Motivating PerformanceMatthew L. Eisenhard, Psy.D.Week 8: Psychology for Business & Industry

Defining Motivation• Daniel Pink TED talk• MOTIVATION = the internal process leading to

behavior to satisfy needs (the REASON you do anything).

▫ Q = Why do people do what they do?▫ A = To meet their needs & wants.▫ It is a process – and a continuous one.

Need > Motive > Behavior > Satisfy/or Not

• IMPORTANCE = being able to motivate yourself and others is critical to your career success (and life over-all).

Performance FormulaEmotions > Behavior > PerformanceThe Formula:

Performance = Ability X Motivation X Resources

All 3 factors need to be HIGH.If any one is weak = performance will suffer.When people’s needs are not met – generally they

become dissatisfied and low performers.Theories for Motivation help us understand and

Techniques for Application help us implement them.

Theories of Motivation

• Content Theories

• Process Theories

• Reinforcement Theories

Content Theories of MotivationContent Theories = focus on identifying

people’s needs in order to understand what motivates them.◦ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs◦ ERG Theory (Existence –

Relatedness – Growth)◦ Two-Factor Theory◦ Manifest Needs Theory

Maslow’s HierarchyShown in a Pyramid (Exhibit 8.1)

Needs are in order – from basic to more complex. You cannot meet higher needs until basic ones are

attained.Five Basic Needs

1. PHYSICAL – food, water, shelter, sex.2. SAFETY – safe working conditions, security.3. SOCIAL – love, friendship, affection, acceptance.4. ESTEEM – ego, status, self-respect, recognition

(titles, raises, promotions, etc).5. SELF-ACTUALIZATION – your full potential.

ERG TheoryClassification of needs is

highly debatable.Some say only 2 – others

say 7.ERG is a well-known

simplification.Alderfer reorganized

Maslow’s into 3 categories that correlate.◦ Existence =

physical & safety needs◦ Relatedness =

social needs◦ Growth = esteem &

self-actualization needs

How to Motivate Using Hierarchy & ERG Theories• General rule of thumb: meet lower-level needs

so people can work on upper-levels.• With ERG ask:

▫ What are this persons needs?▫ What needs have been met?▫ What are the lowest ones that haven’t been met?▫ Have any higher needs been frustrated & how?▫ Is the person refocusing on lower levels?▫ How can the unmet needs be attained?

Two-Factor Theory

• Herzberg’s (1950’s) Classification of Needs

Motivators & HygienesSelf-assessment exercise 8.1.◦ HYGIENES (lower level needs).

Physical, Safety, Social a.k.a. EXtrinsic - external to job itself.

Pay, job security, job titles, etc. Keep people from being dissatisfied – but do not

motivate them.◦ MOTIVATORS (higher level needs).

Esteem, Growth, Self-Actualization. a.k.a. INtrinsic – internal to individual.

Achievement, recognition, challenge, etc. To be truly motivated and satisfied you must seek and

attain INTERNAL REWARDS – your job must have meaning to you beyond $$ and titles.

Manifest Needs Theory

• McClelland’s Classification Of Needs.▫ PERSONALITY based

approach to motivation.• Self-assessment exercise 8.2.• Three needs.

▫ ACHIEVEMENT.▫ POWER.▫ AFFILIATION.

Need for Achievement• High = problem solvers –

goal-oriented – like challenges – strive for excellence – realistic risk takers – hard workers – high performers.

• To Motivate = give non-routine challenging tasks – lots of feedback and often – increasing responsibilities.

Need for Power• High = want to control –

are competitive – don’t like loosing – willing to confront others – low need for affiliation.

• To Motivate = give lots of autonomy – include in decision making – work alone rather than in teams – give them the whole task, not just a part of it.

Need for Affiliation

• High = like close relationships – need to be liked – enjoy socializing – like to belong to groups and organizations – tend to be low Power people – prefer to follow instead of lead.

• To Motive = work as part of a team – give lots of praise and recognition – let them train new people on the job – great mentors.

Content Theories

Process Motivation Theories• Attempt to understand How And

Why people are motivated.• Focus more on

behavior than need.▫ Expectancy

Theory▫ Equity

Theory

Expectancy Theory

• Vroom’s Formula▫ Motivation = Expectancy X Valence

Depends on how much someone wants something.

• Expectancy▫ A person’s perception of their own ability &

what they foresee as outcomes.▫ Higher expectations = higher motivation.

• Valence▫ The value placed on the outcome or reward.▫ Higher value = higher motivation.

Expectancy TheoryHow To Motivate Using This Theory◦ Give clear precise goals.◦ Tie performance to rewards.◦ Make sure the reward is of value to the

person (remember what one person values another may not).◦ Make sure people believe

you will give them the reward.

Equity TheoryBased on the perception of inputs and outputs.

“Does what I put into this job equal what I get out of it?”“Am I getting what I deserve for the work I do?”“Am I getting paid equally in comparison to others doing

the same work I am doing?People must perceive they are being treated equal to

others.If they perceive they are not - then trouble comes knocking.When people think they are being treated with equity they

are more motivated to perform.Most people tend to inflate their own efforts and

performance over others – and also overestimate what others earn.

Motivating with Equity TheoryBe aware equity is based on perception.◦ Perceptions can be right or wrong.◦ Some managers have favorites – inequity.

Rewards need to be fair.◦ If people think they are not being treated fairly then

resentment and retaliation can occur.High performance needs rewarding.◦ Must have clear understanding of what they need to do

(input) to get reward (output).How people feel is what counts most.◦ What people “know” isn’t as important as how they “feel.” ◦ Inequity makes for high emotionality.

Reinforcement Theory• B.F. Skinner = behavior can be controlled through

the use of positive or negative consequences.• A.K.A. Behavior Modification or Operant

Conditioning.• Three Components:

▫ STIMULUS – the event/something that happens.

▫ RESPONSE – behavior/performance.

▫ CONSEQUENCES – reinforcement – positive/negative.

Types of ReinforcementPOSITIVE◦ Rewarding desired behavior.◦ Increases possibility of repeated behavior.

NEGATIVE (Avoidance)◦ Removal of something unpleasant.◦ Increases possibility of repeated behavior.

EXTINCTION◦ When reinforcers are not given.◦ The desired behaviors disappear.

PUNISHMENT◦ Least effective method of controlling behaviors.◦ Lowers morale, productivity.◦ Encourages acts of sabotage, theft, etc.

Schedules of ReinforcementCONTINUOUS = Every Time.INTERMITTENT:◦ FIXED INTERVAL

Reinforcement after set time. Weekly pay check.

◦ VARIABLE INTERVAL Reinforcement after a unpredictable time lapse.

Fishing.◦ FIXED RATIO

Reinforcement after a set number of events occur. Piecework.

◦ VARIABLE RATIO (HIGHEST PREDICTOR ) Reinforcement after an average or variable or unpredictable

number of events occur. Slot machines.

Motivating with Reinforcement• Make expectations and objectives

clear.• Use appropriate rewards.• Use the right reinforcement

schedule.• Never reward undesired behaviors.• Focus on positives – reward them.• Never go a day without praising.• Do things FOR people not TO them.

Motivation Techniques

• Praise• Objectives and

Management By Objectives (MBO)

• Job Enrichment• Job Design

Praise• Research since 1940’s show appreciation and

recognition motivate more than anything else • Even $$$!

Objectives◦ State what is to be accomplished within

a Certain Time Frame (goals with deadlines) – should be written.◦ It Is a Plan for Success.

Criteria For Objectives (Goals) Difficult But Doable.

Challenging but not impossible. Observable And Measurable

Ability to see and evaluate (keeping score). Specific – Target Dates

Know exactly what and when . Participative (When Possible)

Employee input = better performance. Accepted

Employees must accept and be willing – buy in.

Motivation Techniques• Management By Objectives

(MBO)▫ The process where managers and

employees Jointly Set Objectives for the employee.

▫ Three Steps: Set Individual Objectives and Plans. Give Feedback and Evaluate

Performance (frequently). Reward According to Performance.

Motivation TechniquesJOB ENRICHMENT◦ Process of building motivators into the job itself by making

it more interesting and challenging. Ways To Do That:

Delegate More Variety And Responsibility. Learn new skills – relieves boredom.

Form Natural Work Groups. Allowing teams to work together instead of in separate

offices – tear down the cubicles? Make Employees Responsible For Their Own

Identifiable Work. Put the worker’s name on the label!

Give Employees More Autonomy. Flexibility to plan and organize your own job.

Motivation TechniquesJob Design◦ The employee’s system for transforming inputs into outputs.◦ The more effective the method – the productive the employee.◦ Job Simplification:

ELIMINATE If something isn’t productive – quit doing it just because

that’s the way it’s always been done. COMBINE

Some tasks can be done at the same time as others – good time management.

CHANGE SEQUENCE Just changing the order in which things get done sometimes

makes a huge difference in saving time. Do the dreaded task first and get it over with!

Self Motivation• Feeling bored…or trapped?• Try these techniques

(Model 8.3).▫ Set Objectives

Decide what you want – get a destination.▫ Develop Plans – Willpower Alone Fails

Make a step-by-step plan – prioritize it.▫ Measure Results

Get feedback – compare performance to goal.▫ Reinforce Results

Reward yourself for successes – and if you slip start again!

Motivation Around the GlobeCross-Cultural Differences in Motivation◦ Hierarchy Needs

Countries at risk may place Security high. Countries that value relationships over possessions may

place Social Needs higher. Obviously higher-level needs are more relevant to wealthy

societies than to poor ones.◦ Achievement Needs

High quantity of life countries value high performance. High quality of life countries are not as interested in

performance. Individualist societies focus on self-accomplishments. Collective societies focus on group-accomplishments.

Motivation Around the GlobeCross-Cultural Differences in Motivation◦ Individualistic –v- Collective

Equity is more of a motivator in Individualistic cultures – with higher producers earning more.

But even in U.S. (Individualistic) – Worker Unions (including teachers) tend to prefer equal pay as opposed to merit pay.

◦ Expectations This motivation is flexible and works well within a variety

of countries because it is all relative.◦ Goal Setting

Not as important in countries where quality of life is valued over quantity of life issues.

Chapter Review

• Motivation Process & Performance

• Motivation Theories▫ Content Theories▫ Process Theories▫ Reinforcement

Theories• Motivation

Techniques