psc-4011-2 learning guide - sofad · project coordinator: alain pednault project coordinator ......

Electricity:What’s the Connection?PSC-4011-2Learning Guide

ELECTRICITY:

WHAT'S THE CONNECTION?

PSC-4011-2

LEARNING GUIDE

Electricity: What's the Connection? is one of a series of three courses in the Secondary IV Physical Science Program. The series also includes:

PSC-4010-2 Nuclear Technology: A Matter of Energy

PSC-4012-2 Ionic Phenomena: A Study of an Environmental Problem

ELECTRICITY: WHAT’S THE CONNECTION?

This workbook was produced by the Société de formation à distance des commis-sions scolaires du Québec.

Project Coordinator: Alain Pednault

Project Coordinator (Previous Editions): Jean-Simon Labrecque

Project Coordinator (First Edition): Mireille Moisan

Program Coordinators at the DFGA: Serge Leloup Pierrette Marcotte

Project Coordinator at the DFGA: Pauline Pelletier

Authors: Céline Tremblay (Chapters 2 to 6) René Vézina (Chapters 1 and 7)

Updated Version: Céline Tremblay

Content Revisor (English Version): Teresa Groenewegen-Caza

Illustrator: Jean-Philippe Morin

Graphics: Science-Impact

Layout: Daniel Rémy

Layout (Previous Editions): Sylvain Nadeau

Translation: Direction de la production en langue anglaise Services à la communauté anglophone Ministère de l'Éducation

First Edition: April 1998

March 2012

© Société de formation à distance des commissions scolaires du Québec

All rights for translation and adaptation, in whole or in part, reserved for all countries. Any reproduction by mechanical or electronic means, including microreproduction, is forbidden without the written permission of a duly authorized representative of the Société de formation à distance des commissions scolaires du Québec.

Legal Deposit–1998Bibliothèque nationale du QuébecNational Library of CanadaISBN 978-2-89493-125-7

0.5TABLE OF CONTENTS© SOFAD

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Overview

The Physical Science Program .................................................................0.13

Electricity: What's the Connection? ...........................................................0.13

Objectives ..................................................................................................0.14

How to Use This Learning Guide .....................................................................0.23

Information for Distance Education Students ................................................0.25

Work Pace ..................................................................................................0.25

Materials ....................................................................................................0.25

Learning Activities ....................................................................................0.26

Experiments ..............................................................................................0.26

Exercises ....................................................................................................0.27

Self-Evaluation Test ..................................................................................0.27

Your Tutor .................................................................................................0.27

Homework Assignments ...........................................................................0.28

Certifi cation ...............................................................................................0.28

Useful Information ...................................................................................0.29

Prerequisites ......................................................................................................0.30

How to Round Off a Number ...................................................................0.30

The Property of Proportions ....................................................................0.31

Formulas ...................................................................................................0.32

Scientifi c Notation ....................................................................................0.33

The Laws of Exponents ............................................................................0.34

Electricity: What's the Connection? ...................................................................0.35

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Chapter 1: Electricity All around Us

Electricity in Québec ...........................................................................................1.4

Energy through the Ages ...................................................................................1.10

Electricity—A Key Form of Energy ..................................................................1.15

Coal ............................................................................................................1.15

Natural Gas ...............................................................................................1.16

Oil ..............................................................................................................1.16

Uranium and Nuclear Energy ..................................................................1.17

Water .........................................................................................................1.17

Making a Well-Informed Decision ....................................................................1.22

Key Words in this Chapter ..................................................................................1.24

Summary ............................................................................................................1.24

Review Exercises ................................................................................................1.25

Appendix: Hydro-Québec International—In Search of Global Markets ............1.27

0.6 ELECTRICITY: WHAT’S THE CONNECTION? © SOFAD

Chapter 2: Simple Circuits

The Components of a Circuit ..............................................................................2.3

Activity 2.1: Comparing a Hydraulic Circuit

with an Electric Circuit ...............................................2.6

The Power Supply ..............................................................................................2.10

The Cell ......................................................................................................2.11

A Well-Informed Decision ................................................................2.12

Batteries.....................................................................................................2.13

The First Cell—An Amazing Discovery ...........................................2.17

Other Sources of Electric Current ...........................................................2.18

Emf and Voltage ........................................................................................2.19

The Voltmeter ............................................................................................2.20

All about Current ...............................................................................................2.22

Electrons....................................................................................................2.22

The Defi nition of the Current ...................................................................2.23

The Ampere-Hour ............................................................................2.27

The Direction of the Current ....................................................................2.27

The Ammeter .............................................................................................2.30

Experiment 2.1: Measuring Voltage and Current ...........................2.30

Conductors, Insulators and Semi-Conductors .................................................2.37

The Atom ...................................................................................................2.39

The Internal Structure of Insulators and Conductors ............................2.41

Semi-Conductors ......................................................................................2.43

Resistance ..........................................................................................................2.45

The Defi nition of Resistance ....................................................................2.46

Ohm's Law .........................................................................................................2.47

Activity 2.2: Factors Affecting Resistance .......................................2.49

Resistance and Temperature ....................................................................2.58

Conductors .......................................................................................2.58

Semi-Conductors ..............................................................................2.58

Superconductors ..............................................................................2.59

Resistors—Breaking the Code ..................................................................2.61

The Ohmmeter ..........................................................................................2.64

Experiment 2.2: Resistance and Ohm's Law ..................................2.64


Summary ............................................................................................................2.69



Chapter 3: Complex Circuits

One Behind Another or Side by Side .................................................................3.3

Series Circuits .............................................................................................. 3.8

Experiment 3.1: Measurements in a Series Circuit ..........................3.8

Activity 3.1: Analysis of a Circuit with Two Series Resistors .........3.14

Circuits Composed of Several Series Resistors .......................................3.17

What to Connect in Series and When ......................................................3.19

Controlling Current Intensity ..........................................................3.20

Activity 3.2: Controlling Current Intensity .....................................3.20

Fuses and Circuit Breakers ..............................................................3.22

Cells Connected in Series .................................................................3.26

The Ideal Ammeter ...........................................................................3.27

Parallel Circuits .................................................................................................3.30

Experiment 3.2: Measurements in a Parallel Circuit .....................3.31

Activity 3.3: Analysis of a Circuit Composed of Two Parallel

Resistors .........................................................................3.38

Circuits Composed of Several Parallel Resistors ....................................3.41

What to Connect in Parallel and When ...................................................3.43

Short Circuits ...................................................................................3.45

Cells Connected in Parallel ..............................................................3.47

The Ideal Voltmeter ..........................................................................3.47

Combination Circuits ........................................................................................3.50

A Real-Life Example: The Electric Circuit in a Hair Dryer ....................3.54

Power and Energy .............................................................................................3.59

Units ..........................................................................................................3.61

The Joule Effect ........................................................................................3.64

The Defi nition of Power ............................................................................3.67

Forms of Energy and Energy Conversion ...............................................3.68

Energy Conservation, Percent Effi ciency and Energy Effi ciency ..........3.70

The Joule (J)—The International Unit of Energy ...................................3.72

Other Units of Energy ...............................................................................3.73

Calculating Energy Using Power .............................................................3.74

The Kilowatthour ......................................................................................3.75


Summary ............................................................................................................3.82



Chapter 4: Current, Its Transmission and Its Distribution

Direct Current and Alternating Current .............................................................4.4

Direct Current .............................................................................................4.5

Alternating Current .....................................................................................4.7

Adapting Voltage .......................................................................................4.12

Residential Circuits ...........................................................................................4.15

Connection to the Power System .............................................................4.19

Distribution inside the House: Circulation within the Walls .................4.20

Conductor Size .................................................................................4.21

Outlets ...............................................................................................4.28

Activity 4.1: Electric Circuit of a Cottage ........................................4.32

Industrial Circuits .....................................................................................4.40

The Transmission of Electricity ........................................................................4.41

Transmission Lines ...................................................................................4.43

Transformers .............................................................................................4.44

High-Voltage Transmission ......................................................................4.46

Electricity: Comfort or Danger? .......................................................................4.50

Electric Shocks..........................................................................................4.50

Three-Prong Plugs.....................................................................................4.52

High-Voltage Cables: Good Roosting Spots ............................................4.54


Summary ............................................................................................................4.59


Chapter 5: Static Electricity and Magnetism

The Story of Static Electricity ............................................................................5.4

Electric Charge and Matter ...............................................................................5.13

Electrifi cation by Friction ........................................................................5.15

Electrifi cation by Contact .........................................................................5.16

Contact between a Neutral Object and a Charged Object .............5.16

Contact between Two Charged Objects ...........................................5.16

Insulators and Conductors .......................................................................5.17

Electrifi cation by Induction (or Infl uence) ..............................................5.22

The Attraction of a Neutral Object by a Charged Body ..........................5.23

Experiment 5.1: Attraction between a Charged Body

and a Neutral Body .............................................5.23

The Spark: An Electrical Discharge .........................................................5.27

Static Electricity Today .....................................................................................5.30

Precautions to Be Taken against Static Electricity .................................5.30

Transportation ..................................................................................5.30

Special Constructions ......................................................................5.31

Belts ..................................................................................................5.32

Some Applications of Static Electricity ...................................................5.33


Plastic Wrap ......................................................................................5.33

Electrostatic Spray Guns .................................................................5.33

Insecticides .......................................................................................5.34

Electrostatic Precipitation ...............................................................5.34

Xerography .......................................................................................5.35

Electric Force and Coulomb's Law...................................................................5.37

Direction of the Force ...............................................................................5.38

Infl uence of the Charge ............................................................................5.39

The Infl uence of the Distance between Charges .....................................5.40

Coulomb's Law ..........................................................................................5.41

Magnetism .........................................................................................................5.42

The History of Magnetism ........................................................................5.43

Magnetic Properties ..................................................................................5.43


Summary ............................................................................................................5.50


Chapter 6: Electromagnetism

The History of Electromagnetism ......................................................................6.3

Interactions between Magnets and Currents ...................................................6.11

The Magnetic Field Created by a Current ...............................................6.11

Electromagnets .........................................................................................6.13

Some Modern Applications ......................................................................6.15

Magnetic Resonance Imaging .........................................................6.15

Magnetic Information Storage ........................................................6.15

Speakers ............................................................................................6.15

The Action of a Magnetic Field on a Current ..........................................6.17

Electric Motors .................................................................................6.18

Generators ........................................................................................6.20

Transformers ....................................................................................6.23

Electric Generating Stations .............................................................................6.27

Hydroelectric Generating Stations ..........................................................6.27

Thermal Generating Stations ...................................................................6.29

Conventional Thermal Generating Stations ...................................6.29

Nuclear Power Plants .......................................................................6.30

Gas-Turbine Generating Stations ....................................................6.31

Diesel Generating Stations ..............................................................6.31

Wind Turbines ...........................................................................................6.32

Electromagnetic Interference ...........................................................................6.35

The Auroras ...............................................................................................6.35

Magnetic Storms and Power Failures......................................................6.35

High-Voltage Lines and Health: What's the Story? .................................6.36



Summary ............................................................................................................6.38


Chapter 7: Choices

The Various Choices and Their Consequences ..................................................7.8

How to Decide? ..................................................................................................7.12

Appendix 1: Hydro Québec's Power Line: "They're More Concerned

about Pigs than about Human Beings" ......................................7.23

Appendix 2: Connecting Four Billion People ..................................................7.24

Appendix 3: The Last of the Great Dams? .......................................................7.25

Appendix 4: The Winds of Change ...................................................................7.26

Appendix 5: Energy Consumption Must Be Controlled ..................................7.27

Appendix 6: Quebecers Are Becoming Increasingly Clean ..............................7.28

Appendix 7: More Effi ciency, Less Pollution ...................................................7.29

Appendix 8: Is Small Really Beautiful? ...........................................................7.30

Appendix 9: Grande-Baleine Is Not a Threat to the Native Peoples ................7.31

Appendix 10: Greenpeace's Turn to Attack Hydro-Québec's

Grande-Baleine Study .................................................................7.32

Appendix 11: The North Shore Is Planning a New "March of 7000" ................7.33

Appendix 12: Strong Opposition to the Ashuapmushuan Dam .......................7.34

Appendix 13: Alouette Negotiates with Hydro-Québec .....................................7.35

Appendix 14: The Environmental Effects of Different Energy Sources ............7.36

CONCLUSION

Summary ........................................................................................................... C.3

Self-Evaluation Test .......................................................................................... C.5

Formulas .................................................................................................. C.18

Answer Key for Self-Evaluation Test ...................................................... C.19

Answer Key for Chapter Exercises

Electricity All around Us ......................................................................... C.27

Simple Circuits ......................................................................................... C.31

Complex Circuits ...................................................................................... C.43

Current, Its Transmission and Its Distribution ...................................... C.59

Static Electricity and Magnetism ............................................................ C.73

Electromagnetism .................................................................................... C.81

Choices ..................................................................................................... C.86

Bibliography ..................................................................................................... C.93

Glossary ............................................................................................................. C.95

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 0.13© SOFAD

OVERVIEW

The Physical Science Program

Welcome to the course entitled Electricity: What's the Connection?, which is part of the Secondary IV Physical Science program. This program includes two additional courses: Nuclear Technology: A Matter of Energy and Ionic Phenomena: A Study of an Environmental Problem.

This science program was designed to help you learn the fundamen-tals of physics and chemistry. This basic knowledge will give you a better understanding of the social and technological realities of modern society, thereby helping you become an informed citizen. This program will also allow you to develop an interest in science and research and prepare you for optional Secondary V programs.

Electricity: What's the Connection?

Electricity: What's the Connection? is a learning guide designed to meet all the requirements of a Secondary IV course. If you meet all the certi-fi cation requirements described in the section entitled "Information for Distance Education Students," you will earn two credits for this course, whose identifi cation code is PSC-4011.

This course covers the evolution of the fundamental principles and the basic characteristics of electricity, magnetism and electromagnetism. It will also help you gain a better understanding of residential circuits, modern-day electrical appliances and basic rules for the safe use of elec-tricity. Furthermore, it is hoped that this course will help you realize the importance of electrical energy production and consumption in our society through an examination of current issues surrounding electrical energy.


Objectives

Chapter 1: Electricity All around Us

Chapter 2: Simple Circuits

Terminal Objectives Intermediate Objectives

Explain the characteristics and role of the components of a simple electric circuit.

Compare the characteristics of differ-ent kinds of cells, batteries and power supplies and the ways in which they are used.

Distinguish between an ammeter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter in terms of their use and the way they are con-nected.

Describe the components of a simple electric circuit.

Draw a diagram of an electric circuit.

Defi ne the characteristics of an electric circuit.

Indicate the role of the components of a simple electric circuit.

Indicate the infl uence of resistance and the electromotive force of a cell on cur-rent intensity.

Associate the characteristics and role of the components of an electric circuit with the characteristics and roles of the components of a hydraulic circuit.

Describe how a cell works.

Describe the characteristics of different types of cells.

Defi ne the terms "voltage" and "electro-motive force" (emf).

Compare the energy capacity of differ-ent types of cells.

Distinguish between cells, batteries and power supplies (or power packs).

Indicate the advantages and disadvan-tages of cells, batteries and power sup-plies for simple use.

Indicate how an ammeter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter are used.

Indicate how an ammeter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter are connected.

On the diagram of an electric circuit, show where the ammeter, the voltmeter and the ohmmeter are connected.


Use the defi nition of current to explain simple concrete situations.

Explain how conductive, semi-conduc-tive and insulating materials are used.

Use Ohm's law to determine how the variation in one or two parameters will affect a simple electric circuit.

Use the formula R = to determine how the variation in one or two pa-rameters will affect the resistance of a conducting wire.

Measure the parameters of an electric circuit using an ammeter, a voltmeter and an ohmmeter.

Associate electric current with the dis-placement of electrons in a conductor.

Associate current intensity with the fl ow of electrons in a conductor.

Determine the conventional direction of current in a simple circuit.

Correctly use the units of measure of current (ampere) and charge (ampere-hour and Coulomb).

Apply the formula I = in simple concrete cases.

Describe the electric properties of conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.

Describe the movement of electrons in a conductor, an insulator and a semi-conductor.

Give examples of insulating, conduc-tive and semi-conductive materials and of their uses.

Defi ne resistance.

Determine resistance using a graph of V as a function of I.

State Ohm's law.

Apply Ohm's law in simple concrete cases.

Determine the relationship between the length of a wire and its resistance.

Determine the relationship between the cross section of a wire and its resistance.

Defi ne resistivity as the electric char-acteristic of a material.

State the relationship between the characteristics of a conductor and its resistance.

Associate R, L, A and ρ with their respective units of measure.

Qt

ρLA


Chapter 3: Complex Circuits


Determine the value of one or more variables in a series circuit, including the total current, current in the resistor, equivalent resistance, resistance of a resistor, electromotive force and voltage across the terminals of resistors.

Determine the value of one or more vari-ables in a parallel circuit, including the total current intensity, current intensity in the resistor, equivalent resistance, resistance of a resistor, electromotive force and voltage across the terminals of the resistors.

Interpret the colour code of resistors.

Associate different uses with the gauge of wires.

By conducting an experiment, deter-mine the relationship between equiva-lent resistance and the resistance of the resistors in a series circuit.

Describe the relationship between total current and the current intensity of a resistor in a series circuit.

Describe the relationship between the electromotive force and the voltage across the terminals of the resistors in a series circuit.

Calculate the equivalent resistance of a series circuit.

Draw the equivalent circuit of a series circuit.

Determine the voltage across the termi-nals of each resistor in a series circuit.

Determine the current intensity of each resistor in a series circuit.

Determine the relationship between the equivalent resistance and the resistance of the resistors in a parallel circuit.

Demonstrate mathematically the rela-tionship between equivalent resistance and the individual resistances in a parallel circuit.

Describe the relationship between total current intensity and the current inten-sity of a resistor in a parallel circuit.

Describe the relationship between the electromotive force and the voltage across the terminals of the resistors in a parallel circuit.

Calculate the equivalent resistance in a parallel circuit.


Explain the distribution of voltages and current intensities in a series-parallel circuit.

Explain why some components of an electric circuit are connected in series and others are connected in parallel.

Solve problems concerning the power and energy consumption of various

electrical appliances.

Explain the Joule effect by referring to concrete situations in which the aim is to utilize the effect or to minimize it.

Draw the equivalent circuit of a paral-lel circuit.

Determine the voltage across the ter-minals of each resistor in a parallel circuit.

Determine the current intensity ineach resistor in a parallel circuit.

In a series-parallel circuit, distinguish between resistors connected in series and those connected in parallel.

Give examples of the use of series connections.

Indicate the advantages of a series connection.

Give examples of the use of parallel connections.

Indicate the advantages of a parallel connection.

Defi ne power as energy produced or consumed per unit of time.

Calculate the power provided by a source.

Apply the principle of the conservation of energy to an electric circuit.

Calculate the power dissipated by one or more elements in a circuit or by one or more electrical appliances.

Calculate the energy consumed by one or more elements in a circuit or by one or more electrical appliances.

Correctly use the units of power and of energy, the watt and its multiples, the joule and the kilowatt-hour.

State the principle of the conservation of energy and of power.

Defi ne the Joule effect.

Calculate the power produced by the Joule effect in a resistor.


Chapter 4: Current, Its Transmission and Its Distribution


Distinguish between alternating and direct current on the basis of their characteristics, sources and uses.

Explain the use of certain wiring and distribution methods in residential electric circuits.

Calculate the percentage of power lost through the Joule effect in the trans-portation of electricity.

Defi ne yield.

Give examples of the utilization of the Joule effect.

Give examples of situations requiring minimization of the Joule effect.

Describe the characteristics of direct current.

Describe the characteristics of alternat-ing current.

Calculate the average power produced or generated by an alternating current circuit.

Distinguish between effective current and full-load amperes.

Distinguish between effective (or rms) voltage and peak voltage.

List the sources of alternating current and of direct current.

Give examples of the uses of alternating current and of direct current.

Describe the service lines from the transformer to the distribution board in a house.

Describe the service lines from the dis-tribution board to the outlets.

Describe the service lines from the outlets of a universal shunt.

Describe the service lines from the outlet of a branch circuit.

Distinguish between the usual rating of fuses for 120-V circuits and the rating of fuses for 240-V circuits.

Describe how a double plug outlet works.


Describe the characteristics of trans-formers and their role in the transpor-tation and use of electricity.

Chapter 5: Static Electricity and Magnetism


Illustrate the relationship between science, technology and society using examples from the history of electricity and magnetism.

= = N1

N2

I2

I1

V1

V2

Describe the characteristics of an outlet located in a bathroom.

Describe the uses of grounding as a safety measure.

Plan the installation of a simple resi-dential electric circuit.

Distinguish between the role of the transformer and the role of the recti-fi er and inverter.

Defi ne the terms "primary" and "sec-ondary" as applied to transformers.

Compare power at the primary and secondary coils in a transformer.

Associate the role of voltage reducer or booster of a transformer with the rela-tionship between the number of turns in the secondary and primary coils.

Give examples of how voltage reducers (step-down transformers) and boost-ers (step-up transformers) are used.

Solve problems using the equations

Defi ne the terms "electric shock" and "electrocution."

Explain the security role of certain parts of an electric appliance.

Identify situations associated with electricity use that represent a risk or danger.

Identify and place in their historical context the principal steps leading to the present state of knowledge about electricity.

Identify and place in their historical context the principal steps leading to the present state of knowledge about magnetism.

Explain the risks and dangers associ-ated with the use of electricity.


Explain examples of the electrifi cation of matter by rubbing, by contact or by induction.

Use Coulomb's law to determine how the variation in one parameter will af-fect electric force.

Illustrate the magnetic fi eld lines be-tween two poles of a magnet or elec-tromagnet.

Describe different uses of static electric-

ity and the dangers associated with it.

State the law of the conservation of electric charge, which applies whenever two electrically charged objects enter into contact.

Describe the phenomenon of electrifi ca-tion by the contact of a neutral object with an electrically charged object.

Describe the phenomenon of electrifi -cation by rubbing together two insula-tors.

Describe the phenomenon of electrifi -cation by rubbing or contact with a conductor.

Describe the effect of a ground con-nection on an electrically charged conductor.

Describe the phenomenon of electrifi ca-tion by induction.

Describe examples of electrical dis-charge.

State Coulomb's law.

Predict the variation in electric force resulting from a change in the value of one charge.

Predict the variation in electric force resulting from a change in the distance between the two charges.

Draw the magnetic fi eld lines around a magnet or between the identical or different poles of two magnets.

Recognize the poles of a magnet on the basis of the direction of the magnetic fi eld lines.

Draw the magnetic fi eld lines around an electromagnet or between the identical or different poles of two electromagnets.

List different uses of static electricity.

Explain why static electricity may be dangerous in certain situations.


Chapter 6: Electromagnetism


Illustrate the relationship between science, technology and society using examples from the history of electro-magnetism.

Describe some applications of elec-tromagnetism and state the operating principle of a motor and a generator.

Explain how each type of electric power plant transforms one source of energy into another.

Describe the advantages and disadvan-tages of locating, building and using different types of electric power plants and the problems associated with the transportation of electricity.

Identify and place in their historical context the principal steps leading to the present state of knowledge about electromagnetism.

Describe electromagnetic induction.

Briefl y describe some uses of electro-magnetic induction.

Briefl y describe how an electric mo-tor works.

Briefl y explain how a generator works.

Describe the energy conversions in-volved in the operation of a motor and a generator.

Describe how an electric power plant operates in general.

Briefl y describe how a hydroelectric power plant operates.

Briefl y describe how a fossil fuel elec-tric plant operates.

Briefl y describe how a nuclear power plant operates.

Biefl y describe how a diesel power plant operates.

Briefl y describe how a wind turbine operates.

Describe the advantages and disadvan-tages associated with the construction of each type of electric power plant.

Describe the advantages and disadvan-tages associated with the use of each type of electric power plant.

Describe the problems associated with the transportation of electricity.


Chapter 7: Choices


By analyzing a specifi c case, illustrate how complex it is to choose a mode of electricity production.


HOW TO USE THIS LEARNING GUIDE

This course applies the main principles of individualized learning, which encourages you to:

– take an active part in the learning process,– take responsibility for your own progress,– work at your own pace,– put your knowledge and experience to use.

As you work through this course at your own pace, you will be able to identify your strengths and weaknesses, discover the reasons for any problems you may have and decide what steps you must take to resolve these problems so you can continue to make progress.

Throughout this course, you will be able to consult your teacher if you are experiencing any diffi culty. He or she will provide you with advice, encouragement, and constructive comments and feedback, adapting these services to meet your specifi c needs.

This learning guide is divided into three parts: the general introduc-tion, the learning activities and the conclusion.

Part I provides a general introduction to the course, outlining its ob-jectives and providing the information you will need to get started. It also includes a section entitled "Prerequisites," which deals with the different concepts you should be familiar with before beginning this course.

Part II consists of the learning activities, which have been divided into seven chapters. Each chapter covers a certain number of topics us-ing texts, tables, illustrations, exercises, experiments and activities. Each chapter begins with a list of objectives, as well as a diagram that provides a course overview. Each chapter ends with a list of key words, a summary and review exercises that will help you go over what you have learned.

The fi nal chapter provides a wealth of information on social issues. By reading the related articles found in the appendices, you will develop an understanding of the situations and issues covered by the media.

This guide is organized in such a way that you must work through it chapter by chapter. The questions and exercises will help you evaluate your knowledge as you go along.


Throughout this guide, you will encounter different symbols and typefaces, which are explained below.

Bold Words mentioned for the fi rst time are printed in bold and defi ned. In some cases, a more formal defi nition is provided at the end of the guide. Most of these words are found in the list of key words at the end of each chapter and in a special supplement where you must write your own defi nition of these terms.

A light bulb indicates additional information. This informa-tion is not part of the course as such and the fi nal (summative) examination questions will not be based on this content.

A hand signals an "Activity." In these cases, guided questions are used to help you better understand the concepts being introduced.

A fl ask signals an "Experiment." To help you better understand different situations or account for different phenomena, you will conduct experiments in the laboratory or with the help of the distance education experimentation kit.

The conclusion in Part III summarizes what you have learned and includes a self-evaluation test to help you determine whether you have assimilated the course content and are able to write the fi nal examination. The conclusion also includes an answer key for the self-evaluation test, for the exercises in each chapter and for the activities, experiments and review exercises. A vocabulary section containing defi nitions of the key words and a bibliography of works used to produce this learning guide completes Part III. You may wish to consult these books and publications for further information on the topics covered in this course.

Good luck!


INFORMATION FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION STUDENTS

This guide is the main work tool for this course and has been designed to meet the specifi c needs of adult students taking distance education courses.

Distance education is a fl exible system with several advantages, one of which is the opportunity to work at your own pace in the comfort of your own home. This system does, however, involve certain challenges: you have to take responsibility for your own learning and motivate yourself to work at a steady pace.

Here are some tips that will help you in your work.

Work Pace

• Draw up a study timetable that takes into account your personality and needs as well as your family, work and other obligations.

• Try to study a few hours per week. You should break up your study time into several one- or two-hour sessions.

• Do your best to stick to your study timetable.

Materials

Have all the materials you need close at hand.

• Learning materials: your guide, along with a notebook in which you will summarize the important concepts based on the list of objec-tives provided in the introduction and the Key Words in Each Chapter supplement in which you will defi ne in your own words the boldface terms that appear in this guide.

• Reference materials: a dictionary, a calculator

• Other materials: a pencil to write answers and notes in your guide, a coloured pen for corrections, a highlighter (or light-coloured marker) to highlight the main ideas, an eraser, etc.

• The experimentation kit and the multimeter user's guide


Learning Activities

This guide combines theory and practical exercises accompanied by an answer key. It also includes some experiments that require simple procedures, which you can carry out with the help of the experimentation kit that you obtained with this guide. It is important to take the time to follow the suggested procedures, as they will help you better understand the theory.

Start by skimming through each part of this guide to become familiar with the content and the main headings. Then read the theory carefully:

– Highlight the important points. – Take notes in the margins.– Look up new words in the dictionary.– Summarize important passages in your own words.– Study the diagrams carefully.– In the supplement entitled Key Words in Each Chapter, write your

own defi nition of the boldface terms that appear in this guide.– Write down questions relating to ideas you don't understand.

Experiments

To help you achieve the course objectives, experiments accompany the learning activities. These experiments are compulsory, which is why you obtained an experimentation kit with your learning guide. This kit contains a multimeter and a collection of items that might have been diffi cult to fi nd. Keep all the elements of the kit; they will be useful for Secondary V chemistry courses. There are a few remaining items that you will have to obtain yourself. In order to keep the mailing costs to a minimum, they were not included in the kit.

• For Experiments 2.1 and 2.2: a 6-V battery, a knife, two lemons, two nails and two pennies

• For Experiments 3.1 and 3.2: a 6-V battery

• For Experiment 5.1: a plastic comb, bits of paper (or confetti), a piece of felt or wool fabric, a balloon


Exercises

The exercises come with an answer key that is printed on coloured sheets at the end of the guide.

• Do all the exercises.

• Read the instructions and questions carefully before writing your answer.

• Do all the exercises to the best of your ability without looking at the answer key. Reread the questions and your answers and revise your answers, if necessary. Then, check your answers against the answer key and try to understand any mistakes you made.

• To better prepare for the fi nal examination, complete the chapter before doing the review exercises. Once you have completed the chapter, do the review exercises without referring to the lesson. You are not responsible for memorizing dates, numerical information or scientists' names. The aim is to gain an overall understanding of the material and how the concepts relate to one another, and to develop your judgment.

Self-Evaluation Test

The self-evaluation test is designed to prepare you for the fi nal evalu-ation. Before doing the self-evaluation test, complete your studies: reread your notes and the defi nitions of the key words in each chapter and decide how they relate to the course objectives outlined in the guide's general introduction. Be sure you understand the objectives. Then, do the self-evaluation test without referring to your notes, the learning guide or the answer key. Once you have completed the test, check your answers against the answer key. If necessary, do some more studying.

Your Tutor

Your tutor is the person who will give you any help you need throughout this course. He or she is available to answer your questions and correct and comment on your homework assignments.

Don't hesitate to contact your tutor if you are having diffi culty with the theory or the exercises, or if you need some words of encouragement to help you get through this course. Write out your questions and get in touch with your tutor during his or her available hours. If necessary, write to him or her. Information about how to contact your tutor that is not already contained in this guide will be made available to you.

Your tutor will guide you in your work and provide you with the advice, constructive criticism and support that will help you succeed in this course.


Homework Assignments

In this course, you will have to do three homework assignments: the fi rst after completing Chapters 1, 2 and 3, the second after completing Chapters 4 and 5 and the third after completing Chapters 6 and 7. In ad-dition, the fi nal homework assignment may contain questions covering the entire course. It is important not to send in a homework assignment until you have received the corrections for the previous one.

These assignments will show your tutor whether you understand the subject matter and are ready to go on to the next chapter in the course. If your tutor feels you are not ready to move on, he or she will indicate this in your homework assignment, providing comments and suggestions to help you get back on the right track. It is important to read these correc-tions and comments carefully.

You must obtain an average of at least 60% on the three homework assignments to be entitled to write the examination that permits you to earn the credits for this course.

The homework assignments are similar to the examination. Since the exam will be supervised and you will not be able to use your notes, the best way to prepare for it is to do your homework assignments without referring to your learning guide and to take note of your tutor's correc-tions so that you can make any necessary adjustments.

Remember not to send in the next assignment until you have received the corrections for the previous one.

Certifi cation

If you obtain an average of at least 60% on your homework assign-ments, you may write the examination that permits you to earn the credits for this course. The examination is divided into two parts.

Part I consists of multiple-choice questions, matching questions and short-answer questions. It is worth 78% of your fi nal mark and is written in one two-hour session. A formula sheet1 is provided and the use of a calculator is permitted.

Part II consists of one or two essay questions that will allow you to apply what you have learned in this course to different types of hydroelec-tric generating stations. This part is worth 22% of your fi nal mark and is written in one 90-minute session.

Both parts of the examination will be supervised and you will not be allowed to refer to your course notes.

1. A copy of this formula sheet is included with the self-evaluation test.


To earn the credits for this course, you must obtain a total mark of at least 60% for both parts of the examination. Your homework assignments will not count toward your fi nal mark.

Useful Information

Number of credits: 2 credits at the Secondary IV level

Course duration: approximately 50 hours of study

Number of homework assignments: 3

Opportunity to revise and re-submit homework assignments: none

Pass mark: average of 60% on the homework assignments average of 60% on both parts of the fi nal examination


PREREQUISITES

This section is intended as a review of mathematical concepts that will help you work through the course more easily. Read it carefully and refer to it throughout your studies.

How to Round Off a Number

There are different reasons for rounding off a number to the nearest unit, to the nearest tenth or to any other place value. To begin with, let's look at the names of the positions occupied by the digits in a decimal number. For example, take the number 35 497.8621. The place values of its digits read as follows:

DECIMAL NUMBER 35 497.8621

To round off this number to any place value, use the following procedure:

• Identify the digit occupying the position corresponding to the required degree of accuracy.

• Identify the fi rst digit to the right of the designated position: – if it is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4, then the digit in the designated position re-

mains the same; – if it is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, then the digit in the designated position should

be increased by 1.

• All the digits to the right of the designated position: – become zero if they are in the integral part of the number; – disappear if they are in the decimal part of the number.

Integral part{3 5 4 9 7

unitstens

hundredsthousands

ten thousands

Decimal point

Decimal part{

8 6 2 1

thousandthshundredths

tenths

ten thousandths

.


Example

Round off the number 35 497.8621 to the nearest unit, to the near-est tenth and to the nearest hundredth.

• To the nearest unit The digit 7 is in the unit's place. The fi rst digit to the right of

7 is 8; therefore, 7 (in the unit's place) is increased by 1 and becomes 8. All the other digits to the right of the unit's place disappear. The result is 35 498.

• To the nearest tenth The digit 8 is in the fi rst decimal place (the tenths). The fi rst

digit to the right of 8 is 6; therefore, 8 is increased by 1 and becomes 9. All the other digits to the right of the unit's place disappear. The result is 35 497.9.

• To the nearest hundredth The digit 6 is in the second decimal place (the hundredths). The

fi rst digit to the right of 6 is 2; therefore, 6 does not change. All the other digits to the right of the unit's place disappear. The result is 35 497.86.

The Property of Proportions

In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means.

Since a proportion consists of two equal ratios, we can say that .

In this case, if 1 and 8 are extremes, and 2 and 4 are the means, then

1 × 8 = 2 × 4.

Using this property, we can determine an unknown value if we know the other three values in the proportion.

Example

Convert a distance of 5300 metres into kilometres.

The metre is the basic SI unit and the prefi x kilo indicates that the basic unit is multiplied by 1000. We can therefore write that 1 km is equal to 1000 m. Thus:

12

48

=


If 1 km corresponds to 1000 m, then 1 km → 1000 m ? km correspond to 5300 m. ? km → 5300 m

We can now state the following proportion:

1000 m x = 5300 m 1 km

x = 5.3 km

5 300 m 1 km

1 000 mx = by solving the equation

1 km=

1000 = 5.3 km

1000 m5300 m

by applying the propertyof proportions

5300

A distance of 5300 m is therefore equal to 5.3 km.

Formulas

Writing formulas often involves applying the rules of geometry or the laws of physics. A formula generally contains several variables joined by an equal (=) sign. We often need to transform formulas in order to solve for one variable or another. This can be done by applying the rules for solving equations.

The formula used to determine the volume of a rectangular prism is V = l × w × h, where V is the volume, l the length, w the width and h the height. By knowing the length, the width and the height, we can deter-mine the volume. But what formula can we use to determine the height?

Example

Given the formula V = l × w × h, what formula can we use to de-termine the height h?

To determine the height, we have to isolate the variable h in the equation. This can be done by dividing both sides of an equation by the same value and then simplifying the resulting equation.

V = l w h

Thus, we obtain the formula h = .

V

l w

V

l w = h

= l w h

l w

V

l w


Scientifi c Notation

With scientifi c notation, we can express very large or very small num-bers without using a long, cumbersome series of digits.

Let's fi rst review the notation for different powers of 10.

10 000 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 104

1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103

100 = 10 × 10 = 102

10 = 10 = 101

1 = 1 = 100

0.1 = 1/10 = 1/101 = 10–1

0.01 = 1/100 = 1/102 = 10–2

0.001 = 1/1000 = 1/103 = 10–3

0.0001 = 1/10 000 = 1/104 = 10– 4

Any given number can be expressed in several ways. For example, the

number 4560 can be written as follows:

4560 = 4560 × 1 = 4560 × 100

4560 = 456 × 10 = 456 × 101

4560 = 45.6 × 100 = 45.6 × 102

4560 = 4.56 × 1000 = 4.56 × 103

4560 = 0.456 × 10 000 = 0.456 × 104

Scientifi c notation involves expressing a number as a power of 10 multiplied by a number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. In the example above, 4560 can be written as 4.56 × 103 in scientifi c notation.

Example

The following numbers are written in scientifi c notation.

13 400 000 = 1.34 × 107

1994 = 1.994 × 103

740 = 7.40 × 102

53.004 = 5.3004 × 101

0.5 = 5 × 10–1

0.000 467 = 4.67 × 10– 4


The Laws of Exponents

We can multiply several powers of a given number by adding their exponents.

E.g. 103 × 102 = ? 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 100 000 105 = 100 000

We can therefore write: 103 × 102 = 103 + 2 = 105

We can divide several powers of a given number by subtracting their exponents.

E.g. 10 10 10 10

10 10

104

102= = 100 = 102 ou2

104

102= 10 = 104 – 2 2

Note: 0,001 =17

1 0003=1

1033 = 10–3

0,1 =1

10= 10–1

10 = 101

1 = 100

.

.

or

1000

Example

Perform the following operations:

a)8,4 107

4 1033

7

and b)150 107

3,22 103–7

–8 2.8.4

If we apply the law of exponents for numbers with the same base, the results are as follows:

a)8,4 107

4 1038,4

4= 107–3 = 2,1 104= 21 0007 – 3 4

3

7

150 107

3,22 103–7

–8 2 = 150 27

3,22 10 = 93,17 10 = 9,32–8 – (–7) –1

8.4 8.4

3.22 3.229.32

107

2.1

b) 93.17 10 = 9.3210–7

10–8

10–8–(–7) =

These operations can also be performed using a calculator; refer to the operating instructions.


ELECTRICITY: WHAT'S THE CONNECTION?

Electricity, an often misunderstood phenomenon, has been described as magical, mysterious and dangerous.

In daily life, electricity is also associated with comfort, lighting, electrical appliances, television, computers, and so on. Although it has become an indispensable commodity, many of us lack a basic knowledge of electricity.

What is electricity? How is it produced? What happens when we plug an appliance into an electrical outlet? What is hidden behind the many electrical wires that are now part of our surroundings?

This course will endeavour to answer these questions. The fi rst chapter portrays the uses of energy, of which electricity is a very important form. The following chapters explain electricity, the physical laws that govern it, the production, transmission and distribution of electricity and some of its modern uses. The concepts are fully illustrated and complete with historical anecdotes.

The information presented will enable you to understand the underlying principles of electricity and will prepare you to deal with current issues.

Why are we being asked to decrease our consumption of electricity? Why has Québec opted for hydroelectricity, while numerous countries are building nuclear power plants and coal generating stations? Should Québec continue in this vein? What are the possible alternatives?

In the fi nal chapter, you will be asked to assess the stakes involved in the choices that our governments will have to make to satisfy the ever-increasing demand for electricity. The question is not an easy one, given that each solution has both advantages and disadvantages.

Chapter 1

Electricity All around Us

1.2 ELECTRICITY ALL AROUND US © SOFAD

2. SIMPLE CIRCUITS

The Components of a Circuit

The Power Supply

All about Current

Conductors, Insulators and

Semi-Conductors

Resistance

Ohm's Law

3. COMPLEX CIRCUITS

Series Circuits

Parallel Circuits

Combination Circuits

Power and Energy

4. CURRENT, ITS TRANSMISSION

AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

Direct Current and

Alternating Current

Residential Circuits

The Transmission of Electricity

Electricity: Comfort or Danger?

5. STATIC ELECTRICITY

The Story of Static Electricity

Electric Charge and Matter

Static Electricity Today

Electric Force and Coulomb's Law

MAGNETISM

The History of Magnetism

Magnetic Properties

6. ELECTROMAGNETISM

The History of Electromagnetism

Electromagnets

Motors, Generators, Transformers

Electric Generating Stations

Electromagnetic Interference

7. CHOICES

Options

Consequences

How to Decide?

ELECTRICITY

WH

AT’S

THE CONNECT

ION

?

1. ELECTRICITY ALL AROUND US

Electricity in QuébecEnergy through the AgesElectricity–a Key Form of EnergyMaking a Well–Informed Decision

1.3ELECTRICITY ALL AROUND US© SOFAD

Electricity is all around us. It provides us with lighting and heat, as well as energy for meal preparation and entertainment. Without elec-tricity, we would have to heat our homes with oil, gas or wood, and play cards by candlelight! It is much easier to set a thermostat or fl ick a switch. Furthermore, it would be impossible to use certain things without electri-city. Have you ever tried to operate a television or a computer with wood?

Sometimes, electricity seems to have magical powers. Although we cannot see it, it is available with a simple fl ick of a switch. The intro-duction of electricity at the turn of the century was quite revolutionary. It made it possible, for example, to greatly improve the lighting in the streets, houses, factories and public places. Electricity is such an intrinsic part of our everyday lives that we almost need a power failure to remind us that it exists.

What Happens During a Power Failure?

We become most aware of the signifi cant role that electricity plays in our lives during a power failure. Nobody in Québec, Ontario or Maritimes has forgot-ten the ice storm which occured during the fi rst week of January 1998. This storm resulted in the loss of electricity to more than a million people in Southern Québec, Ontario and the Maritimes. The regions affected were completely paralysed due to absence of electricity (along with the climatic conditions). Everything from the water purifi cation system in Montréal to hospitals in the Montérégie was affected. Along with the public services, all homes were also without the electric supplied by Hydro.

The power system failed due to the severe climatic conditions which brought down thousands of kilome-tres of aerial transmission lines. The time required to repair lines, from high voltage lines transported on metal towers to low voltage lines on wooden poles, took weeks to complete. Many homes and business

remained without electricity for weeks. This resulted in many individuals having to be displaced and busi-ness to remain closed for a number of weeks. The life style of the individuals affected changed dramatically due to the absence of electricity being supplied by the hydro companies.

This power failure was unprecedented in the his-tory of Canada. The dependandce of our society on the power grid became evident to everyone involved. Electricity has become a necessity in our society. The benefi ts of having alternate sources of energy available for use during emergencies became evident.

In most cases, the power system is up and running within a few hours. One power failure is, however, enough to remind us just how much we value elec-tricity.


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17 00817 48618 134

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5 000

7 500

10 000

12 500

15 000

17 500

20 000

22 500

25 000

27 500

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Can

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and

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Luxe

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Sta

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Ger

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Fran

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kW·h

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ELECTRICITY IN QUÉBEC

Our entire society depends on electricity. Industrial, commercial and public service operations depend on its availability. Traffi c through downtown streets would be absolutely chaotic without such necessities as traffi c lights. Electricity plays such a critical role that we could not live without it, as is the case for most industrialized countries.

Figure 1.1Average per capita consumption of electricity per year (1991)

* Kilowatthours: a unit of measurement of electrical energy** Including Québec

The presence of industries in Québec that use vast amounts of energy brings the per capita rate of consumption to 23 045 kW•h, which is 32% greater than the Canadian average.

Source: Ministère des Ressources naturelles, L’énergie au Québec, 1995 edition, p. 71 (free translation).Reprinted with permission of the ministère des Ressources naturelles.

The preceding data provides an average obtained by dividing a country’s total consumption by the number of inhabitants. A lower average consumption in Japan than in Québec, even when it’s population is 16 times greater, does not simply mean that the Japanese are more concer-ned about not wasting energy. The Québec economy relies heavily on the primary sector, that is, the use and transformation of natural resources such as wood and ore. The pulp and paper and mining industries consume massive quantities of electricity. Japan’s economy is based primarily on the secondary sector, specifi cally electronics manufacturing, which requires far less energy.


Figure 1.2Average annual consumption of electricity in certain industries (1993)

Type of industry Millions of kW•h (%)

Smelting* 37 078 48.38

Pulp and paper 18 269 23.84

Chemicals 4 275 5.58

Iron metallurgy 2 544 3.32

Mining 2 617 3.41

Cement 353 0.46

* Foundries, aluminum smelters, ironworks, etc.


Aside from the distinction that was just made, industrialized countries are generally set apart from developing countries in terms of their per capita consumption of electricity. According to the United Nations, for example, the average per capita consumption of electri-city in an African country like Chad in 1990 was 14 kilowatthours, while in China, the fi gure rose to 546. During this same period, the per capita consumption was 12 710 kilowatthours in the United States and 22 492 in Québec. Average per capita consumption the world over was 2207 kilowatthours. Thus, Quebecers may be considered high energy consumers. We can, however, expect numerous changes in the coming years, as demographic pressure and economic progress are creating an increased demand for electricity in developing countries.

But how can such discrepancies in electricity consumption be explained?

The standard of living in industrialized countries is higher than in developing countries. People living in industrialized countries use more electrical appliances and live in bigger houses or apartments, where there are more rooms to be lit. The discrepancies are not only the result of a difference in the standards of living. The climate also plays a role. Many industrialized countries are located in the northern hemisphere, where electricity is also used for heating. There are a number of other ways to explain the high consumption of electricity in Québec. Pulp and paper and aluminum industries, which require large amounts of electricity, are located in Québec. Also, our governments are doing everything they can to promote the use of electricity and reduce the use of other forms of energy. Québec’s aim is to use the hydroelectricity that it produces, especially


since this means of production is cleaner than those requiring such raw materials as oil or coal. Electricity satisfi es a signifi cant percentage of our total energy requirements, as illustrated in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3Energy consumption in Québec

* Biomass: carbon-based organic matter that includes trees and urban waste

Electricity consumption went from 19.4% in 1973 to 37.9% in 1993, mostly at the expense of oil consumption, which dropped from 69.9% to 37.4% during the same period.


1973

1993

Oil69.9%

Biomass*4.0%

Natural gas4.8%

Coal1.9%

Electricity19.4%

Electricity37.9%

Biomass9.4%

Natural gas14.5%

Coal0.8%

Oil37.4%


Figure 1.4Electricity consumption per sector (1993)

* Consumption related to metro use

In Québec, the residential sector accounts for approximately one third of all electricity consumption. The industrial sector consumes nearly 50%, the highest percentage overall.


Electricity continues to grow in popularity, both in Québec and the rest of the world. Of all the major forms of energy, electricity has gained the most ground. Ten times more electricity was consumed worldwide in 1988 than in 1950. More recently, between 1983 and 1989, sales in electri-city in Québec increased an average of 7% per year. Energy consumption has since dropped for two reasons: a slowdown in economic growth and plant closures. The implementation of energy conservation programs has also reduced waste in homes and offi ces. Houses are better insulated than before and people are more careful not to leave lights on when leaving the room. One fact remains, however: our overall approach is not very energy effi cient.

We could use even less electricity without making life diffi cult. We often use our electrical appliances at peak hours, when the demand for electricity is at its highest. It would be so easy, for example, to do the laundry later in the evening! Obviously, the time that we choose to do our laundry in no way affects the amount of our electricity bill; however, taking this into account could change the situation if we examined it from the following point of view. Electricity cannot be stored. The amount of electricity produced by Hydro-Québec at a given time therefore depends directly on consumer demand. Consequently, generating stations could operate at 90% capacity for a few hours a day, while at other times, demand requires that they operate at only 50% capacity.

Transportation*0.21%

Residential32.21%

Industrial48.23%

Commercial19.35%


Let’s look at two scenarios in which the demand for electricity varies in this way. In the fi rst case, the increase is distributed proportio-nally throughout the day so that, in order to satisfy demand at peak hours, Hydro-Québec must build an additional generating station. In the second case, we all make an effort to use our electrical appliances outside peak hours as much as possible. The result: consumption increases during off-peak hours, but remains the same during peak hours. Hydro-Québec can satisfy client demand without adding a generating station to the existing power system!

Electricity is not a gift from heaven! It is a form of energy that reaches us, often from very far away. Building a hydroelectric generating station is a massive undertaking that upsets the environment. Endless transmission lines are needed for power to reach people’s homes. From beginning to end, engineers and technicians must accomplish great feats to make it possible to produce and transport this precious commodity that we consume . . . and pay for.

Electricity, one of many forms of energy, is a manufactured pro-duct. It is produced by transforming water power, burning oil or gas, or harnessing wind power by means of hydroelectric or thermal generating stations or wind turbines. For this reason, electricity is considered a secon-dary source of energy, while those just mentioned are primary sources that do not need to be transformed. Natural gas, for example, can be burned directly in furnaces to produce heat.

Energy can be measured. You have often heard of a calorie (cal).1 It is a unit used to measure energy. The Latin calor means “heat.” A kilo-calorie (kcal), that is, 1000 calories, is one of the basic units for measuring energy.

In the international system of units (SI), the joule (J) is the unit used to measure energy; however, for practical purposes, a number of other units are also used. The most common units and their equivalent in joules are found in Figure 1.5. They will be explained in detail in Chapter 3. For now, we will mention only that to express a very large quantity of energy, like the total amount consumed by a given country, we will use the tonne coal equivalent (tce), which corresponds to the energy produced by burning one tonne of coal, or the tonne oil equivalent (toe), one and a half times greater than the tce, which corresponds to the energy produced by burning one tonne of oil.

1. The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of pure water by 1ºC. Note that food calories are actually kilocalories. Further explanation will be provided in Chapter 3.


Figure 1.5The main units of energy

Common units of energy Equivalent in joules (J)

Joule (J) 1

Calorie (cal) 4.18

Kilowatthour (kW•h) 3 600 000

Tonne coal equivalent (tce) 29 000 000 000

Tonne oil equivalent (toe) 43 500 000 000

All power failures greatly disrupt our daily activities.

Name four activities that you plan to do in the next 24 hours and, for each one, state which forms of energy could be used as substitutes in case of a power failure.

Activities Energy substitutes

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

How do you explain that the per capita consumption of electricity in Québec is among the highest in the world?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

a) Referring to Figure 1.4, indicate which sector is the greatest consumer of energy.

__________________________________________________________________

b) Name some industries in your region that consume a lot of electricity.

__________________________________________________________________

c) How does the residential sector rank in terms of energy consumption?

__________________________________________________________________

1.1

1.2

1.3


Explain why the per capita consumption of electricity is greater in industrialized countries than in developing countries.

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

ENERGY THROUGH THE AGES

Humans beings have used numerous forms of energy throughout history. The fi rst and most vital source of energy is still obtained from foods. Eating is not suffi cient, however, because humans also have to clothe themselves, get from place to place and do all sorts of things that require energy. The development of new energy resources has often led to great economic revolutions.

It is estimated that, at the time of early man, the average per capita consumption of energy was approximately 2000 kilocalories per day, equivalent to 0.1 tce per year. At a time when human beings’ primary concern was survival, most of that energy went into hunting for food. Humans did not differ much from animals in that regard.

Then came the discovery of fi re, a major turning point. From then on, humans used heat, or energy, for heating and cooking. Soon after, they discovered that heat could be used to work metal. Average energy consumption, including food, rose to approximately 5000 kilocalories per day, or 0.25 tce per year. Society was evolving; life was becoming less diffi cult. As a result, greater numbers of people were surviving. They soon learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals to help them with their work.

During the Renaissance—the 15th and 16th centuries—average consumption reached 25 000 kilocalories per day, equivalent to 1.25 tce per year. Human beings were now using several other forms of energy. Animals were still being used for cultivation, and wind and water were being used to generate power for mills.

A major discovery was made in the 18th century. The steam produ-ced from boiling water could do more than lift the lid of a pot; it could also power machines. Energy from steam was transformed into mechanical energy with the invention of the steam engine. This innovation led to the

1.4


“industrial revolution” 2 as industries equipped themselves with steam engines for weaving, processing wood, and doing other jobs that had, until then, been considered diffi cult. Transportation would also undergo major change. You remember images of whistling locomotives making their way along the tracks? Steam gave rise to trains and ships, which no longer had to depend on which way the wind blew. Modern forms of transportation were born.

Energy was no longer tied to daily survival. It played a role in all aspects of life, whether food, transportation or work. The world population, which now had the necessary means for survival, was rapidly increasing along with energy consumption. Around the 1850s, average energy consumption had already reached 70 000 kilo-calories per day, approximately 3.5 tce per year.

A number of additional chapters on the history of energy have since been written. The use of coal increased with the advent of the steam engine. The properties of electricity were gradually discovered. Benjamin Franklin demonstrated, for example, that nature stores phenomenal amounts of electricity in the form of lightning, and Thomas Edison dis-covered incandescent light. The 20th century therefore came to be the century of energy.

The introduction of hydrocarbons3 and nuclear energy gave human beings access to the major energy resources currently being used. These resources are, however, limited and their use leads to such pollution pro-blems as the greenhouse effect4 and the accumulation of nuclear waste. We are now looking toward renewable forms of energy, like the energy generated by the sun and the wind. The wind will never stop blowing and the sun will continue to shine. We simply have to develop effective ways of harnessing these alternative forms of energy, which are more environmentally friendly.

2. A historical period from the end of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century in Europe, characterized by the emergence of the steam engine, industrialization and the rapid expansion of cities.

3. Compounds, like oil, gasoline or natural gas, made up of hydrogen and carbon

4. An increase in the earth’s average temperature resulting from the release of greater amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. A considerable amount of this gas is produced during the burning of oil and its derivatives.


Figure 1.6Graph of energy cycles

In 1850, wood was the primary source of energy used. Coal gradually supplanted wood, reaching its peak around 1925. Oil exploration began at the end of the last century and consumption rose sharply, replacing coal a little after 1950. It reached a stable level in the early 1980s, representing approximately 60% of all energy consumed. Nuclear energy entered the scene at the beginning of the 1960s and consumption has been increasing ever since.

Just before the last big oil crisis in 1973, average per capita consumption in industrialized countries was 230 000 kilocalories per day, or approximately 12 tce per year! Energy consumption in developing countries is considerably lower, approximately 2 tce per capita, as a result of fewer industries and, more particularly, a lower standard of living.

In the past few years, average energy consumption has dropped slightly in industrialized countries, especially in North America.

The reason is that the appliances we use are more energy effi cient. Also, smaller cars with smaller fuel requirements have become increasingly popular. In 1980, the average Canadian energy consumption was approxi-mately 190 000 kilocalories, or 10 tce per year.

Without energy, a society like ours would not be able to function, as was confi rmed by the oil crisis of the late 1970s. By limiting the distri-bution of oil to industrialized countries, oil-producing countries caused a serious slowdown in economic activity.

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

1850 1900 1950

0

CoalOil a

nd gas

Year

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

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l e

ne

rgy

co

nsu

me

d

Wood

Nuclear

energy


We have since been concerned about the number of energy resour-ces available to sustain the planet. We are examining every possible means of producing enough energy to satisfy our needs.

Producing a suffi cient amount of energy should be easy enough. Examine the illustration below: energy is all around us.

Figure 1.7Energy is available in many different forms

There is a wide variety of energy resources available. It is important to exploit these resources effi ciently, given that the world population will continue to grow. It is expected to double by the year 2050, reaching 11 billion people. More people means satisfying greater energy demands.

Land and underwater vegetation, as well as oil and its derivatives, constitute forms of chemical energy. They are transformed into thermal energy (heat) through combustion. A hydroelectric dam transforms the water’s gravitational energy into electrical energy. Wind, tidal and solar energy are renewable forms of energy. Natural fl uctuations can make them diffi cult to exploit.

Wind

Solar

Tidal

Gravitational

Electrical

Chemical

Chemical

Chemical

Chemical(fossil fuels)

Geothermal

(vegetation)

(aquatic vegetation)

(combustion)


Complete the table below by specifying the new sources of energy used as well as the daily per capita consumption of energy for each era mentioned.

Sources of energy Daily per capita used consumption of energy (in kcal)

Stone age

Discovery of fi re

Renaissance15th and 16th centuries

Industrial Revolution

18th and 19th centuries

20th century

Between the time fi re was discovered to the emergence of nuclear energy, the introduction of different forms of energy led to major social and economic chan-ges. What were the social implications of the following steps in the development of various forms of energy?

a) The discovery of fi re

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b) The use of animal power

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c) The use of steam power

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Identify other forms of energy besides electricity.

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1.5

1.6

1.7


ELECTRICITY—A KEY FORM OF ENERGY

Electricity, one of the most popular forms of energy, is produced in a number of ways. The most common method worldwide is the thermal generating station. As their name implies, thermal generating stations produce electricity using the heat released from the combustion of a fuel or from a nuclear reaction. The heat transforms water into steam, which turns turbines, which, in turn, drive a generator that produces an electric current. Thermal generating stations are classifi ed according to the type of fuel used. The main types of fuel are coal, oil and natural gas, which are burned, as well as uranium, which releases heat through fi ssion.

Figure 1.8Coal-fi red generating station

Coal

Although the use of coal for steam engines gradually diminished at the beginning of the 20th century, this fuel continued to play a major role with the emergence of electric generating stations. Interestingly, coal reserves remain plentiful throughout the world. Coal, however, often contains high concentrations of sulphur, which, when burned, are released into the atmosphere, travel with the winds and come back to earth in the form of acid rain.

Conventional thermal generating stations produce electricity by extracting the chemical energy stored in coal.

Steam

Turbine

Electricity

Generator

Coal

Water

Pump


Natural Gas

At the end of the 18th century, the discovery of gas for lighting, extracted from coal, once again changed living conditions. Factory work was no longer dependent on daylight and the city streets were not as dark come nightfall. Today, natural gas is much more easily extracted from underground pools in Western Canada and even in the Québec region of Lotbinière, specifi cally in Saint-Flavien.

Oil

In the last century, our society has experienced considerable commercial and industrial growth, which would not have been possible without the widespread use of oil5. Like gas, oil was fi rst used for lighting. The initial coal-powered steam engines later made it possible to develop the much more powerful combustion engine, like the one found in modern-day automobiles. In addition to being a versatile form of energy, oil now serves as a precious raw material in the manufacturing of plastics, for example. Moreover, it is widely used to fuel thermal generating stations. This use is less common in Québec, but widespread throughout the rest of North America, despite the resulting ecological problems. In Québec, the largest conventional thermal generating station, which is fuelled by oil, is located in Tracy, near Sorel.

5. Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy formed through the slow decomposition of plants and animals that died 500 millions of years ago. Oil, coal and natural gas are some examples of fossil fuels. The energy generated by these fuels is known as “fossil energy.”

Fossil fuels like oil will not last forever. Assessments of oil reserves indicate that we can no longer rely on this form energy. It is estimated that, by the year 2000, we will have consu-med nearly half of all conventional underground deposits of oil on earth. They are referred to as “conventional” because there exist a number of other deposits that are not as easily accessible. Some of these non-conventional deposits are located in northern Alberta, where underground sand, known as bituminous sand, acts like an oil sponge. Since extracting the oil from these sponges would be quite costly, it is easier to use conventional sources wisely.

Non-Renewable Resources


Uranium and Nuclear Energy

Although uranium was fi rst used to build bombs, it was discovered after World War II that nuclear energy could also be used to generate elec-tricity. Nuclear power plants can now be found in many countries, but they, too, pose certain problems. Disasters like the one involving the Chernobyl reactor in Ukraine in 1986 have tarnished the image of nuclear energy. Though Canadian generating stations have a better reputation, we still do not know how to properly dispose of the toxic waste that these plants generate. There is only one nuclear power plant in Québec, at Gentilly, and no plans have been made for further development. Nuclear energy is often a last resort for countries that have no other available means. Given the abundance of waterways in Québec, hydroelectricity continues to be the province’s resource of choice.

Water

Hydraulic power or water power can be used to produce electricity. This method is commonly used in Québec, but less well-known throughout the world. Hydraulic power is used to generate only 6% of all electricity worldwide. Most hydraulic power is produced in Canada, Russia and the United States, which have access to powerful waterways.

Québec is one of the leading world producers of hydroelectric power. It all began at the end of the 19th century when hydroelectric dams were built on the St. Lawrence river in Beauharnois, near Montréal, and on the Saint-Maurice river. Major power lines did not exist at the time because it was technically impossible for electric current to travel over long distances. Cities located near the hydroelectric generating stations were therefore at a defi nite advantage. The use of electricity resulted in many factories being built in the Montréal and Mauricie regions.


Figure 1.9Hydroelectric generating station

As it falls, the water from the reservoir turns the turbine, which, in turn, drives a generator that produces electricity.

Then, the Québec government created Hydro-Québec in 1944. At fi rst, Hydro-Québec was responsible only for the Montréal region. Other regions were served by such private utilities as the Shawinigan Water and Power Company or Quebec Power. Rural areas and more remote and less populated areas, like the Gaspé or Abitibi, received very poor service. In an effort to gain popularity in outlying areas by promising rural electrifi -cation, the Jean Lesage government decided to give Hydro-Québec greater territorial responsibility by buying out most of the private companies in 1963. This became known as nationalizing electricity. Megaprojects would follow: fi rst on the Manicouagan river and then at James Bay. As a result, Hydro-Québec became one of Québec’s major crown corporations.

By January 1, 1994, the various hydroelectric generating stations were producing 30 125 megawatts (MW) of electricity and it was esti-mated that they could produce an additional 15 000 MW. The political and environmental issues that often make the headlines continue to be a problem. As we will see at the end of this learning guide, it is important to carefully consider the implications of our actions when it comes to choosing the best energy-producing strategy.

Water reservoir

Turbine

Electricity

Generator


Figure 1.10Leading world producers of hydroelectricity (1991)

Canada is the leading world producer of hydroelectricity, followed closely by the United States and the former USSR. Québec alone produces 166 billion kilowatthours, which is more than half the Canadian output.


Electricity also exists in nature. You’ve gotten electric shocks without touching an electric wire—by coming into contact with a door handle, for example. These types of shocks are the result of static electri-city, which is generated on and around you. There are even fi sh, known as lampreys, that release electrical discharges to defend themselves against their attackers! Lightning is obviously much more powerful and can ins-tantly electrocute anyone who is not careful or just plain unlucky.

Theoretically, we could produce an infi nite amount of electricity. The wind, the sun and the tides are all sources of energy that could be transformed into electricity. Unlike fossil fuels, they are renewable sour-ces of energy. Existing methods would have to be perfected in order to generate electricity at prices comparable to those associated with so-called “conventional” methods.

166Québec

111125

218

235

288

308

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25

50

75

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125

150

175

200

225

250

275

300

325

Canada United States Former URSS Brazil China Norway

Bill

ion

s o

f kW

·h

166Québec

USSR


MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY IN QUÉBEC

1879 The fi rst public street lights in Canada appear on De Bleury street, in Montréal.

1884 The Royal Electric Company is founded to manage the distribution of electricity in Montréal.

1885 The fi rst hydroelectric generating station begins operations in Canada on the Montmorency river, near Quebec City.

1898 The Shawinigan Water and Power Company is founded, with rights to the Saint-Maurice river.

1901 The Royal Electric Company becomes the Montreal Light, Heat and Power Company.

1931 Construction begins on the Beauharnois generating station.

1944 Adélard Godbout’s government adopts a law creating the Commission hydroélectrique du Québec, which soon becomes known as Hydro-Québec. The Montreal Light, Heat and Power Company assets are expropriated and the company is now managed by Hydro-Québec. Its jurisdiction is nonetheless limited to the Montréal area. The company’s system generates 696 megawatts of power.

1953 Hydro-Québec expands and begins the development of the Bersimis river, on the province’s North Shore.

1959 Work begins on the Outardes and Manicouagan rivers.

1963 Electricity becomes nationalized. Hydro-Québec covers a province-wide territory. Jean Lesage’s government, on the advice of the Minister of Energy, René Lévesque, purchases ten private com-panies, including the Shawinigan Water and Power Company and Quebec Power.

1965 The fi rst 735-kilovolt power line in the world, between Manicouagan and Lévis, is inaugurated.

1967 IREQ (Institut de recherche en électricité du Québec [Hydro-Québec]) is created.

1968 Premier Daniel Johnson dies on the eve of the inauguration of the Manic 5 dam, which would later be named after him.

1969 Hydro-Québec signs a contract with Newfoundland to purchase 5225 megawatts produced by the generating station at Churchill Falls, Labrador.

1971 Premier Robert Bourassa announces a project to divert the rivers from the James Bay basin and the Liberal government adopts a law, creating the Société de développement de la Baie-James (SDBJ) and the Société d’énergie de la Baie-James (SEBJ).

1972 Work begins at James Bay with the opening of the fi rst construction site on the La Grande river.

1973 Work begins on the nuclear power plant, Gentilly 2.

1975 The Québec government and the Cree, Inuit and Naskapi sign the James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement, with regard to the James Bay hydroelectric project.

1979 A 735-kilovolt power line between La Grande and Montréal is inaugurated. The fi rst power generators of the LG 2 plant become operational.

1984 The LG 4 plant, the fi nal link of the fi rst phase of the La Grande complex, is inaugurated.

1985 The largest contract for the sale of electricity in the history of Hydro-Québec is signed with New England Utilities.

1990 Work begins on underwater power lines between Grondines and Lotbinière.

1993 The gas-turbine generating station at Bécancour is inaugurated and operations begin at the Brisay and Laforge 1 generating stations, as part of the second phase of the La Grande complex.

1994 The installed generating capacity of the Hydro-Québec power system is 30 100 megawatts; the

company employs more than 20 000 people.

Adapted from an article by Guy Pinard that appeared in a supplement of La Presse on April 16, 1994 (free translation).Reprinted with permission of La Presse.


Figure 1.11Headlines

Views are divided on the issue of building new hydroelectric generating stations. Making alternative forms of energy available at competitive prices represents a considerable technical challenge. (Headlines are free translation.)

a) Is hydroelectricity produced in your area? What dam is used?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

b) Is there another form of electricity produced in your area? If so, which one?

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1.8

An End to Big Dams?Québec Science, March 1994 Hydro-Attikameks:

Mere Flirtation?

A Great Future, Provided We Can Adapt to Technological ChangeLa Presse, April 16, 1994

A Coalition Raises Doubts About the Need for New Hydroelectric DamsLa Presse, March 14, 1991

Sept-Îles Demands a Dam on the Sainte-Marguerite RiverLe Soleil, May 4, 1992

Hydro-Québec Hopes to Build a New PlantLe Soleil, February 23, 1992

Wind, Solar or Biomass . . . the Virtues of Alternative EnergiesPlan, October 1993The Grand Disillusion

Québec Science, March 1994

Commerce, November 1992


Explain briefl y how a thermal generating station works.

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What is the difference between a thermal generating station and a hydroelectric generating station?

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Name three people who were involved in the development of Québec’s hydroe-lectric power system and mention their contributions.

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MAKING A WELL-INFORMED DECISION

Our main concern in Québec is knowing whether we will be able to produce enough electricity to satisfy our needs. Hydro-Québec is antici-pating an increased demand of approximately 2% per year. Between now and the turn of the century, the population will grow and, consequently, there will be an increase in economic activity. Logically, the demand for electricity should go up.

In certain developing countries, the demand is rising at an even faster rate. More electricity is needed to operate new factories. With more money to spend, inhabitants of these countries are buying a greater number of electrical appliances. In China, for example, the demand for electricity is expected to rise 6% per year. At that rate, the country’s needs will double in 12 years! For this reason, China is planning to build new generating stations, like the one at Trois-Gorges, on one of its largest rivers.

1.9

1.10

1.11


To answer the following questions, refer to the article entitled Hydro-Québec International—In Search of Global Markets, which you will fi nd at the end of this chapter, following the review exercises.

a) What markets is Hydro-Québec International hoping to capture?

__________________________________________________________________

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b) What is the expected demand in Asia?

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c) How does this affect Québec?

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d) What do you think about it?

__________________________________________________________________

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Given our current situation, we should use all available resources wisely. The demand for such resources as water, oil and others used to produce electricity will continue to grow; however, the methods used to harness these resources have not been perfected, which often poses a threat to the environment. Such an important consideration cannot be overlooked.

No existing means of producing electricity is completely harmless. Thermal generating stations pollute the environment, hydroelectric gene-rating stations require that huge areas be fl ooded and nuclear generating stations generate dangerous radioactive waste that is diffi cult to dispose of. In each case, energy must be converted with as little loss as possible. Each choice that we make has certain advantages and disadvantages. We can aim for greater effi ciency in the future by changing the way we consume electricity. Although seemingly a matter of personal choice, it is in fact a collective issue if we consider the importance that electricity plays in Québec society.

Electricity takes on so many forms—in our daily lives or in lighting up the sky during a storm—that it seems almost magical. The truth is much simpler. Electricity is not magical; it is a relatively basic physical phenomenon. Learning about electricity will enable us to make the best possible use of it. The following chapters will allow us to explore electri-city in depth.

1.12


Key Words

in this Chapter

Joule (J)

Kilowatthour (Kw•h)

Tonne coal equivalent (tce)

Tonne oil equivalent (toe)

We are living in a world in which energy plays a critical role. Overall economic growth and our personal well-being depend on it.

The need for energy has existed for thousands of years, but it has taken on new dimensions with the advent of industrialization. Coal, oil, hydroelectricity and, most recently, nuclear power, have changed our rapport with nature.

In Québec, we produce enough energy to live comfortably, but this is not the case everywhere in the world. The sharing of resources causes confl ict, which sometimes leads to war.

Furthermore, the production and consumption of energy weighs heavily on the environment to the point of compromising nature’s delicate balance.

What can we do to reduce the risks while preserving what we have created? We can either choose to be more economical or opt for more effi cient sources of energy.

Contrary to what many believed at the turn of the century, electri-city is not magical. It is a relatively simple physical phenomenon. Learning about electricity will enable us to make the best possible use of it.

Summary


Review Exercises

Identify some uses of electricity that have made life simpler.

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In 1991, how did Québec rank worldwide in terms of its per capita consumption of electricity? How can this be explained?

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The industrial sector is a huge consumer of electricity. Two types of industries consume particularly large amounts of energy. Identify these two types of indus-tries.

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How did electricity rank in Québec’s total energy consumption for 1973, as com-pared with 1993? How can this increase be explained?

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1.13

1.14

1.15

1.16


What preoccupations surrounding energy consumption have characterized the end of the 20th century?

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a) What is the most common type of electrical generating station in Québec?

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b) Name one other type of electrical generating station that can be found in Québec.

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Give two reasons that motivated Jean Lesage’s government to nationalize elec-tricity in 1963.

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1.17

1.19

1.18


Appendix

Hydro-Québec International—In Search of Global MarketsBY RICHARD DUPAUL

“Without sufficient internal growth, industrialized countries are forced to turn to the outside world to ensure their survival, as is the case for France, Germany and Norway. We have no choice but to adopt this same strategy,” says Denis Saint-Pierre.

Since its creation in 1978, HQI (Hydro-Québec International) has kept a rather low—but nonetheless important—profile as part of the Hydro-Québec family.

Relying on the technical resources of its mother company, the fi rm pro-vides services in a number of areas, including power systems planning, equipment design and construction, development and management of electric companies and environmental research.

“The markets targeted by HQI are essentially developing countries in Asia, Africa, and South America. At the end of the 1980s, HQI was a contributor in some fi fty countries,” says Saint-Pierre.

After having signed a few contracts in South America, however, HQI concluded, at the end of the 1980s,

that the demand for its services had changed.

At the same time, HQI was taking the opportunity to expand into other parts of the world although, until recently, 70% of company revenues were generated in Africa, and the remainder in the Middle East and Eastern Europe.

“Asia is a priority for one simple reason. Between now and the year 2002, the demand for electricity in that part of the world, including India, is expected to rise to 350 000 megawatts, which is ten times as great as Hydro-Québec’s existing power system,” emphasizes Saint-Pierre.

One of HQI’s objectives is to have Québec companies profit from the contracts being signed abroad.

“If a project is being undertaken in China, we will certainly establish ties with local partners and work with a local labour force. We will, however, do whatever we can to involve companies like SNC-Lavalin and other Québec fi rms,” says Saint-Pierre.

Reprinted with permission of La Presse (free translation).

16/04/94

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