psy 150 research and psychology.pdf
TRANSCRIPT
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General Psychology (PSY 150)
Research and Psychology
Harry I. Cain, MA
Edgecombe Community College
Tarboro, NC
The Scientific Method
An approach to discover relationships between
events
In psychology the relationship between
environmental events (S) and behavior (R)
Technically, do not discover cause; only
establish relationship
A strong relationship suggests a causal link Science supports ideas, does not prove ideas
Qualitative (Descriptive) Research
Observing and Describing Pattern Naturalistic Observation: observe and measure in
a naturalistic setting. Do not control or
manipulate the situation. Does allow noting and
descriptions of patterns
Case Study: in depth study of a case or a few
cases. May cite other reports of similar cases to
generate an explanation or hypothesis.
Archival methods: going through the archives;
reviewing files, charts, numerous case histories.
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From Qualitative to Quantitative
Using Qualitative methods: observed a chosen phenomena and
collect certain facts noted patterns among the facts Develops a plausible explanations of
the pattern- a hypothesis
The Researcher wants to conductcontrolled observations or measureswith larger groups of people-Quantitative Research
Quantitative Methods of
ObservationMethods used in collecting data on larger
number of people.
Surveys
Tests
Questionnaires
Interviews: typically with specific questionsto be answered
By collecting large amounts of data maynotice patterns that support the hypothesis.
But not changing the situation or conditions
Question?
Psychology studies the relationshipbetween environment and behavior
The Research Question is: how doesbehavior change if make a change inthe environment?
So if a psychologist is going to doresearch,
1. What will be changed?
2. What will be measured?
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The Experimental Method
Experiment: conduct observationsunder conditions of strict control.
Since Psychology wants to determine therelationship between environment and
behavior, an experiment involves changingthe environment and measuring how
behavior changes
Change conditions or situation and measurehow behavior change
Change Environment Behavior Change?
Independent and DependentVariables
Independent Variable:what theexperimenter controls or varies; usually anenvironmental variable; changing conditions
Dependent Variable:what is observed ormeasured. In psychology, behavior andmental processing
Change Environment Behavior Change?(Independent Variable) (Dependent Variable)
Operationalism: Making things observable
Notice that when testing the hypothesis,researchers can clearly observe the change inconditions (independent variable) and thechange in behavior (dependent variable)
Operationalism: Scientific Theories must begrounded in observable events that can bemeasured.
By making events observable, are making theevents public- anyone can carry out theoperations.
Example: Mild vs. Moderate vs. Heavy Exercise
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Experimental Groups
The group exposed to the changedconditions
A procedure is done to this group; theprocedure changes the situation orconditions. Change Environment (independent variable)
Compare the behavior of the experimentalgroup to the control group (and perhapsplacebo group) Measure Behavior (dependent variable)
Control and Placebo Groups
Control Group: a group that does notexperience the experimentalprocedure
Placebo Group a group that receivean intervention that has no impact onwhat is being observed Common in medication studies
FYI: The Power of Placebos
Expectancy: People report feeling better aftera treatment or procedure is done. Examplesinclude:
29% improvement in depression study andmigraine headache study
36% in a duodenal ulcer study
Some studies where the person becomesaddicted to the placebo.
Therefore, need to determine how muchchange is the treatment vs. expectation,especially in psychotherapy research.
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Example 1
Room Temperature and Classroom behavior
Experimental Groups
Group 1: elevate temperature to 85 degrees Group 2: lower temperature to 60 degrees
Control Group: temperature remains at 75degrees
Independent Variable: Temperature
Dependent Variable: Classroom behavior
Example 2
Tea Drinking and Test PerformanceExperimental Group
Group 1: one 8 oz cup of tea before study 1 hr
Group 2: two 8 oz cup of tea before study 1 hr
Control Group: no tea study 1 hr.
Placebo Group
Group A: one 8 oz cup of tea flavored fluid
Group B: two 8 oz cup of tea flavored fluidIndependent Variable: amount of tea
Dependent Variable: test performance
What to Consider in Designing anExperiment
Who?
Gender: Both Males and Females or just
Males or Females?
Age: young adults, older adults, teens?
Demographics: Ethnic, Race,
Urban/Rural, Socioeconomic,
Educational level, etc
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How are People Assigned to theGroups?
Random Assignment: helps to insure
that groups are similar. Statistical procedures require or assume
random assignment.
How about Experimental Bias? It ispossible that the experimenterspreconceived ideas can impactobservations
Do we blind the researchers?
Interpreting Results
How did the Experimental Group Change?
Did the Control Group change?
Did the Placebo Group Change?
Is the change in the Experimental Group greater
than the change in the Control or Placebo Group?
Is This Difference statistically significant?
How Lasting is the Change? The issue of Follow-up
What Can be Concluded?
Can the Results be Generalized? The need for replication
Do the Findings Suggest FutureResearch?
How Do the Findings Fit into OtherResearch Findings?
Support a theory?Note that ahypothesis and theory are supported,NOT
PROVEN!!!
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Scientific Consensus: Converging
the EvidenceAnswers emerge slowly- have a gradualsynthesis of findings (a brick by brick process)rather than a breakthrough Conclusions not based on one single study; instead
on the data from numerous studies and meta-analysis of these studies.
Because one study disputes the conclusion of otherstudies, it does not mean there is controversy. Nosingle crucial study is definite in establishing aconclusion.
So if a handful of studies say no but hundreds sayyes there likely is a convergence of evidence.
FYI: Chance and Probability in Research
Findings of research suggest a probability butthe finding will not occur in all cases.
The Person Who: when results arereported, a case can be found thatcontradicts the finding. Data may suggestthat expect the result 95% of the time but 5%the result wont occur. Example: Person who smoked 30 yrs. and no
cancer. This case does not invalidate theconnection between smoking and lung cancer
Chances are if you eat right and exercise youPROBABLYwill be healthy, NOTyouWILL Be
Summarizing the Scientific Method
1. Theory(explanation 0f phenomena) generates a2. Prediction (the hypothesis) based on the theory
3. Test- the experiment to see if the prediction issupported. The test is set up to show that the theoryis shown to be false (the falsifiability criteria.)
4. Modify the Theorybased on the test (the results.)
5. Testing tends to get more powerful as progress.
Note: the Theory is either supported by data or it isnot. A theory is not proven but the theory will lose itsplace or discarded if not confirmed by the collecteddata. If data tends to support the theory, the theorycontinue and will continue to be tested and modified.
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Research: Replication and PubliclyVerifiable Knowledge
Research is submitted to the scientific
community for testing (replication) andcriticism. Original research made availablefor other scientists to extend. Peer Review publications: submitted research
critiqued by several scientists in the specialtyarea before it is published
Research findings always under scrutiny
Non scientific community will bypass theresearch community and go directly to themedia with their findings.
Correlational Methods
Procedure to see how much events orcharacteristics go along with each other.
Looking at the co-relationship between twovariables. Relationship between smoking and lung cancer
Relationship between aggression and watching TV
Relationship between stress level and depression
Correlational Research
Variables
Behaviors,events, or othercharacteristicsthat can change,or vary in some
way For example
Smoking and lungdisease
SAT scores andschool
Correlational Research
The relationshipbetween two sets ofvariables is examinedto determine whetherthey are associated, orcorrelated
Correlation does notmean causation
Ranges from +1 to -1
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Correlational Method (cont)
Describing Correlation (see next slide) Positive vs. Negative Line of best fit
Limits of Correlational Studies Describe relationship but does not explain the
relationship (or direction of cause): theDirectionality Problem
Variables may be related because of anothervariable- the 3rdvariable problem
Example: Depression and Stress Does stress cause depression? Depression result in stress Depression and stress associated with poverty-
the 3rdvariable.
Directionality
Problem
The 3rd Variable ProblemThe reason viable X and Y correlate is not
because of one causing another; it is because ofa 3rdvariable (Z) Use of Birth Control (X) correlated with number of
electrical appliances in the home (Y) because ofvariable Z: level of income
Private school instruction provides betterachievement than public; private cause betterachievement. A correlation based on a 3rdvariable:
economic advantage (SES)There are statistical procedures that addressthe 3rdvariable problem by factoring out theinfluence of the extraneous variables.
Illusory Correlation
As mentioned, research deals with probability andmulti causation.
Correlation only says how two events go along with orare associated with each other. But cannot infer causebased on correlation.
However, people tend to connect two random eventsthat occur together- see connection when there is not.
Blind date leads to marriage.
Missing a bus and then meet an old friend.
Coincidence will happenno need to explain (but wewill.) Even rare events happen
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Correlation Research
More on Correlation Research
Attempt to Identify Relationship between two
variables or how the variables change together.
1.00 A perfect relationshipthe two factors always
go together. A direct relationship
.76-.99 Very strong relationship
.51-.75 Strong relationship
.26-.50 Moderate relationship
.01-.25 Weak relationship 0 No relationship; two factors never occur together
Can be Positive (+) or Negative (-)
Ethics of Research: the Nuremberg Code
Created during the Nuremberg Trials ofNazi doctors in 1948
The Voluntary Consent of the human subject
is absolutely essential.
Freely Give Consent to Participate in Research
Freedom from Coercion
Have the Capacity to Consent
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FYI: US Studies with Ethical Concerns
Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)
Radiation Studies (mid 1940s-mid 1970s)
Willowbrook Cancer Studies (1956-1970)
Jury Trial Studies (1953)
Milgrams Obedience Studies (1964)
Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital: Hepatitis Studies(1963)
Tea Room Trade Study (1965-1968)
San Antonio Contraception Study (1971)
Simulated Prison Study (1971)
Lead to the writing ofFederal Regulations (45 CFR 46)of research and the Belmont Report (1979)
Research Ethics: Principles of the
Belmont Report
Respect for
Person
Benef icence Just ice
InformedConsent
Risk andBenefits
SampleSelection
Voluntary
Participation
Qualified
Researcher
Inclusion
Confidentiality
and Privacy
Appropriate
Research Design
Notes on Ethical Animal Research
Animals are protected by Laws that govern
research. (Human protections are regulations,
not laws.)
Laws are strict: must take steps to guard the
well-being of animals.
Must justify the need to sacrifice the animal:
benefit vs. harm
Mathematical Modeling often used to reduce
number of animals necessary
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FYI (Not on Test)
Clinical TrialsWould You Volunteer?When a drug (or device) is being tested, it first
is done with animals. Then the need to test
with people.When would you volunteer? Phase 1: does it harm- is it or when is it
toxic?
Phase 2: does it help with the disease,illness, or medical condition?
Phase 3: large scale testing with largesamples
Phase 4: post-approval research. Testingmedications (and devices) in use
A Note on Reference Sources
Several Slides were developed from thebook How to Think Straight aboutPsychology, 10th Ed. by Keith Stanovich(Pearson, 2013.) The slides coming fromthis book are titled in Green
Other slides come from Feldmans
textbook and other sources.