for the existence of
group factors.
o It enables one to empirically find out the number of factors present in a matrix
and define each factor in terms of the test its in
o Came up with 7 factors that are frequently corroborated known as primary mental
abilities (PMA):
Verbal compression-
Word fluency-
Number-
Space-
Associative memory-
Perceptual speed-
Inductive reasoning-
- It was proven that some of these correlate with each other and have second order factors
o Good to tell when comparing ages but doesn’t really sum up intelligence
Cathell –Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
- CHC theory is a taxonomic tour de force that synthesizes the findings
o Intelligence consists of pervasive, broad, and narrow abilities that are
hierarchically organized
o Starts off broad gets narrower and narrower
See table 5.5- Stratum I,II,III
Definitions of CHC Broad Ability Factors
- Broad factors of CHC
- Fluid intelligence/reasoning (Gf)- cannot be performed automatically usually used for
novel task and it is high level reasoning
o Fluid intelligence- drawing inferences, forming concepts ,etc
What makes up this intelligence is highly non-verbal and not culture
oriented
- Crystallized Intelligence/knowledge (Gc)- individuals breadth and depth of acquired
cultural knowledge
Crystallized intelligence- application of verbals and cultural knowledge
- Domain-specific knowledge(Gkn)-specific knowledge that shows a persons obtained
knowledge in something that has nothing to do with their culture like computer skills or
having knowledge in biology ( not affected by your culture).
- Visual-Spatial Abilities (Gv) - ability to imagine, retain, and transform images in your
head.
o This capacity includes visual memory
- Auditory Processing (Ga)- ability to perceive precise auditory inform and analyze,
comprehend, and synthesize patterns or groups of sounds.
- Broad retrieval [Memory] (Gr)- ability to consolidate and store new info in long term
memory
- Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs)- speed of executing over learned or automized
cognitive processes
- Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt)- ability to respond quickly to simple stimuli
Utility CHC theory
- Practitioners are praise this theory because broad and narrow abilities are empirically
verified and possess meaningful real-world implications
Guilford and the structure-of-intellect (SOI) Model
- Proposed that the number of mental disabilities lay far more than the 7 that Thurstone
talked about
o Found a lot of correlations between big batter tests
So said group them under small amount of major headings
- Came up with the SOI model
o Has three factors: operations, contents, and products
Operations-the kind of intellectual operation required to test (5)
Content- nature of material or info presented to participant(5)
Products- different kinds of mental structures that the brain must produce
to derive correct answer(6)
5x5x6=150 factors of intellect ***PAGE 169
- SOI captures complexity of intelligence
- Divergent production- creation of numerous appropriate responses to a single stimulus
situation; is also essential element of intelligent behaviour.
Theory of Simultaneous and Successive Processing
- Simultaneous Processing- execution of several different mental operations
simultaneously.
- Successive processing- info is needed for mental activities in which a proper sequence of
operations must be followed.
Information-Processing theories of intelligence
- Architectural system (hardware) - refers to biologically based properties necessary for
information processing, such as memory span and speed of encoding/decoding
information.
- Executive System- Which refers to environmentally learned components that steer
problem. Includes:
Knowledge base
Schemes
Control processes
Metacognition
Gardner and the Theory of multiple intelligence
- Howard Gardner proposed that there’s an existence of several relatively independent
human intelligence. Admits however nature, extent, and number of intelligence have not
yet been definitively established.
- He outlines criteria for autonomous intelligence:
o Potential isolation by brain damage-
o Existence of exceptional individuals such as savants
o Identifiable core operations
o Distinctive developmental history-
o Evolutionary plausibility-
o Support from experimental psychology
o Support from psychometric findings
o Susceptibility to symbol encoding
REFER to page 172
- Based on these 7 natural intelligences were proposed
o Linguistics
o Logical-mathematical
o Spatial
o Musical
o Bodily-kinestic- ***PAGE 172
o Interpersonal
o Intrapersonal
RED- well known , BLUE- somewhat novel require more detailed
presentation
Sternberg and the Triarchic theory of intelligence
- Takes wider view on the nature of intelligence
- In addition to proposing that certain mental mechanisms are required for intelligent
behaviour, also emphasizes intelligence involves adaptation to the real-world
environment
- Theory emphasizes successful intelligence-ability to adapt and shape and select
environments to accomplish one’s goal
- Triarchic theory- Sternberg’s theory which deals with 3 aspects
o Componential intelligence- aka analytical intelligence
Consists of internal mental mechanisms responsible for intelligent
behaviour. Has 3 components:
Metacomponent
Performance component
Knowledge-acquisition component
o Experimental intelligence- able to deal effectively with novel tasks also known as
creative intelligence
o Contextual intelligence- Also known as practical intelligence. Has 3 parts:
Adaptation
Selection
Shaping
- This test is unique because it looks at the practical and creative side of intelligence
- Most comprehensive and ambitious model yet
o But some researchers feel basic cognitive should be looked at before higher level
constructs
Orientation to individual intelligence tests
- Individual tests is a major achievement of psychology
o Application of this inspired educators and psychologists to look for ways to
improve student academic progress
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS IV)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC IV)
Standford-Binet-5th
edition (SB5)
Detroit Tests of learning aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)
Kaufman assessment Battery for Children-II (KABC-II)
Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)
- The Wechsler scale has been the popular one in recent years but there are still others
available
o In some sense other scales are even better
The Wechsler Scales of Intelligence
- David Wechsler began to work on the 1st test in 1932 inspired by the Binnet scales and
army alpha and beta tests
o 1st Wechsler test was called the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scales-1939
In this test the items possessed no appeal for adults
Too many questions emphasized mere manipulation of words
The instructions emphasized speed at the expense of accuracy
The reliance on mental age was irrelevant to adult testing
- To correct these shortcomings:
o Wechsler designed his test specifically for adults
o Added performance items to balance verbal questions
o Invented a new method for getting IQ
IQ= Mental Age/ Chorological Age
IQ= Attained or actual score/ Expected Mean Score for Age (newer one)
- IQ constancy: basic assumption of all scales where relative degrees of intelligence are
defined in terms of it.
- Wechsler also wanted to use this test for psychiatric aid
o Had verbal subtest and performance subtests; if participants did better:
V>P pattern = organic brain diseases, psychoses, and emotional disorders
P>V pattern = psychopaths, and persons with mild mental retardation
- General features of the Wechsler tests:
o Latest editions are WPPSI-III, WISC-IV, and WAIS-IV all have common
features:
14/15 subtests
Empirical based breakdown into composite scores and full scale IQ
Common metric for IQ and Index scores
Common subtests for the different test versions
Wechsler Subtest
- Wechsler also believed we can only know someone’s intelligence by it makes the
person done
o So came up with array of underlying abilities so as to estimate the global
capacity of intelligence
Came up with 17; Table 5.7 pg182***
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale –IV
- Significant revision of WAIS-III
- Doesn’t do the usual bi-fold breakdown of Verbal IQ and Performance IQ
o instead it’s a four-fold break down of
Verbal Comprehension Index-similar to verbal IQ but better
Perceptual Reasoning Index- similar to performance IQ but better
Working Memory Index- subtests to attention and immediate
memory
Processing Speed Index- highly speeded process of visual info;
sensitive to neurological and neuropsychological conditions
WAIS-IV Standardization
- Was taken with great care based on data collected in 2005 by the U.S. Bureau
- There was a sample done of 2200 adults based on gender, race/ethnicity,
education level, and geographic region
o There were also however several exclusionary criteria:
Uncorrected vision
Hearing impairment
Current hospitalization
Evidence of drug/alcohol problems,
Upper extremity impairment
Use of certain prescribed drugs
Variety of potentially brain-impairing conditions (head
injuries,stroke,etc)
- The WAIS-IV and WAI-III don’t give the same results in terms of IQ. In a study
done WAIS-IV results were points lower- this was because the test is harder
Reliability
- Reliability for WAIS-IV is really good
o Not just with general populations but with special populations like those
of Alzheimer’s or intellectual disabilities
- WAIS-IV IQ has an 8 point bad of error- +/- 4points
o Within the 15 subtests:
Only information and vocabulary have high strong coefficients (.9
and .91 respectively)
Others fall in the range of low 0.7 to mid 0.8
Validity
- Many lines of evidence to show validity
- Good content validity from the start
o Through comprehensive literature review
- Good criterion related validity through mainstream intelligence tests and other measures
- Construct validity also shown by confirmatory factor analyses of subtest scores from the
standardization sample
- In general validity proven through the strong data and results from the previous three
versions of this test
WISC-IV
- Was publishes in 1949 as a downward extension of the original Wechsler-Bellevue
o Psychometricians found many flaws:
Absence of non-whites in standardization sample
Ambiguities of scoring
Inappropriate items for children (reference to cigars)
Absence of females and African Americans in pictorial content of items
o WISC-R, WISC-III, WISC-IV all corrected these flaws
- WISC-IV has 15 subtests :
10 are core- help compute full IQ
5 are supplemental – offer important diagnostic info; also suitable
substitution for a core subtest
- Standardization was based on a sample of 100 boys and girls with respect to many
ethnicities
- Reliability is high but IQ scores2.5 point lower than WISC-III and 3 points lower than
WAIS-III
Seems the newer tests yield lower scores than the old
- The 10 core subtests grouped:
o Verbal Comprehension Index:
Similarities
Vocabulary
Comprehension
o Perceptual Reasoning Index:
Block design
Picture Concepts
Matrix reasoning
o Working Memory Index:
Digit Span
Letter-Number Sequencing
o Processing Speed Index:
Coding
Symbol Search
- 4 indexes scores are based on familiar mean of 100 and St.dev of 15
SB5 Model of intelligence
- Earlier Standford-Binet examined only the composite IQ
o 4th
/5th
corrected this shortcoming
- Guided by the thought that each 5 intelligence can be assessed by 2 distinct domains:
o verbal
o non-verbal
- 5 factors of intelligence are:
o Fluid reasoning
o Knowledge
o Quantitative Reasoning
o Visual-spatial Processing
o Working memory
- 5x 2= 10 subtests
- The SB5 brings so much different perspectives:
o 10 sub tests
o 3 IQ scores ( Full, verbal, nonverbal)
o 5 factor scores
- Normed to a mean of 100 and St.dev of 15
- Routing procedure- identifies the appropriate starting points for subsequent subtests
o Advantages- shorter efficient test administration
o Use of modern item response theory
- Extra features that make SB5 better than SB4
o Extensive high end items
o Improved low end items
o Also screened items for fairness based on religion and traditional concerns
o Has working memory factor (with verbal and nonverbal)
Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)
- Test individually administered and designed for school children age 6-17
- Reliability is high just like the other tests
- 10 subtests that form basis of 16 composites- 14 of which are ability areas
o 10 subtest are normed of mean of 10 and st.dev of 3
o 16 composites are based on familiar mean of 100 and st.dev of 15
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-11 (KABC-II)
- Individually administered test of cognitive abilities for children and adolescents 3-18
years
- Grounded from 2 theoretical backgrounds:
o Luria model
o CHC theory
- Has different subtests and global scales for each of the 3 age ranges (age 3, 4-6 and 7-18)
- KABC-II consists of 18 subtests (figure 5.11 pg.200)
Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT)
- Brief measure of intelligence constructed broadly within the CHC of fluid and
crystallized intelligence. Suitable for ages 11 to 85+
- Core battery of test consists of 6 subtests that can be administered in roughly 2/3 the time
needed for most individual intelligence test
Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)
- Well-normed screening test of general intelligence that consists of vocab and matrices
- Shows strong correlations with other mainstream measures of intelligence
Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-II
- Designed to appraise student progress in academic areas like reading, mathematics,
written language, and oral expression
- Essential in evaluating of learning disabilities