ps 101 itroduction to poultry production full course

1

PS-101 INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY PRODUCTION 2(1-2)

THEORYImportance, history, present status and future perspectives of poultry industry;

classification of poultry breeds and varieties; (Manual on Avian Production and Management 5-16) brooding, rearing and production practices in poultry; rural vs commercial poultry production; introduction to various body systems of the chicken; (Avian physiology) composition of poultry meat and eggs.

PRACTICALDemonstration regarding body parts of poultry; demonstration of digestive; respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems of a poultry; structure and composition of an egg; demonstration of various routine practices at poultry farm.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED1. Austic, R.E. and M.C. Nesheim. 1990. Poultry Production. Lea and Febiger

Philadelphia. USA.2. Hunton, P. 1995. Poultry Production: Production System Approach. Elsevier Science

Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.3. Jadhav, N.V. 1998. Practical Manual for Avian Production and Management. Jaypee

Brothers, Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India.4. Jull, M.A. 2003. Successful Poultry Management. Biotech Books. Delhi India.5. Owen, W.P. 2000. Poultry Farming and Keeping. Biotech Books. India.

By: Mr. Zaib-Ur-RehmanLecturerPoultry Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

2

PS-101INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY PRODUCTIONPOULTRY

The term poultry is designated to those species of birds, which are economical and can reproduce freely under human care. It includes chickens, ducks, turkeys, pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowl and partridges etc.POULTRY SCIENCE Poultry science is the study of principles and practices involved in the production and marketing of poultry and its products. It includes breeding, housing, incubation, brooding, rearing, feeding, disease control and marketing but generally term “Poultry” is used only for chickens, which serve as most economical source of animal protein food and zoologically are named as Gallus domesticus.BROILER

Broilers are those fast growing poultry birds of young age which are kept and used only for meat purpose and produce tender meat with soft pliable and flexible breast bone cartilage. They attain live body weight of 1.5 kg or more by consuming 3-4 kg of feed in 6 weeks.

LAYERWhich lay table quality egg (for food of human consumption). Laying starts from

20-21 weeks and may lay 150 to 300 eggs per year.

BREEDERSBirds of both sexes which are kept for breeding purpose to obtain fertilized eggs

for hatching to get chicks i.e. broilers or layers.IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY FARMING

1. It provides egg and meat, which are highly nutritive supplementing foods and have high quality protein.

2. It provides source of income and opportunities of employment at poultry farms, hatcheries, poultry processing units, equipments manufactures, meat and egg marketing channels etc.

3. In rural areas, since less investment is required to start the enterprises, it has attained a status of “Cottage Industry”.

4. Quick returns can be expected from the investment.5. Poultry manure is extremely rich source of nitrogen and organic matter. It

contains 1.0-1.8% nitrogen. 1.4-1.8% P2O2 and 0.8-0.9% K2O hence is very good fertilizers.

6. In animal and medical research, birds are used as experimental unit.

PREFERENCE OF POULTRY FARMING OVER LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURAL SECTION

The poultry farming is preferred over other sectors like livestock and agriculture due to following reasons.

1. Size of bird is smaller than other larger animals.2. Physiology of birds is simpler.3. Birds have shorter maturity period.4. Fertility rate is high.5. Life span is short which can be extended in layers and breeders.6. Balanced feed for birds can be easily managed.7. They have simple digestive system.8. Less land is required due to less space requirement per bird.9. Poultry is quick and efficient converter of inputs into out puts.10. Birds have the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and feed efficiency.11. Embryo development takes place outside rather than inside the body of dam

through placenta.12. Incubation period of chicken is shorter (21 days) while large animals have

long gestation period.


3

13. There is a continuous return of income while in case of land, seasons, labor, seeds etc. required in fairly high amount and income return is based on yearly basis while, poultry farming makes the least demand of land than crop production and give maximum yield per unit area.

14. Dressing percentage is more (60%) in poultry as compared to large animals (50-55%).

15. Several crop by-products and agricultural wastes are used in poultry feeding.16. Poultry farming is within the reach of small farmers and offer good

opportunity for investors with limited financial resources.ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY FARMING

Essential food items

The poultry meat and eggs are essential foods. The demand of poultry meat and

eggs is quite permanent. The poultry meat is appetizing and popular food. The eggs are

highly digestible, nutritious and taste. In future the demand for high quality poultry meat

and eggs seem to be very bright.

Quick return of high quality protein

There is a quick return of high quality protein. One and a half kilogram live-body

weight broiler can be produced in 6 weeks time. The layer chicks start laying eggs at

about 20 weeks of age and lays more than 270 eggs in a year.

Efficient source of high quality protein

Poultry farming is an efficient source getting good-quality food, rich in nutrition.

One and a half kilogram broiler can be produced by feeding 3 kilogram of feed. No other

meat product can be produced so efficiently on the farm. A dozen of eggs can be

produced on 1.75 kilograms of feed.

Income throughout the year

The income from both broiler farms and layers flock is distributed throughout the

year.

Quick turn-over of capital

There is quick turn-over of capital invested in poultry business. The capital

invested in broiler production returns in about two months and the capital invested in

laying flock starts coming back in about 20 weeks.

Part time as well as full time occupation

Poultry farming may be adopted as a large and small scale business. Broilers and

layers may be reared in the backyards in cities and small towns and on farms as a

commercial enterprise.

The poultry farming on small farms and at home may be a part time job while the

owner has other employment or business. It may be a full time occupation on large

commercial and specialized farms.

Managed by Ladies and Children

Poultry farming can be successfully managed by women, children and elderly

men because the work is not strenuous. It does not require high skill. These groups of

people may be very successful in poultry farming.


4

DEVELOPMENT OF POULTRYBirds were used first not for the food purpose but for entertainment e.g.

cockfighting. They had got also religious importance. But now there is a gradual improvement in keeping these birds.

Cock fighting banned due to cruelty. Birds were kept for exhibition purpose Specialized birds as food purpose. Small birds (Bantam) i.e. fancy birds Pure lines evolve.American poultry Association started it's work in 1873 with an aim to maintain pure

bred breeding stock and before that people thought about the birds which were beautiful, having same body confirmation, uniform in their type and plumage colour. In this way they introduced breeds and varieties.

CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY A group of standard breeds which have been develop in a certain region or

geographical area. There are four classes based on this definition:1. Asiatic2. English3. American4. Mediterranean

BreedThe group of birds belongs to same living place and having similar characteristics

including body shape, size and skin colour, e.g., Leghorn, Minorca.Variety

Within a breed the group of birds differentiated (division) either by plumage colour or shape of comb or feather pattern, e.g. Single comb WLH. Rose comb leghorn.Strain

A specific chicken breeding flock bearing a given name and produced by a breeder through at least five generations of closed flock mating and selected for certain characteristics e.g. Babcock

Classification based on regions For detailed reading please visit (http://139.78.104.1/breeds/poultry/)i. Asiatic Classii. Mediterranean classiii. American Classiv. English Class

Characteristic American English Mediterranean Asiatic

1. Body size Medium Medium Light Heavy

2. Purpose Dual Dual Egg Meat

3. Shell colour Brown Brown White Brown

4. Ear lobe colour Red Red White Red

5. Skin colour Yellow White Yellow Yellow

6. Feathers on Shank No No No Yes

Commercial hybrid broilers have the following special qualities.

• Better body conformation• Better carcass quality• Better feed conversion• Excellent table qualities• Tender, juicy, nutritious fine white meat.• Better and efficient growth rate.• Lower mortality.• Disease resistance


http://139.78.104.1/breeds/poultry/

5

Hubbard, Hybro, Starbro, CobbCommercial hybrid layers have the following characteristics.

• Better and more egg production.• Better and bigger egg size.• Better interior egg quality.• Better shell quality.• Early maturity.• Lower rate of mortality.• Efficient feed conversion into eggs.

Babcock, Nick Chick, Hi Sex, LSL, Hy-line Bovans


6

Incubation:

The process during which in a period of three weeks microscopic germ is

developed into a chick capable of waling and eating etc. the period during which this

process is completed is called incubation period. Different species of birds have different

incubation period e.g., chicken egg hatch in 21 days, whereas the eggs of quails, ducks,

pheasants have 17, 28-30 and 28 days incubation period, respectively. During this period

suitable conditions are provided to the hatching eggs for best hatching results. The

incubation is of two type, namely, natural incubation and ratification incubation.

1) Natural Incubation

This is commonly used for backyard poultry keeping in villages in most of the

tropical countries of the world. In this method eggs are incubated with the help of broody

hens. It is a primitive method. But it is most effective methods to get a high percentage of

success. Natural hatching or hatching of eggs by hen is still popular with small poultry

keepers in remote rural areas in many part of our country. The most important thing in

this method is the selection of a broody hen. It should be of medium body size to

accommodate fair number of eggs and should be a good-sitter, quiet and free from

ectoparasites. A nest bedded with clean, dry and comfortable litter is prepared for this

purpose. Usually the nest is a saucer like shape where the hatching eggs are placed with

brooder end slightly upside. The nest is usually placed in a dark area of the house with

minimum disturbance. During incubation hen should not be disturbed. The hens should

be taken out at least twice a day for about 30 minutes for feeding and watering. The hen

should be well taken care of and protected from predators.

Depending on the size of hen, 10-15 eggs can be placed under one bird. The best

time of set hen is at a night as at this time she is more likely to settle down to her job.

Besides, when eggs are put under the hens at night, the chicken are more likely to appear

on the night of 21st day and will have the whole night to rest and gain strength.

2) Artificial Incubation:

In this method of incubation, the requirements of incubation are fulfilled by a

machine called incubator. This method uses high modern and sophisticated technology

with automation for maximum hatchability. This method of incubation has many

advantages over natural incubation which are as under:

1. Large no. of eggs even up to lacs at a time can be incubated to meet high

commercial demand of chicks.

2. Incubation can be practiced throughout the year as there is no need for a

broody hen for this purpose.

3. The risk of disease transfer from hen to chicks is eliminated because of no

contact of the hen with eggs after laying.


7

4. The essential incubation requirements are provided with their optimum levels

to get maximum hatchability with quality hygienic care and minimum chances

of infections.

5. Automation of incubators saves time and labour.

Types of Incubators

Principally there are two types of incubators viz. Small or still air incubators and

Mammoth or forced draft incubators. The mammoth incubators can have setters and

Hatcher separately, whereas the small incubators are usually a small combined like. In

case of chicken eggs setters are used to incubate eggs for first 18 days while chicks

actively hatch out for final 3 days in hatchers. A brief discussion about the incubators is

as under.

1. Small or still air incubators:

It is usually of small capacity, from 50 to 500 eggs, with only single layer

incubation, where the eggs lying flat in the machine. These incubators are heated by

kerosene oil or electricity. Ventilation is affected by changes of internal temperature.

These are also called still air incubators because the air inside the incubator circulates

under natural way of circulation without any mechanical devices for air circulation. In

these incubators, the eggs are placed in the egg tray in natural position. The turning of the

eggs is manual and individual, twice or thrice daily.

2. Cabinet Type (mammoth or forced draft) incubators:

The incubators are very capacious and generally cabinet like in shape. It enables

the breeder to incubate several thousand eggs with greater economy to develop his

business by selling baby chicks. These incubators are usually run by electricity. Eggs are

placed in the egg trays with broader end up, from the top to be bottom in the machine.

The eggs are turned either manually but collectively with the help of a handle, or

automatically with a time-controlled motor where the position of all the eggs can be

changed collectively. The temperature is evenly distributed in the entire machine by

either pads or fans which also control the ventilation process hence the name give ‘forced

draft machine’. Moister is usual provided from flat trays which have large evaporating

surfaces or by some farm of water spray injection arranged in conjunction with the

ventilation system or by injection of stream he incubator may be of a shape in which

setting and hatching is done in the same compartment or it may have separate setting or

hatching compartments. These incubators have been further improved by various

companies as detailed below.

a) Walk-in Incubators:

A walk-in incubator is infect a room into which it is possible to walk or to wheel

trolleys and in which staff can work. It may be cabinet type construction and capable of

being erected and operated in an existing building or it may be of a built-in type in which

the shell of the incubator room forms an integral part of the hatchery structure and walls

of the room have to bear loads over and above their functional requirements of rigidity

and insulation. In both types, the arrangements of setting, turning and hatching equipment


8

are similar to those of the large cabinet incubators, but the heating and ventilation are

much more fully automatic than cabinet type incubator. These type of incubators provide

grate economy of floor space and consequent reduction in capital costs, and in time and

labour for maintenance and oppression of the hatchery.

b) Drive in Incubator:

Some walk-in machine involves the transfer of eggs from the trolleys to setting

racks and trays may be set in blocks or alternately. Other machines allow the eggs to be

wheeled into the incubator or in and trolley, with the same trolley remaining in the

machines as the frame holding the trays of eggs during incubation. In the latter methods

eggs are obviously in blocks according to stage of development and different

manufactures of incubators have the trolleys positioned in different ways. As opposed to

walk-in these machines may be described as drive-in incubators.

INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS

For best hatchability results, each of the following environmental conditions must

be controlled and kept within definite limits.

1. Temperature: it is the most critical factor for the successful hatching of the

chicks because developing chicks are very sentience to the temperature of the

environment. Low temperature slows down the development process and therefore results

in late hatching with low hatchability. A continuous high incubation temperature results

in early in hatching results due to an increase in crippled and deformed chicks and

mortality of chicks. Therefore, the suitable temperature should be maintained as under:

A. Small Incubators:

First week 102.5 – 103 °F

2nd and 3rd week 102°F

18th day to end of hatch 100 – 101 °F

B. Mammoth Incubator:

Setter : 99.5°F (For 1st 18 days)

Hatcher : 99.0°F (For the last 3 days)

2. Relative humidity: Hatchability of eggs is definitely affected by moisture

conditions inside the incubators. The relative humidity for best hatching results should be

55-60% during first 18 days and should be increased 5-10% after that up to hatching of

chicks. High relative humidity results in the production of wet chicks and abnormal

growth of the embryo. Whereas, low humidity causes stickiness of the chicks with the

shell membrane resulting into poor hatching results. It also increases the production of

deformed and weak chicks. Normally 11 to 13% inherent water content may be lost

during incubation without harmful results.

3. Ventilation: Incoming of the fresh air into incubator and outgoing of the foul air

from the incubator is also a key to the success of hatching results. Because the chick

embryos being living organism require oxygen for their development and give off carbon

dioxide. Therefore optimum level of oxygen (21%) and carbon dioxide (0.4%) are very


9

much essential for good hatching results. If the amount of carbon dioxide exceeds 1.0%

limit the hatching results will be adversely affected whereas, the increase in carbon

dioxide upto 2% will cause drastic reduction in hatchability. When carbon dioxide

concentration in the incubator reaches upto 5% level, the hatching results would be zero.

Therefore, for successful optimum level of oxygen and carbon dioxide are required in the

incubator. Still air machine need more ventilation near the end of the hatch, while there is

no such problem in forced draft incubators normally.

4. Position of the Hatching Eggs and Turning:

Eggs are normally incubated broader end up or by placing in the natural position.

Under these conditions, the head of the embryo develops within the broader and near the

air-cell. However, when the eggs are incubated small and up the majority of the embryos

develop with their head in the small end of the egg and frequently these embryos do not

hatch.

Frequent turning of eggs is essential for movement of embryo in the eggs during

first phase of incubation to avoid sticking and setting of embryos to the shell. Turning

also facilities uniform heating of the egg content in auto-operated incubators. Usually, the

eggs are turned through an angle of 40-45° on both sides for 5 or 7 times a day in the

setter, leading to maximum hatchability. Whereas turning is not required in hatcher.

However, if the eggs are left in a single position throughout the incubation period the

hatching results ill be very poor. Turning must be gentle and on both sides.

BROODING:

Special care and management during first 5 to 6 weeks of a chick’s life until they do not

required artificial heat is termed as brooding.

Types of Brooders:

Brooders are different types:

1) Drum type 2) Coal burning 3) Wood burning

4) Electric brooder 5) Gas brooder

1) Drum Type

Heat is radiated from drum towards chicks on floor. Temperature is controlled by

thermostat that regulates flow of oil to brooder.

2) Coal Burning

Commonly used where fuel (coal) is comparatively cheaper. Temperature is

controlled by thermostat.

3) Wood Burning

Wood burning brooders are commonly used in Pakistan especially where wood is

in plenty and available at cheaper rate.

4) Electric Brooders

Mostly used in cold and mild weather. They have advantages

i) Temperature can be accurately controlled.

ii) They require little attention.

iii) Thermostat control is possible.


10

iv) Electric brooder relatively easier to run.

5) Gas Brooder

Similar to electric brooders it also requires little attention. Gas brooders are more

economical & dependable than electric brooders because chance of breakdown of supply

is very rare.

DIFFERENT MANAGEMENTAL PRACTICES DURING

The following are the materials/practices, which are required during brooding.

1. Litter materials

2. Chick Guard

3. Proper floor space

4. Sanitation

5. Flushing

6. Feeding

7. Broad spectrum antibiotics

8. Vaccination

9. Debeaking

10. Avoid predators and pilfering

1. Litter Materials

Type and condition of litter material is very important during brooding. Many

types of litter material such as sawdust, rice hulls, wood shaving is being used Sawdust

makes a good litter material because of its high absorbing property. Softwood saw dust is

preferred over the hard wood sawdust because of lower tannin contents.

Properties of Good Litter Material

1. More absorbent

2. Light in weight

3. Medium size particles

4. Inexpensive

A litter that has been treated with an insecticide, herbicide or other chemicals may

not be used. Paper is spread on the litter for early 2-3 days to reduce picking by birds.

2. Brooder Guards

Brooder guards are necessary to confine day-old chicks to the heated area and to

concentrate the feeders and waters within small areas. They are also helpful to keep out

draft and cold air. A guard made of cardboard, wood or metal sheet with 15 to 18 inches

height should be placed around the hover. The distance of guard from the stove should be

about 30 inches (76 cm) in winter and 36 inches (91 cm) is summer.

Once the chicks learn the source of supplementary heat, the guard must be

expanded to allow a greater area inside them. Guards could be used for 6 to 9 days.

3. Floor Space Requirement

Growth and feed conversion are related to floor space per requirement bird, over

crowding due to less floor space results decreased feed consumption, growth rate and

feed efficiency and it increases the chances of cannibalism and mortality. The amount of


11

floor space necessary for each chick during the first 5 or 6 weeks of its life is given in

table.

Types of bird Floor space per bird

ft2 M2 Birds/m2

Broiler 0.50 0.05 20.0

Leghorn egg type pullet 0.758 0.070 14.3

Leghorn egg breeder pullet 0.85 0.079 12.7

Leghorn egg type cockerels 0.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder pullet 1.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder cockerels 1.25 0.116 8.6

4. Sanitation

During brooding care should be taken regarding sanitation because chicks are

very sensitive to diseases. A brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and well

disinfected at least one week before the arrival of chicks. Spray formalin 40% (1:12 i.e.

formalin : water) to the brooding room. Keep separate attendants in the brooder houses

and do not allow them to move in other sheds. Keep visitors away from the brooder

house and take care of your address when you visit the brooder house.

Damp litter and sick birds cause the spreading of disease; keep the litter dry of

frequent stirring of litter. Using super phosphate on litter not only acts as absorbent but

also act as preservative for making a good fertilizer after mixing with droppings.

Frequent change of waterers place will help to keep the litter dry.

Sick birds should be isolated and treated properly. Dead birds should be disposed

off by using disposal pit or burning. Adult birds should not be mixed with young chicks.

5. Flushing

Flushing with 3% sucrose solution is done to provide readily available source of

energy to the bird. This practices also clears the digestive tract chicks.

6. Feeding

First feeding should be done 4-5 hours after flushing. Pure good quality ground

maize should be given first day alone then for 2-3 days as a part of feed. It provides good

source of energy and it contains high fibre contents which prevent pasting.

1st day ----------- Pure Ground maize

2nd daynn ----------- 50% GM + 50% Feed

3rd day ----------- 25% GM + 75% Feed

4th day ----------- 100% Feed

Ground maize due to higher fibre contents prevents pasting.

7. Broad Spectrum Antibiotics

During 1st week, using any of the following broad-spectrum antibiotic may helps

in reducing the chances of infections.

Furazolidone 15-20 g/bag feed for seven days

Furazole 80 g/bag for seven days

Furasole 1 teaspoon/gallon water


12

Tribersin 1 cc/gallon water

Trimodin 1 teaspoon/gallon water

Erythro FZ 1 teaspoon/litre water

In winter medicine is used usually through feed and in summer mostly through water.

8. Vaccination

To reduce chances of disease outbreaks following vaccines must be used in

addition to other vaccines.

From 7-10 days ND eye drops

From 10-14 days Gumboro eye drops

From 22-25 days ND 1/2 CC (sub-cut)

From 30-32 days Gumboro in drinking water

From 6-8 weeks Fowl pox (wing web)

9. Debeaking

Debeaking not only prevents cannibalism, toe picking, vent picking and feather

picking, it also increase the feed efficiency of the birds. Besides it make the flock

uniform and improve the live ability. Debeaking is doen at the age of 10-15 days, it

involves cutting of 1/3 of the upper beak by an electric debeaker.

10. Avoid Predators and Pilfering

Predators like the mice, managoose, dog and cat etc. can be controlled by traps

and using chemicals. Their control is necessary because they can waste the feed and

transmit many diseases. Pilfering at the farm could be avoided by sudden visits and

through checking the record.

POULTRY HOUSING

Poultry housing permits the organization and concentration of the flock into a

manageable unit and it provides a physical environment conductive to optimal egg, or

poultry meat production. Some of the important considerations in poultry house

construction are given below.

1. The site of the farm should be marshy, water logged or flood affected.

2. Farm should away from man city but approachable.

3. Water supply, gas and electricity should be available at the site.

4. Construction should be well managed according to the type of the birds that

are planned to be reared.

5. Direction of the shed should be east to west.

6. Length of the shed may vary from 100 to 300ft.

7. Width of the shed should be 30ft. in open side house and it may very up to

50ft. in case of environment control house.

8. Height of the shed may vary from 10-12 ft.

9. Shed to shed distance should be 50ft.

10. Farm to farm distance should be 1 to 3 km.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS 1. Length


13

100 ft of one shed, if 300-400 ft. then partition after each 100 ft.2. WidthNormally 30 ft. if more than 30ft. there is ventilation problem. In environmental control house it may be 40-50 ft.3. HeightIn hot areas 12-14 ft. but in cold areas 8-10 ft.4. DistanceIt should be 50fl. between two poultry sheds. 100 ft. from road. 1km.between two farms and for breeder forms it should be 3km.5. Floor Space1 sq ft area =1 broiler, 1.5 sq ft area =1 layer, 2 sq ft area = 1 breeder (egg type), 3.5 sq ft area= I breeder (meat type).

6. VentilationProper ventilation (not drought) to carry in fresh air is needed. It also maintains normal humidity. More the distance between inlets and outlets more will be ventilation.7. HumidityFor hatching purpose 70-80% and for poultry house it should be 60-65%. Low humidity causes dry, dusty litter, respiratory problems and poor hatching, where as very high humidity causes growth of fungus, mould and parasitic infections. For proper humidity level provide adequate ventilation.8. TemperatureFor storage of eggs 55°F, for hatching (eggs) 99.25-99.75°F. For brooding of day old chicks 95 °F at start and for poultry house 70-75°F.9. SunshineIn cold climate, raising curtains from side walls brings spring like conditions by exposing poultry house to more and more sunshine. In hot areas, curtains from front are raised to have good ventilation and sunshine and down when temperature starts to rise than normal.10. DrynessDampness causes discomfort to birds and also give rise to problems like colds, pneumonia etc. Dampness in poultry house is caused by moisture rinsing through leaky floors or walls, rain or snow entering through windows and leaky water container of birds and from bird’s droppings, so proper ventilation to keep proper dryness is required. Use good quality litter, which have more adsorption of moisture.EQUIPMENTS

Equipments Capacity Required Unit Cost(Rs.)

Total Cost(R*.)

(A) Equipments for

1, 000 Broilers

Brooder l/500 Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

Litter Bags 15 Bags/500 Chicks 30 60/Bag 1800

Paper 1 kg/200 5kg 20/kg 100

Feeders

Trough feeder (in) 1/40 Birds 25 35 875

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/32 Birds 31 50 1550

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Round Waterer (5L) 1/30 Birds 33 65 2145


14

(B) Equipments for 1000 Layers

Brooding Period

Brooder l/500Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

Tube feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 50 1000

Trough feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 35 700

Drinker (2L) 1/25 Chicks 40 20 800

Paper 1 kg/200 Chicks 5kg 20 100

Rearing Period

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/40 Birds 25 50 1250

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Laying Period

Tube feeder 1/30 Birds 1 1 50 1650

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Automatic Drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Nests 1/5 Hens 17 Units 1 500 25500

COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT CONTROL POULTRY HOSE

COMPONENT/SYSTEMS OF ENVIRONMENT CONTROL HOUSES

Cone Fan Box Fan Feeder Feed Bin Layer Cages


15

Inlet Controller Trough feeder Pad &Fan Nipple Drinker

Electric Generator Diesel Heater Coal Heater Electric panel Cooling Pad

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED EFFICIENT PERFORMANCE OF ENVIRONMENT CONTROL POULTRY HOUSES

Temperature Meter

Lux Meter CFM Meter pH Meter Temperature /Hygrometer

Static Pressure Meter

Insulation Tester Co2 Tester Ammonia Meter Oxygen Meter

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

This system is responsible for the break down of complex non absorbable components like carbohydrate, protein, and fats into relatively simplest and absorbable unit like glucose, amino acid and fatty acids respectively known as digestive system.This process of digestion is completed by the action of various enzymes secreted by the digestive system. Thus it is known as the largest gland of the body. For ease to understand the basic physiological function of digestive system it is divided into following parts.

1. Mouth2. Pharynx3. Esophagus/gullet4. Crop5. Proventriculus6. Gizzard7. Small intestine8. Caeca9. Large intestine10. Cloaca11. Vent

ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE GLANDS:


16

The glands which aid in the process of digestion are known as accessory digestive glands and are following.

1. Salivary glands2. Liver3. Pancrease

MOUTH: Mouth is made up of upper mandible and lower mandible collectively known as beak. The upper mandible is attached with skull and it is non-movable part of beak while the lower mandible is attached hinged and it is movable part of beak.The roof of mouth is made up of hard palate that is divided by a long narrow slit in the centre that is opened to the nasal passage. While the soft palate is absent in the birds except pigeon. The openings or slit in the hard palate and absence of soft palate make it impossible for the birds to create a vacuum to draw the water or feed into the mouth. Thus birds have to scoop up the water when drinking elevates its head and then let the water run down the gullet by the action of gravity.The base of mouth is made up of tongue and it has rough surface at the beak to help force the feed into esophagus or gullet. The base of the tongue has papilla, which contains very few numbers of taste buds. The taste buds help to taste the feed.PHARYNX:

Pharynx is a common passageway for feed as well as for air and is divided into two parts.1. Esophagus2. Larynx

ESOPHAGUS: Esophagus is a tube like structure that extends from mouth to

Proventriculus and it helps to carry the feed from mouth towards Proventriculus. CROP:

Crop is the extension of esophagus located in the neck region. It is responsible for the storage of feed but when the Proventriculus or gizzard is empty the feed by pass the crop. Little digestion takes place with the action of salivary amylase. PROVENTRICULUS/GLANDULAR STOMACH/TRUE STOMACH:It is a specialized enlargement of the gullet just before entry into the gizzard. This organ is responsible for the production of gastric juice, which is made up of the proenzyme known as pepsinogen and an acid known as hydrochloric acid. The gastric juice produced in response to protein content in diet. The feed is stored for the short period in the Proventriculus and moves towards the gizzard thus major process of digestion take place in the gizzard.Gizzard\Muscular Stomach\Ventriculus Gizzard is made up of two pairs of powerful muscles capable of crushing and grinding the feed particle. This structure is located between the Proventriculus and small intestine. As feed enters the gizzard it performs Powerful muscular contraction, which ultimately leads to crushing and grinding of the particles. This process is aided by the presence of grit or rocks present in the gizzard .The gizzard performs 2-5 contractions per minute according to the consistency of the feed particle.Small Intestine. Small intestine is 62 inch (1.5 metre) long in the adult bird. Small intestine has three parts.1) Duodenum , 2) Jejunum, 3) Ileum.Duodenum makes the loop known as duodenal loop which contain the pancrease .Digestion of carbohydrates, protein, and fat take place in the small intestine with the help of intestinal juice, pancreatic juice, and secretion of liver known as bile. Intestinal juice contains variety of enzymes such as amylase, invertase , and trypsin. The first two enzymes are responsible for the break down of complex carbohydrates into simple sugars such as glucose, maltose etc . While trypsin is responsible for break down of intermediate proteins like proteoses, peptoses into aminoacids. Similarly pancreatic juice contains variety of enzymes that do take part in digestion of carbohydrates, protein and fat. The bile produced from the liver is responsible for emulsification of fat which is then digested by variety enzymes. After completion of digestion the end product of carbohydrate (glucose) protein (amino acid) fats (fatty acid) are absorbed by the finger


17

like projections of small intestine known as villi. The amino acid and fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymphatic vessels. These end products are ultimately reached to the liver via portal vein.Caeca: These are two blind pouches located between the small intestine and large intestine having a length of 6 inches (1.5 cm). The function of Caeca is not clear but it is thought that it takes part in digestion of carbohydrate, proteins, and crude fibre with the help of bacterial action.

Large Intestine: Large intestine is much smaller as compared to small intestine and caecum. The length of large intestine is 4 inches (10 cm) and the diameter is twice the diameter of small intestine. It extends from small intestine to cloaca. It helps to maintain water balance by water absorption. Cloaca:

It is the bulbous/enlarged area located at the end of large intestine. It is also known as common sewer because it receives the openings from digestive system, reproductive system and urinary system.Vent: External opening of the cloaca is known as vent and its size is variable depending upon the productivity of the birds.ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:There are three types of accessory digestive glands which play a vital role in the process of digestion.Salivary Glands:

This gland is responsible for production of saliva. The saliva has following functions.

1. Saliva causes the lubrication of the feed.2. Saliva has a enzyme known as salivary amylase or ptyalin. It is responsible for the

break down of glycosidic linkage and thus it splits carbohydrates molecule. This enzyme acts on starch and converts into maltose.

3. Saliva acts as a buffer because it contains bicarbonate and other salts.4. It also helps in tasting the feed.5. It protects the mucous membrane and keeps it moist.6. It helps regulate the body temperature.7. Saliva contain enzyme known as muramidase which is bacteriosidal in nature and

thus it produces the local immunity. Pancrease:

Pancrease produces a pancreatic juice having a ph of 6.9 and is released in the distal end of the loop of duodenum.Composition of Pancreatic juice: Pancreatic juice contains four kinds of enzymes. Proteolytic Enzymes: There are five different kinds of proteolytic enzymes.

1. Trypsinogen 2. Chymotrypsinogen A3. Chymotrypsinogen B4. Procarboxy peptidase A5. Procarboxy peptidase BThese enzymes are responsible for the break down of protein molecules into simpler units. Lipolytic Enzyme: a) Phospholipase b) pancreatic lipasec) Cholesterol esterase The first two enzymes are responsible for the break down of lipids while third enzyme is responsible for esterification of cholesterol.Carbohydrate splitting Enzymes:a) Pancreatic amylase b) InvertasePancreatic amylase acts on the starch and converts it into simpler units while invertase acts on the sucrose and convert them into simpler sugars.Nucleolytic Enzymes:


18

There are two kinds of nucleolytic enzymes.a) Ribonuclease b) DeoxyribonucleaseBesides enzymes pancreatic juice also contains cations and anions. Cations: Na+, K+, Mg++, etc.These act as buffer, cofactors, and osmotic regulators.Anions: HCO3These act as buffer and osmotic regulators.LIVER:

Liver is a bilobed structure and it perform a variety of functions.1. After the digestion of feed the feed is taken up by the villi of small intestine

which then enters in the hepatic portal circulation and mobilized towards the liver. The feed is detoxified by the liver and then distribute to the entire body.

2. It also act as a store house for the vitamins and carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen.

3. The liver is responsible for the formation plasma protein like albumin and globulin.

4. It activates and inactivates the protein and peptide hormones.5. Liver is a site for the destruction of old RBCs which ultimately leads to the

formation of bile, which is responsible for the emulsification of the fat.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME PRODUCTION AND ACTIVATION:The activities of gastrointestinal tract are controlled by nervous system and endocrine system. In case of nervous system autonomic nervous is responsible for controlling the activity of gastrointestinal tract. This system has two parts.

1. Parasympathetic nervous system.2. Sympathetic nervous system.

The parasympathetic nervous system activates the gastrointestinal tract while sympathetic nervous system activates as well as deactivates the gastrointestinal tract.When the feed enter the oral cavity, the visual stimuli, smell and taste stimulate the

parasympathetic which ultimately leads to the production saliva. Similarly when feed enters the Proventriculus the walls are stretched leading to the release of a hormone known as gastric juice when the feed enters small intestine the duodenum produces the secretin which stimulate the pancrease to produce pancreatic juice. In response to the fats, the duodenum produces another hormone known as cholycystokinin, which causes the stimulation of gall bladder and the release of bile. ACTIVATION OF ENZYMES:

The enzyme present in the gastric juice i.e. pepsinogen is stimulated by HCl or pepsin into the active form known as pepsin. The proteolytic enzymes present in the pancreatic juice are released in inactive form the

trypsinogen is activated by another enzyme known as enterokinase, which is released from duodenum

Carboxy peptidase ← Procarboxy Peptide Enterokinase → trypsinogen → trypsin↑↓ Chymotrypsin← Chymotrypsinogen Regulation of Feeding:

There are different factors affecting the regulation of feeding in birds which are as followings.

1. Size2. Sex/gender of the bird3. Age of the bird 4. Body temperature & ambient temperature5. Activity 6. Reproductive stage7. Appearance and taste of feed8. Energy contents of feed.

Composition of Intestinal Juice:Intestinal juice is composed of following.

1. Peptidase (Erepsin)2. Sucrase (invertase)


19

3. Maltase4. Lactose 5. Nucleotidase6. Polynucleotidase

Mechanism of Hunger:There are two systems or centres located in the

brain or liver which controls the feeding behaviour of animals.1. Statiey centre 2. Appetite centre

The stimulation of statiety centre leads to the ceasation of feed in take and is activated by the elevated level of glucose in the blood. This centre is located in the liver of the chicken while in other animals it is located in the brain. This centre is also known as glucostatiey centre.

Appetite Centre:The stimulation of this centre results in feed intake or

hunger. This center is stimulated by low concentration of glucose in the blood. This is located in the brain.


20

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMRespiratory system comprise of

i. Nasal openingii. Nasal passage

iii. Tracheaiv. Bronchi (bronchus)v. Lungs

vi. Air sacsThe respiratory system of birds is entirely different from that of mammals in the following aspects.

1. The tracheal rings are complete in case of birds while incomplete in the mammals.2. The organ of phonation (syrinyx) is located at the bifurcation of trachea rather

than near pharynx.3. The lungs are fixed in position and can not contract and expand in the respiration

while in mammals the reverse is true.4. Air sacs are present in the birds while absent in case of mammals. The air sacs are

extended to the bones known as pneumatic bones. These structures have the ability to contract and expand with respiration.

5. Diaphragm is absent in birds while it is present in case of mammals. TRACHEA:

Trachea conducts the air from nasal cavity and mouth to the bronchus or bronchi in addition it also causes the warming and moisturing of air as well as it also causes the screening of dust and foreign material. Thus it also provides the local immunity by filtering or screening the dust particles with the help of cilia and mucous as well as production of immunoglobin (Ig A) thus are antibodies.The trachea after entering into the body bifurcates into two structures known as bronchi (Right bronchus, left bronchus).BRONCHI: Bronchial system of bird consists of three orders of branching before the gas exchange units are reached.

1. Primary bronchus2. Secondary bronchus3. Tertiary bronchus (Para bronchi)4. Peri perabronchial mental

PRIMARY BRONCHI:The primary bronchus arises from the bifurcation

trachea. It has two parts.a) Extra pulmonary primary bronchusb) Intra pulmonary primary bronchus

The part of the bronchus outside the lung is known as extra pulmonary primary bronchus while the part within lungs is known as intra pulmonary primary bronchus.Primary bronchus is made up of circular cartilage rings and has a well developed layer of

smooth muscles which control the diameter or size of the bronchus.SECONDARY BRONCHI:

The bronchus arising from the primary bronchus is known as secondary bronchus. In most of the birds secondary bronchi are arranged into four groups.

a) Medioventralb) Mediodorsalc) Lateroventral d) Laterodorsal

The cervical, clavicular, and cranial thoracic air sacs arise from the medioventral group of secondary bronchi while caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs are derived from mediodorsal and lateroventral group of secondary bronchi.TERTIARY BRONCHI:

The tertiary bronchi (Para bronchi) are derived from the multiple ramifications of secondary bronchi. These are long narrow tubes that display a high degree of anastmosis. The parabronchi give rise to a specific structure known as atria which is out pocketing on the surface of Para bronchi. The atria give rise to


21

extensions known as infundibuli. The infundibuli gives rise to final extensions known as air capillaries.The atria, infundibuli, and air capillaries collectively leads to the formation of a gas

exchange unit peri Para bronchial mental. The blood capillaries make close contact with peri para bronchial mental and thus the exchange of gases takes place between the blood present in the blood capillaries and air present in the air capillaries. In most of the birds two kinds of Para bronchi are present.

1. Paleopulmonic Para bronchi 2. Neopulmonic para bronchi

The Para bronchi located towards the cranium air sacs are known as paleopulmonic para bronchi while those located towards the posterior or caudal air sacs are known as neopulmonic para bronchi.AIR SACS:

The birds have 9 air sacs.Two cervical One clavicularTwo anterior thoracic/ cranialTwo posterior thoracic/ caudalTwo abdominal The air sacs are the continuation of the secondary bronchi. Air sacs are made up of thin

walled structure which comprise of simple squamous epithelium and a thin layer of connective tissue. The walls of air sacs are poorly vascularized (poor blood supply) due to which non significant exchange of gas takes place. The air sacs are extended to certain bones and make them pneumatic in nature. The air sacs are extended to the cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, humerus, pelvis, head, and body of femur. The air sacs are responsible for providing the space during the respiratory cycle and there by function to increase the pulmonary ventilation.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:The respiratory mechanism is composed of two processes.

1. Inspiration2. Expiration

Inspiration or Inhalation:The inspiration is a process during which the air is

taken up by the bird and process in the lungs. This process is active process because it consumes energy while in case of mammals this process is passive.Expiration or Exhalation:

The discharge or removal of air into the environment is known as expiration or exhalation. This process is passive in nature in birds while active in case of mammals. As the birds are lacking in diaphragm but so the process of respiration depends upon thoracic, abdominal, and cervical muscles. During the process of inspiration the inspiratory muscles contract ultimately leading to the increase in internal abdominal thoracic volume and pressure decreases.Due to this process the pressure in the air sacs is reduced and air from external

environment moves towards the air sacs through neopulmonic para bronchi while towards cranial air sacs through paleopulmonic para bronchi. During the process of respiration the exchange of gases takes place in the mental of neopulmonic para bronchi and paleopulmonic para bronchi. The oxygen moves towards the blood from air capillaries while carbon dioxide moves towards the air capillaries from gut. The exchange of gases depends upon the difference of partial pressure of particular gas either in air capillaries or blood stream present in the blood capillaries. The blood capillaries and peri para bronchial mental are arranged in a specific type of

arrangement known as cross current arrangement. In this type of arrangement the air capillaries and blood capillaries are present at right angle to each other due to which maximum exchange of gases takes place by diffusion. In the process of respiration the respiratory muscles contract leading to an increase in the

intra thoracoabdominal pressure which ultimately generates the pressure on air sacs thus leading to expiration of inhaled air. The air present in the caudal air sacs is passed through the neopulmonic para bronchi. The air then enters the cranial air sacs while the air present in the cranial air sacs is removed and the air entering from the caudal air sacs is removed during the second respiratory cycle.THERMOREGULATION:


22

The birds like mammals are homeothermic in nature because they tend to maintain the temperature of deeply seated organs like brain, liver, heart, intestine etc. In homeothermic animals the amount of heat produced by the muscular exercise and metabolic activity like oxidation of glucose is equal to the amount of heat loss from the animal to its environment. The heat is lost to the environment by the process

a) Radiation b) Conduction c) Convectiond) Evaporation/panting

Radiation:The heat exchanged by the radiation involves the transfer of heat

by electromagnetic wave and consist of heat transfer within both the visible and infrared portion of spectrum.

Conduction:Loss of heat by this process involves the direct transfer of heat

from the animal body surface to the air. The loss of heat by the process of conduction is very low because the thermal conductivity of skin and subcutaneous tissue is also low.

Convection:Heat loss by the process of convection takes place due to direct

contact of air or any other material with skin of animal. The heat loss by this process depends upon the velocity of air as well as the temperature of air. The heat loss by this process also depends upon the surface area of body in contact with air.

Evaporation\panting:The birds do not contain the sweat glands due to

which the loss of heat from skin by the form of evaporation is not possible. On the other hand the heat loss occur by evaporation from the most lining of respiratory tract as well as the tongue.


23

CIRCULATORY PHYSIOLIGY AND BLOOD FUNCTIONS

Following are the components of circulatory system.1. Heart 2. Blood vessels3. Blood

HEART:Heart is located in the thoracic cavity slightly towards the left side of

medial line and ventral to the lungs. The heart is of birds is like that of mammals is composed of four chambers including two atria and ventricles.The upper two chambers of heart are known as atria while the lower two are known as

ventricles. The right atrium is larger as compared to left one in case of birds. The atria has opening into the ventricles which are closed by the atrioventricular valve.The left valve is thin membranous and bicuspid while the right valve is simply muscular

flap. The valve of the aorta and pulmonary arteries are like those in mammals. The inner side of the heart is covered with a thin membrane known as endocardium. The valve of heart is known as myocardium and it consist of cardiac muscles. The outer surface of heart is known as epicardium. Muscles of ventricles are thick as compared to the muscles atria. The heart is enclosed in a sheath or sac like structure known as pericardium or pericardial sac. The pericardium contains special type of fluid which acts as lubricant and decreases the friction during the process of contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.

FUNCTIONS OF HEART COMPONENTS:

The right atrium receives the blood from the whole body with the help of vana cava and it is deoxygenated in nature. The contraction of right atrium pumps the blood into the right ventricle. The blood from the right ventricle is drained into the lungs with the help of pulmonary artery. It also contains the deoxygenated blood. After the oxygenation of blood in the lungs the blood is taken up by the pulmonary veins drained into the left atrium. The contraction of left atrium pumps the blood into left ventricle. The contraction of left ventricle pumps the blood into the whole body with the help of aorta (the largest artery in the body).

Terminologies Used in Cardiovascular Physiology:

Blood Pressure:The pressure which is exerted by the blood against the blood

vessels during the process of circulation is known as blood pressure and it is of two types.1. Systolic pressure2. Diastolic pressure

Systolic Pressure: The pressure which is developed by the contraction of ventricles

is known as systolic pressure and it is higher than diastolic pressure.Diastolic Pressure:

The pressure which is developed by the contraction atria or relaxation of ventricles is known as diastolic pressure.Heart Beat:

The contraction and relaxation of the heart is known as heart beat.Pulse:

The rhythmic expansion and contraction of the arteries is known as pulse and is equal to the heart beat.Blood Vessels:

The cardiovascular system is made up of three types of blood vessels which are known as follows.

1. Artery 2. Vein3. Capillary


24

Artery: It is a type of blood vessels which take the oxygenated blood mostly and

distribute the blood to the whole body. The only exception is present in the artery which contains the deoxygenated blood. The arteries are located in the depth of the body and have a pulse. The smaller arteries which are developed by the bifurcation of larger arteries are known as arterioles which ultimately lead leads to the formation of capillaries.The major arteries of the birds are as follows.

i. Carotid artery takes blood towards brain.ii. Renal artery carries the blood to the kidneys.

iii. Testicular artery takes blood to the gonads.iv. Coronary artery takes blood to the walls of heart e.g. myocardium.v. Aorta major artery originates from heart.

Vein:The vessels which drain the blood from whole body into the heart are known as

veins. These are located on the superficial surface of the body and do not possess the pulse. Mostly they contain deoxygenated blood but the exception is present in the pulmonary vein which contains oxygenated blood. These vessels are formed by the union of capillaries which lead to the formation of vevvles. These vevvles then unite to form the large vessels known as veins. Major veins are as follows.

i. Coronary vein it drain the blood from heart walls e.g. myocardium.ii. Jugular vein takes blood from brain to heart.

iii. Renal vein collects blood from kidney. iv. Vana cava major vein that pours the blood into the heart.

Capillaries: The capillaries are the smallest blood vessels found everywhere in the

body. They are microscopic in vision. They are derived from multiple divisions of arterioles. The valves of capillaries are made up of single cell. The blood flow very slow in these vessels and exchange of gases as well as nutrient and waste product takes place with the help of capillary by the process of diffusion or active transport. There are two types of capillaries.

i. Porous ii. Non porous

Porous: They possess pours in their structure via which exchange of gases and nutrients takes place.Non porous: They do not possess pours in their structure and found in brain and testes leading to blood brain and blood barrier respectively.BLOOD:

Blood is a special type of fluid in circulatory system and performs the following vital functions.

1. Absorb the nutrients from small intestine and transport them to the organs of the body.

2. Remove the waste products from the organs and transport them to the kidney.3. Help to regulate the body temperature by dissipation of heat.4. Regulate the water content of intracellular and extra cellular fluid.5. Transport the gases as oxygen from lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from

tissues to the lungs with the help of plasma and hemoglobin.6. Hormones secreted by endocrine glands are transported with the help of blood

towards target tissues. Blood is 12% of body weight at 1st week of age and decreases to 7.5 % at the age of 16 weeks and further decreases to 6.5 % at the age of 52 weeks. Blood is composed of two components.

i. Plasmaii. Blood cells

PLASMA: It is the fluid portion of the blood and it contains about 90% water.

Remaining 90% portion of plasma is made up of mineral and biochemical product like glucose, protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, LDL and HDL. It acts as a vehicle for the cellular portion of blood as well as for other substances.By: Mr. Zaib-Ur-RehmanLecturerPoultry Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

25

TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS:

RED BLOOD CELLS/ ERYTHROCYTES/ RBCs: The first kind of blood

cells is red blood cells or erythrocyte. Erythrocytes are oval shape and nucleated in case of poultry. The erythrocytes utilize the energy or glucose by aerobic glycolysis instead of anaerobic glycolysis as in case of mammals.

Functions of Erythrocytes:1. They carry the heamoglobin.2. They transport the oxygen and carbon dioxide to the body tissue and lungs

respectively.3. The haemoglobin present in the erythrocytes also acts as a buffer because it is

protein in nature.4. The erythrocytes help to wash the foreign antigen from the body.5. They carry the receptors or antigens responsible for the presentation of blood

groups. The size of erythrocytes is larger in birds as compared to the mammals. The mature erythrocyte is 12.8μm long, 6.9μm wide and 3.6μm thick. The number of RBCs varies with age as well as the gender of the bird. In adult males the number of RBCs is 3.8 million/mm3 while in adult female it is 3.0million per cubic mm.Formation and destruction of RBCs:

The RBCs are derived the stem cells of haemopoietic system present in the bone marrow of the bones. The developmental stages of RBCs or erythrocytes are as follows.

1. Early erythroblasts 2. Late erythroblasts3. Early polychromatic erythrocytes4. Mid polychromatic erythrocytes5. Late polychromatic erythrocytes6. Reticulocytes7. Mature erythrocytes

The mature RBCs are released in the blood stream while same proportions of cells are also stored in the spleen which releases the cells under emergency conditions. The average life span of the RBCs in is 28 days.The RBCs are released from the bone marrow under the action of a hormone known as erythropoietin which is released by the kidney.After the completion of life cycle the RBCs undergo the process of lysis or destruction resulting in the release of free haemoglobin. This haemoglobin is taken up by the macrophages or monocytes. These cells break the haemoglobin into haem and globin. Haem is then released into the circulation and taken up by the special type of protein known as feratin. The protein transports the iron or haem to the bone marrow where it helps to synthesize the new molecules of haemoglobin. The globin which is the protein part of haemoglobin is processed by the macrophages resulting in the formation of biliverdin. This by product is further processed leading the formation of bilirubin. The bilirubin is then released into the circulation and taken up by the liver. From the liver it is transported to the gall bladder and it is incorporated in the bile already present in the gall bladder.White Blood Cells/Leukocytes:On the basis of granules the WBCs are classified as

i. Granulocytesii. Agranulocytes

GRANULOCYTES: These cells possess granules in their cytoplasm so these are

known as granulocytes. These are as followsi. Hetrophils

ii. Eosinophils


26

iii. Basophils HETROPHILS:

These cells are also designated as polymorphonuclear pseudoeosinophils. While in case of mammals the cells are known as nuetrophils because the granules present in the cytoplasm are bright reddish in colour. The granules present in the Hetrophils contain the enzyme which is lethal for the bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Heterophils contain the following enzymes.

1) Hydrogen peroxidase2) Collagiase

Hydrogen peroxidase is lethal for microorganism while collagenase help to enhance the activity of heterophils . In addition to these enzymes heterophils also contain iron binding protein known as lacto ferrin .This protein binds the iron and thus inhibit the growth of microbes.These cells are usually round in shape having a diameter of approximately 10-15 um.The nucleus of the cell is the polymorphic in shape and contain lobules.The heterophils are 27.8% of the total leukocytes.These cells play a vital role in the early phase of the disease.

EOSINOPHIL: These cells are also known as polymorphonuclear eosinophil. The granules present in the eosinophil are dull red in colour compared to bright red colour of heteropils. The size of these cells is comparable to that of hetriphils and they are 1.5% of total leukocytes. The granules present contain enzyme known as histaminases which takes part in the activation of histamine which is the inflammatory mediator in allergic reactions. The Eosinophils play a vital role in the development of immunity against the parasitic diseases.BASOPHILS:The basophils contain the granules which are dark blue in colour. The granules contain histamine, serotonin, bradykinin, lysosomal enzymes. These substances take part in the development of inflammation as well as immunity. These cells enhance the allergic reaction. The size of the cell is equal to that of heterophils and they are 2.7% of total leukocytes. AGRANULOCYTESThose cells which are devoid of granules are known as agranulocytes. Agranulocytes are of two kinds which are as follows.

i. Lymphocytesii. Monocytes

LYMPHOCYTES:The lymphocytes constitute the majority of the leukocytes. They are ⅔ of the total leukocytes in the population. Morphologically the lymphocytes are classified as small and large lymphocytes. Large lymphocytes represent the immature cells and contain more cytoplasm. While the small lymphocytes are mature cells and contain scanty cytoplasm. The nucleus is round in the shape and has intendations. The lymphocytes are involved in the new response and on the basis they are classified as.

i. T-lymphocytesii. B-lymphocytes

T-LYMPHOCYTES:T-lymphocytes are produced from the thymus gland and these are involved in cell mediated immunity. In this type of immunity large numbers of t-lymphocytes are produced in response to the infection which takes part in the clearance of the infection.There are three types of t-lymphocytes.

i. Cytotoxin t-cellii. T helper cells

iii. Memory t- cellsCYTOTOXIN T CELLS: These cells are also known as killer cells because these cells are attached to the infection organism and produce the certain cytotoxic. These substances are lethal for the infection organism which will lead to the destruction of infectious organism.T-HELPER CELLS: These are the most numerous of all t-lymphocytes. These cells help in the activation of cytotoxic cells.MEMORY T-CELLS: Memory cells are long lived and respond to the same infectious microorganism. When the birds are exposed to the same microorganism later in the form of cytotoxic t-cells.


27

B-LYMPHOCYTES:B-lymphocytes are produced in the bursa of fabrecius.

After the exposure to the antigen (any pathogenic nature material for body). The B-cells are activated by the polyferate and change into the plasma cells and memory cells.PLASMA CELLS: The plasma cells are responsible for formation of antibodies against the antigen and thus they kill the antigen. The immunity produced by the B-lymphocytes is known as humeral immunity.B-MEMORY CELLS : The function of these cells is similar to that of T-cells. When these cells are rexposed to the same antigen they are changed into plasma cells and produce antibodies.MONOCYTES:

Monocytes are the largest leukocytes. These cells have the ability to engulf the bacteria, virus, and other antigen present in the blood. When these cells are moved to the tissue they are known as macrophages. The macrophages in the liver are known as kuffer cells, in the spleen known as splenic macrophages and in the lungs they are known as alveolar macrophages.THROMBOCYTES (PLATELESS):

These cells take part in the clotting of blood and thus prevent the loss of blood from the injured site. These cells are derived from the erythrocytes in which the process of haemoglobinization i.e. formation of haemoglobin is failed.


28

RENAL PHYSIOLOGYCOMPONENTS OF RENAL SYSTEM:

i. Paired kidneyii. Ureters

iii. Cloaca/ventFUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY:

i. To filter the blood and removal of waste products.ii. Reabsorption of useful material such as electrolyte and excessive amount of

water. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY:

1. Two types of nephron (one is mammalian nephron and other is reptilian nephron).

2. Renal portal system.3. Uric acid (in mammals urine is made up of urea while in case of birds it is

composed of crystals of uric acid).4. Post renal urine modification.

Anatomical feature of the kidney: The avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the pelvis. The each kidney is divided into three lobes.

i. Cranial lobeii. Middle lobe

iii. Caudal lobeThe each lobe is further subdivided into small lobules. The ureters originate from each kidney and carry the urine from the kidneys to the cloaca. The kidney is made up of two parts. The middle part is known as medulla while outer portion is known as cortex. The basic functional and structural unit of kidney is known as nephron which is made up of different components.NEPHRON STRUCTURE:Nephron is made up of following parts.

i. Glomerulusii. Bowwmann’s capsule

iii. Proximal convoluted tubulesiv. Loop of henlev. Distal convoluted tubule

vi. Collecting ductvii. Vasa rectaThe tuft of capillaries is known as glumerulus which is encapsulated or enclosed by glomerulus capsule also known as bowmann’s capsule. The blood is filtered by the glomerulus and the filtrate is taken up by the bowmann’s capsule. The filtrate is made up of waste products as well as the useful products such as water and electrolyte. The filtrate from the bowmann’s capsule is passed down to the proximal convoluted tubules, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule and then ultimately to the collecting ducts while passing through the tubular portion of the nephron the useful substances from the filtrate are taken up by the network of capillaries which surrounds the nephron. The network of capillaries is known as vasa recta.TYPES OF NEPHRONS:

The avian kidneys are characterized by the presence of two kinds of nephrons.

i. Reptilian nephronii. Mammalian nephron

In case of reptilian nephron the loop of henle is absent due to which less quantity of water is reabsorbed by the nephron and thus they failed to concentrate the urine. These nephrons are located in the cortex of the kidney. In contrast to reptilian nephron, the mammalian nephron is capable of concentrating the urine because they possess the loop of henle. These nephrons are located in the medulla of the kidney.Depending upon the need of water conservation the avian kidneys can alternatively use the reptilian and mammalian type nephrons according to the demand of water. When both are functional 25% filtrate comes from mammalian type while 75% comes from reptilian nephrons.RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM:By: Mr. Zaib-Ur-RehmanLecturerPoultry Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

29

The unique feature of avian kidney is the presence of renal portal system which carries the inner portal blood to the kidney. The renal portal blood is the veinous blood that comes to the kidney from hind limbs, through the external iliac and sciatic vein. The renal portal system supplies 1\2 to 2\3 of the blood to the kidney.PRESENCE OF URIC ACID:

The urine of birds is made up of uric acid instead of urea which is the metabolic products of proteins and amino acids. It is the least toxic protein by product which can be excreted with minute quantities of water. The uric acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the most toxic protein metabolic by product.POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION:After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograte flow or backward flow of urine into the colon. In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as sodium ion takes place.

HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION:There are three hormones which take part in the formation of urine.

i. Angiotensin ׀׀ii. Aldosterone

iii. ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)Angiotensin hormone ׀׀ is responsible for natriuresis and diuresis along with antinatriuresis and antidiuresis according to the need of water conservation.Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the filtrate.ANP is released from the atrium of heart and is responsible for natriuresis as well as diuresis in case of birds.

MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION:Ultra filtration: It is a process which takes place under the pressure and results in the filtration of blood, within the glomerulus.Active Tubular Reabsorption: This process is characterized by the active reabsorption of useful substances from the filtrate in the tubular portion of the nephron.Excretion: The process of excretion involves the removal of uric acid from the body of bird.

REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGYMale Reproductive Physiology: The reproductive organs are made up of primary and secondary\accessory reproductive organs. Primary Reproductive Organs:

Like that of mammals the primary reproductive organs are testes in the birds and located within the body cavity of the birds which is in contrast with those of mammals. In this position or location they are able to function at higher body temperature of birds. The internal structure of testes is made up of seminiferous tubules, sertoli cells and lay dig cells. The seminiferous tubules are lined with a special type of cells which are responsible for spermatogenesis. It is a process in which the immature cells i.e. spermatocytes is developed to the mature cells known as spermatozoa or sperm cells. These are haploid cells. The sertoli cells are responsible for the nourishment of spermatocytes and spermatozoa. While on the other hand lay dig cells are responsible for the formation of male hormone or androgenic hormone known as testosterone. Thus they play a vital role in the synthesis of androgenic hormone as well as formation of spermatozoa.Secondary\Accessory Reproductive Organs:

i. Vas efferentia ii. Short epididymal duct

iii. Vasa deferntia iv. Ejaculatory ductv. Phallus

The secondary reproductive organs are made up of tubular structure which is responsible for the transportation of sperm from testes to the exterior of the body. The sperms are stored in the terminal portion of the Vasa deferntia which becomes enlarge due to storage By: Mr. Zaib-Ur-RehmanLecturerPoultry Science, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

30

of semen.Semen:

This is a fluid like secretion of which is composed of two portions.i. Cellular portion

ii. Fluid portion The cellular portion of the semen is made up of sperm cells while the fluid portion is made up of seminal plasma which is derived from the seminiferous tubule as well as vasa efferentia. The seminal plasma is responsible for nourishment of stored sperms as well as it provides transportation medium for the sperms. The average volume of semen which is ejaculated at a time is about 0.5 ml and it contains 4 billions sperms per ml of the semen.At the time mating semen is released into the ejaculatory groove and with the help of phallus it is ejaculated outside the body.

Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System:Like other system male reproductive system is also influenced by the hormonal system. The pituitary hormone is responsible for controlling the activity of primary reproductive organs. These hormones are LH (luteinizing hormone) FSH (follicle stimulating hormone). The LH acts on the leydig cells to promote their development and testosterone production while on the other hand FSH acts on the sertoli cells as well as cells of the seminiferous tubules thus promote the formation of spermatozoa or sperms.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM & EGG FORMATION:The female reproductive system is made up of primary reproductive organs as well as the secondary reproductive organs. Primary reproductive organs include the ovary while the secondary reproductive organs include the oviduct. At the time of maturity only the left ovary as well as the oviduct is developed and become functional while the right ovary and oviduct are regressed. Ovary is responsible for the formation of ovum which is analogous to sperm cells in female.OVIDUCT:

The oviduct is a long convoluted duct or tube through which the ovum is moved and where the albumin, shell membrane and shell formation takes place. The oviduct consists of five different parts and its length is variable from 70-80cm and it also depends upon the size of the bird. The part of the oviduct is as follows.

a) Infundibulumb) Magnumc) Isthmusd) Uteruse) Vagina

Infundibulum: Infundibulum is a funnel shaped structure and approximately 9cm in length in the laying hen. This portion is responsible for the engulfment of the ovum at the time of ovulation. The developing ovum is mature within 9-10days. During this growth period the yolk material is laid down in the form of concentric rings around the ovum. At the completion of maturity, the ovum along with yolk is released from the ovary and this phenomenon is known as ovulation. It is also acting as a site for the fertilization of ovum. The egg or ovum is remained in this portion for 15minutes.Magnum: The ovum then passes to the next portion of the oviduct known as magnum. It is the largest portion of the oviduct which measures approximately 33 cm. It is a site for the formation of egg protein which is known as albumen. The albumen is made up of different types of proteins such as mucin, globulin and albumin. There are no distinct layers of albumin in the laid egg. It takes 3 hours for the formation of albumen.Chalaziferous layer: which is attached to the yolk and it is 2.7% of the total albumen.Inner liquid layer: It is 16.8% of the total albumen.Dense thick layer: It is 50% of the total albumen.Outer thin layer/ Fluid layer: The rest of albumen is found in this portion.The inner layer of the albumen leads to the formation of extensions which are attached with the shell membrane. These extensions are known as chaliza. It is responsible for binding the yolk as well as developing embryo in the centre of the egg so that the divisions of the embryo so that developing embryo should not be adhere to shell membrane. The yolk is deposited around the ovum in the ovary via blood deposition of yolk into the ovum terminals about 24 hours before ovulation. Egg yolk is a complex mixture of water, lipid, protein and other components which are present in small amounts


31

such as vitamins and minerals. The yolk is the only source of nutrition for the development of embryo.Isthmus: The movement of the magnum forces the ovum into the isthmus. This region is approximately 9 cm in length and the line of demarcation between the isthmus and magnum is very clear or distinct. The folds present in this region are less and small in size. This region is responsible for the formation of shell membrane as well as it also incorporate small amount of water to the egg albumin. The shell membrane formed in this region are paired and these are known as inner shell membrane and outer shell membrane and these membranes are made up of a network of protein fibers and keratin. The egg remains in this portion for about one and half hour. The shell membranes are attached to the shell except at the broader end of the egg where this separate to form air space.Uterus (Shell Gland): The uterus is the pouch like portion of the oviduct and is about 10-12 cm in length in the laying hen. The walls of the uterus are thick and muscular and they contain specific gland known as shell gland which is responsible for the formation of the shell of the egg. In addition to shell formation the uterus is also responsible for production of fluid known as uterine fluid which is incorporated into the albumin via shell membranes. Similarly it also produces the shell pigment if they are present. The egg remains in this portion for 20 hours. During this period of formation of egg shell takes place which is mainly made up of calcium carbonate, phosphorus, magnesium and small amounts of sodium and potassium. The calcium and phosphorus are derived from the mobilization of these minerals from the bones.Vagina: This portion is isolated from the uterus by uterovaginal sphincter and it is about 12 cm in length. The egg remains in this portion for about 1 minute and then egg is expelled out of the body through vent. This structure is responsible for the transport of egg outside of the body as well as storage of the sperm cells in sperm host glands.


32

NEUROMUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGYNERVOUS PHYSIOLOGY:

The basic functional as well as structural unit of the nervous system is known as neuron and it is made up of different parts which are as follows.

a) Cell bodyb) Dendritesc) Axon

The cell body is made up of nucleus and containing cytoplasm in which different cellular organelles are present as mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi apparatus etc. dendrites and the axons are the extensions of the cell body. The dendrites are the processes or extensions which conduct the impulse or signals towards another neuron. Axon is a process which conducts the impulses from the cell body. The axon is also known as nerve fiber and it might be covered or uncovered with a membrane known as myelin sheath. The axon is also surrounded by specialized cells known as schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system while oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. Both type of cells are responsible for the production of myelin sheath around the axon which acts as insulating membrane or sheath. These cells as well as the myelin sheath are interrupted along the length of the axon and these interrupted areas are known as node of ranvier. It is a site for the exchange of ions across the axon and extracellular fluid. On the basis of polarity of neuron (number of processes or extensions extended from the neuron or cell body) these can be classified into three different types which are as follows.

a. Bipolar neuronsb. Pseudounipolar neuronsc. Multipolar neurons.

Bipolar neurons: The neuron which possesses single axon and single dendritic process are known as bipolar neuron.Pseudounipolar neurons: The neuron which contains a single axon and a single dendritic process which are fused together before entering the cell body giving the appearance of one process is known as pseudounipolar neuron.Multipolar neurons: The neuron which possesses branching dendrites or multiple numbers of dendrites and a single axon is known as multipolar neuron. It is the most numerous type of neuron present in the central nervous system.Synapse: The junction between two neurons is known as synapse. There is no physical contact of the neurons at the synapse rather a space exists between the neurons which is known as synaptic gutter/gap and the impulses from one to another neuron via synaptic gutter takes place with the help of chemical substances which are known as neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine.

CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEMThe nervous system is classified as central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves originating from brain and spinal cord and these are known as cranial nerves and spinal nerves respectively.Nerves are parallel arrangement of the axons outside of the central nervous while inside the central nervous system it is known as tract/fasicles. There is another classification of the nervous system which is based upon the activity of the nervous system. According to the activity of the nervous system can be classified as autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system.AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMThe autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system, which controls the involuntary nervous activity of the body such as the activities of the gastrointestinal tract, reproductive system, urinary system activities of glands etc. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into two parts.

a. Parasympathetic nervous systemb. Sympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system causes the activities of gastrointestinal tract that means it increases the motility of as well as secretion of the gastrointestinal tract. In contrast to this system the sympathetic nervous system inactivates or decreases the motility of the as well as the secretion of the gastrointestinal tract. The neurotransmitter


33

of the peripheral nervous system is known as acetylcholine while that of sympathetic nervous system the neurotransmitters are known as epinephrine, which is also known as adrenaline and norepinephrine, which is also known as noradrenaline.SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEMIt is also the part of the peripheral nervous system and it controls the voluntary activity of the body such as the movement of skeletal muscles.

NERVE IMPULSE AND ITS TRANSMISSIONNerve Impulse: It is a transmission of the signals or information in the form of electrical charges along the length of the nerve fiber from one neuron to another neuron or from neuron to the effecter organ or from effecter organ to the neuron.Transmission of Impulse:Under normal or resting condition the net charges outside membrane is positive as compared to inside the membrane so the resulting net charges inside the membrane will be negative. The positive charge outside the membrane is due to the excessive amount of Na+ while the negative charge inside membrane is due to the excessive amount of K+ ions. This type of charging is known as resting membrane potential. Any type of alteration in the charges will lead to the development of action membrane potential, which results in the propagation of nerve impulse. The disturbance in the charges inside and outside the membrane is called the action membrane potential. The action membrane potential or nerve impulse can be generated in response to electrical stimuli, chemical, thermal, and mechanical stimuli.

MUSCULAR PHYSIOLOGYThe body of the animals as well as human being is made up of two types of muscles, which are known as voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles according to the activity. The voluntary muscles include skeletal muscles while involuntary muscles include cardiac and smooth muscles.SKELETAL MUSCLES: The skeletal muscles are classified into three types.

a. Red/dark skeletal musclesb. White skeletal musclesc. Intermediate colors skeletal muscles

The skeletal muscles are responsible for controlling the voluntary movement of the body. These are also known as striated muscles because they contain striations. The functional unit of skeletal muscle is two proteins that are known as actin filament and myosin filament. SMOOTH MUSCLES: The smooth muscles are involuntary muscles present in the gastrointestinal tract, blood vascular system etc. These muscles do not contain visible striations so they are known as non striated muscles.CARDIAC MUSCLES: The muscles of heart are known as cardiac muscles and these are also known as involuntary in nature. These are similar to that of skeletal muscles but the additional feature of the cardiac muscles is the presence of intercalated disc.NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTIONIt is a junction which is present between the nerve fiber and muscle fiber functionally as well as morphologically neuromuscular junction is similar to that of synapse. The neurotransmitter in this junction is acetylcholine. The information from the nerve fiber is transmitted via neuromuscular junction, which ultimately lead to the development of action membrane potential in the muscle fiber.


ps 101 itroduction to poultry production full course

Documents

poultry production poultry

marketing of poultry

term poultry

poultry farms

poultry structure

poultry manure

importance of poultry

successful poultry management