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Mahan Inf l ight Magazine

13 Persian Gardens

18 Travelogue

14 Introduction

22 Silk Routes

24 Heritage Sites

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February 2018 Mahan Inflight Magazine 13

The Persian Gardens exemplify the diversity of Persian garden designs that evolved and adapted to different climate conditions while retaining principles that have their roots in the times of Cyrus the Great, 6th century BC.Always divided into four sectors, with water playing an important role for both irrigation and ornamentation, the Persian garden was conceived to symbolize Eden and the four Zoroastrian elements of sky, earth, water and plants.These gardens also feature buildings, pavilions and walls,

as well as sophisticated irrigation systems. The tradition and style of garden design represented by Persian gardens has influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the Alhambra show the influence of Persian garden philosophy and style in a Moorish palace scale, from the era of al-Andalus in Spain. Humayun’s Tomb and Taj Mahal have some of the largest Persian gardens in the world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.

The Persian Gardens

There are nine Persian Gardens registered in the UNESCO 1. Ancient Garden of Pasargadae2. Eram Garden, Shiraz3. Chehel Sutun Garden, Isfahan4. Fin Garden, Kashan5. Abbas Abad Garden, Behshahr6. Shazdeh Garden, Kerman7. Dolat Abad Garden, Yazd8. Pahlavan Pour Garden, Mehriz9. Akbariyeh Garden, Birjand


February 2018 Mahan Inflight Magazine14

The bookMarco Polo owes his fame to a book which he wrote after his return. At the time, there was an intense rivalry between the great trading cities of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. The Venetian Polo and his co-author, Rusticiano of Pisa, were both prisoners of war in Genoa when they met and wrote the book. Book of the Marvels of the World or Description of the World, in Italian Il Milione (The Million), and in English commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue was written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories told by Marco Polo, describing Polo’s travels through Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences at the court of Kublai Khan.This was the first account of a journey to the East to be widespread in Europe, and was the best reference on Asia from its publication around 1300, until the Portuguese reached the East by sea 200 years later. Polo’s tales of the riches of the East were part of the reason for the Portuguese voyages, and later inspired Christopher Columbus. The book was the first in Europe to mention a number of things including oil from Iran, and coal, paper, money, and window glass from China. The book generally uses Persian names for places. What about the Mongol names? Or Chinese? What was lost in various translations? In various wars?

BackgroundNiccolò Polo (about 1230 – 1294), and Maffeo (about 1230 – 1309( were Italian traveling merchants best known as the father and uncle, respectively, of the explorer Marco Polo. The brothers went into business before Marco’s birth, established trading posts in Constantinople, Sudak in Crimea, and in a western part of the Mongol Empire in Asia. As a duo, they reached modern-day China before temporarily returning

The Travels of Marco Polo

Marco Polo was a Venetian traveler who went far to the East, following some of the many branches of the Silk Road. He left in 1271 and returned about 1295. His book about his travels was a best-seller then, and is still well-known 700 years later.

Niccolò and Maffeo Polo leaving Constantinople for the east, in 1259.

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March 2018 Mahan Inflight Magazine14



to Europe to deliver a message to the Pope. Taking Niccolò’s son Marco with them, the Polos then made another journey through Asia, which became the subject of Marco’s account "The Travels of Marco Polo".

First VoyageThe brothers set out from Constantinople (modern Istanbul( in 1260, and sailed across the Black Sea to Soldaia in the Crimea. Today the city is called Sudak and is in the Ukraine. Soldaia was a largely Greek city at that time and routinely traded with various Mediterranean ports.The two brothers lived in the Venetian quarter of Constantinople, where they enjoyed diplomatic immunity, political chances, and tax relief because of their country’s role in establishing the Latin Empire in the Fourth Crusade of 1204. However, the brothers judged the political situation of the city precarious, so they decided to transfer their business northeast to Soldaia, a city in Crimea, and left Constantinople in 1259 or 1260.On that time, the great trading cities of Genoa, Venice and Pisa dominated the Mediterranean world. One of the tourist sights of modern Sudak is the ruins of a Genoese fortress. When the Polos reached Soldaia, it was part of the newly formed Mongol state. Searching for better profits, the Polos continued their journey to Sarai.At that time, the city of Sarai was no more than a huge encampment, and the Polos stayed for about a year. Finally, they decided to avoid Crimea, because of a civil war between Berke and his cousin Hulagu or perhaps because of the bad relationship between Berke Khan and the Byzantine Empire. Instead, they moved further east to Bukhara, in modern-day Uzbekistan, where the family lived and traded for three years.

After they had passed the desert, they arrived at a very great and noble city called BOCARA... The city is the best in all Persia.... up till the conquest by Chinghiz, Bokhara, Samarkand, Balkh, etc., were considered to belong to Persia.

The Persian Empire was once much larger than modern Iran, including much of what we now call Central Asia. The brothers lived in Bukhara for three years and became fluent in Persian. In Bukhara, they learned that the Great Khan, Kublai- grandson of Genghis and, at least in theory, overlord of all Mongols- had never met a European and had expressed curiosity about and goodwill toward them. So they went on, traveling via Samarkand, Kashgar, Turfan, and Hami (the Northern branch of the Silk Road) to his summer capital in Xanadu somewhat Northwest of modern Beijing. In 1264, Niccolò and Maffeo joined up with an embassy sent by the Ilkhanate ruler, Hulagu to his brother Kublai Khan, both grandsons of Genghis Khan. In 1266, they reached the seat of Kublai Khan, the leader of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, at Dadu, present-day Beijing, China. In his book, Marco explains how Kublai Khan officially received the Polos and sent them back with a Mongol named Koeketei as an ambassador to the pope. They brought with them a letter from the Khan requesting 100 educated people to come and teach Christianity and Western customs to his people and oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulcher. The letter also contained the paiza, a golden tablet a foot long and 3 inches (7.6 cm) wide, allowing the holder to acquire and obtain lodging, horses, and food throughout the Kublai Khan’s dominion.The Khan also invited scholars and missionaries from other places — Tibetan Buddhists, and Persian Muslims — and those had a great effect on China.


March 2018 Mahan Inflight Magazine 15



The Brothers arrived at Acre in... 1269, and found that no Pope existed, for Clement IV was dead... and no new election had taken place. So they went home to Venice to see how things stood there after their absence of so many years.

The wife of Nicolo was no longer among the living, but he found his son Marco a fine lad of fifteen.

The long time between the death of Pope Clement IV, in 1268, and the election of the new pope in 1271 delayed the Polos’ attempts to fulfil Kublai’s request. The two brothers returned to Venice in 1269 or 1270, waiting for the nomination of the new pope. Here Niccolò met up with his son Marco, now fifteen or sixteen, who had been living with his aunt and another uncle in Venice since the death of his mother at a young age. On the second trip, the brothers brought young Marco along.

Second VoyageThe brothers went back to Acre, this time with young Marco, and then up to Jerusalem to get some oil from the Holy Sepulcher, which the Khan had requested. As soon as he was elected in 1271, Pope Gregory X (the former Theobald Visconti) received the letter from Kublai Khan, remitted by Niccolò and Maffeo. The two Polos (this time accompanied by the 17-year-old Marco Polo( returned to Mongolia, accompanied by two Dominican monks, Niccolò de Vicence and Guillaume de Tripoli. The two friars did not finish the voyage due to fear, but the Polos reached Kanbaliq and remitted the presents from the Pope to Kublai in 1274.

It is usually said that the Polos used the Northern Silk Road although the possibility of a southern route has been advanced.They went East overland, traveling by caravan and heading for Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. Today the city is gone, but the phrase “the straits of Hormuz” still turns up in newscasts. It is the narrows at the outlet of the Gulf. The nearest modern city is Bandar Abbas, capital of Iran’s Hormuzgan Province. Their route was indirect, setting out from the Mediterranean port of Laias, North to Armenia and Georgia, then to Mosul in what is now Iraq, then into Persia (now known as Iran( via Tabriz, Yazd and Kerman to Hormuz. The original plan was to take a ship East from Hormuz, but after reaching Hormuz they decided to swing North instead. Marco would later come to Hormuz by sea, taking the Maritime Silk Road on his return journey. The three men went back to Kerman and on to Persia’s Eastern province of Khorasan. This put them on the main Silk Road route. The branch they took involved going Northeast to Balkh, then Southeast toward Kashmir and finally North to reach Khotan in what is now Xinjiang. The major routes today are the Khyber Pass from Afghanistan into Pakistan and the Karakoram Highway North to China, but the Polos’ exact route is unclear. They may have taken lesser-known passes such as the route through Ladakh. The brothers had taken the Northern branch of the Silk Road around the Kalimakan Desert on the previous trip. This time, the first city they reached in what is now China was Khotan, in the middle of the Southern branch, so naturally they continued East on that branch.





Travels in ChinaThey reached the Khan’s capitals and were warmly welcomed. The winter capital was then called Khánbálik or Canbulac, meaning the Khan’s camp; it later grew into Beijing. The summer capital was Northwest of Beijing across the Great Wall, near a town Polo called Kaimenfu. The palace itself was Shangtu or Xanadu. China is still “Kithai” in modern Russian. By the time the Polos reached China the second time, the Khan had subjugated Southern China, which the book calls “Manzi.” However, he needed officials to help rule it and did not yet trust the newly-conquered Chinese. Along with many others, Marco became an official of the empire, a job that soon had him traveling over large parts of China. The Polos spent the next 17 years in China. Kublai Khan took a liking to Marco, who was an engaging storyteller. He was sent on many diplomatic missions throughout his empire. Marco carried out diplomatic assignments but also entertained the Khan with interesting stories and observations about the lands he had traveled. According to Marco’s travel account, the Polos asked several times for permission to return to Europe but the Great Khan appreciated the visitors so much that he would not agree to their departure.

The return JourneyAt this time, the Mongols ruled most of Asia and the Great Khan had vassals in various places. One of these ruled Iran, the ancestor of the Persian dynasty who would later conquer much of India and be known there as Moguls (Mongols(.

Arghún Khan of Persia, Kúblái’s great-nephew, had in 1286 lost his favourite wife... and... took steps to fulfil her dying injunction that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own kin. Ambassadors were despatched... to seek such a bride ... the choice fell on the lady Kokáchin, a maiden of 17. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was not only of portentous length for such a tender charge, but was imperilled by war, so the envoys desired to return by sea. Tartars in general were strangers to all navigation; and the envoys... begged the Kaan as a favour to send the three _Firinghis_ in their company. He consented with reluctance, but, having done so, fitted the party out nobly for the voyage, charging the Polos with friendly messages for the potentates of Europe, including the King of England.

The journey West Eventually, they reached Hormuz and continued overland to Tabriz to deliver the bride. The planned bridegroom having died in the meanwhile, she married his son. The Polos then returned home, sailing from Trebizond (Trabzon) on the Black Sea to Constantinople (Istanbul) and on to Venice which they reached in 1295.





(Silk Routes)

Culture: The road is not only an ancient international trade route, but also a splendid cultural bridge linking the cultures of China, Central Asia, India, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. The Four Great Inventions of China and religions of the West were introduced into their counterparts via the Silk Road.

History: From the time Zhang Qian pioneered the world-famous Silk Road during the Han Dynasty, until the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, it enjoyed a history of about 1,600 years.

Routes: This ancient road begins at Chang’an (now Xian), then by way of the Hexi Corridor, and it reaches Dunhuang, where it divides into three, the Southern Route, Central Route, and Northern Route. The three routes spread all over the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and then they extend as far as Pakistan, India and even Rome.

Other Routes: In fact, besides the Silk Road in the northwest of China, there are another two trade roads in the southwest of China and by sea, which also contributed greatly to the development of the world. They are called the “Southern Silk Road” and the “Silk Road on the Sea (Spice Route, Maritime Route)”.

The Silk Road may have formally opened up trade between the Far East and Europe during the Han Dynasty, which ruled China from 206 B.C. to 220 A.D., but the transport of goods and services along these routes dates back even further.

The Royal Road, which connected Susa (in present-day Iran( more than 1,600 miles west to Sardis (near the Mediterranean Sea in modern Turkey(, was established by the Persian ruler Darius I during the Achaemenid Empire—some 300 years before the opening of the Silk Road.The Persians also expanded the Royal Road to include smaller routes that connected Mesopotamia to the Indian subcontinent as well as northern Africa via Egypt.Alexander the Great, ruler of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia, expanded his dominion into Persia via the Royal Road. Parts of the thoroughfare were ultimately incorporated into the Silk Road.The east-west trade routes between Greece and China began to open during the first and second centuries B.C. The Roman Empire and the Kushan Empire (which ruled territory in what is now northern India) also benefitted from the commerce created by the route along the Silk Road.Interestingly, the ancient Greek word for China is “Seres,”

Silk RoadBasic Facts

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Silk Road Economic Belt The Chinese monopoly on silk production did not mean that the product was restricted to the Chinese Empire – on the contrary, silk was used as a diplomatic gift, and was also traded extensively, first of all with China’s immediate neighbors, and subsequently further afield, becoming one of China’s chief exports under the Han dynasty (206 BC –220 AD(. Indeed, Chinese cloths from this period have been found in Egypt, in northern Mongolia, and elsewhere.At some point during the 1st century BC, silk was introduced to the Roman Empire, where it was considered an exotic luxury and became extremely popular, with imperial edicts being issued to control prices. Its popularity continued throughout the Middle Ages. Additionally, the needs of the Byzantine Church for silk garments and hangings were substantial. This luxury item was thus one of the early impetuses in the

development of trading routes from Europe to the Far East.Knowledge about silk production was very valuable and, despite the efforts of the Chinese emperor to keep it a closely guarded secret, it did eventually spread beyond China, first to India and Japan, then to the Persian Empire and finally to the west in the 6th century AD.

Even though the name “Silk Road” derives from the popularity of Chinese silk among tradesmen in the Roman Empire and elsewhere in Europe, the material was not the only important export from the East to the West.

Trade along the so-called Silk Road economic belt included fruits and vegetables, livestock, grain, leather and hides, tools, religious objects, artwork, precious stones and metals and—perhaps more importantly—language, culture, religious beliefs, philosophy and science.Commodities such as paper and gunpowder, both invented by the Chinese during the Han Dynasty, had obvious and lasting impacts on culture and history in the West. They were also among the most-traded items between the East and West.Paper was invented in China during the 3rd century B.C., and its use spread via the Silk Road, arriving first

which literally means “the land of silk.”However, despite this obvious link to the name, the term “Silk Road” wasn’t coined until 1877, when German geographer and historian Ferdinand von Richthofen first used it to describe the trade routes.Historians now prefer the term “Silk Routes,” which more accurately reflects the fact that there was more than one thoroughfare.





in Samarkand in around 700 A.D., before moving to Europe through the then-Islamic ports of Sicily and Spain.Of course, paper’s arrival in Europe fostered significant industrial change, with the written word becoming a key form of mass communication for the first time. The eventual development of the Gutenberg press allowed for the mass production of books and, later, newspaper, which enabled a wider exchange of news and information.Originating at Xi’an (Sian), the 4,000-mile (6,400-km) road, actually a caravan tract, followed the Great Wall of China to the northwest, bypassed the Takla Makan Desert, climbed the Pamirs (mountains(, crossed Afghanistan, and went on to the Levant; from there the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few persons traveled the entire route, and goods were handled in a staggered progression by middlemen.

The Silk Road became increasingly unsafe and untraveled about 7th century AD. In the 13th and 14th centuries the route was revived under the Mongols, and at that time the Venetian Marco Polo used it to travel to Cathay (China(. It is now widely thought that the route was one of the main ways that plague bacteria responsible for the Black Death pandemic in Europe in the mid-14th century moved westward from Asia.Part of the Silk Road still exists, in the form of a paved highway connecting Pakistan and the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China. The old road has been the impetus behind a United Nations plan for a trans-Asian highway, and a railway counterpart of the road has been proposed by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). The road is now included in the World Heritage List of UNESCO. 33 historical sites are along the road in total and 22 of them distribute in Shaanxi, Henan, Gansu, and Xinjiang of China.





Southern Silk RoadMore than 2,000 years ago, people in the southwest of China had traded between Chengdu, China with India. The trade route, about 2,000 kilometers (1,243 miles( long, well-known for its silk trade, was dubbed the ‘Southern Silk Road’ by historians. Similar to the Silk Road, the Southern Silk Road contributed much to the cultural change between China and the West.

Silk Road on the Sea (Maritime Silk Route, Spice Route)In order to distinguish it from the traditional Silk Road, this maritime trade route linking the East and West was given the name ‘Silk Road on the Sea’ by a Japanese scholar in 1967. The two most favored courses followed by trade ships were those of the East China and South China Sea Routes.

East China Sea RouteWhen Emperor Qin Shi Huang united China, many Chinese fled to Korea and took with them silkworms and breeding technology. This sped up the development of silk spinning in Korea. These new skills and the technologies were subsequently introduced into Japan during the Han Dynasty. Since the Tang Dynasty, the silks produced by Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces were directly shipped to Japan. Many Japanese envoys and monks were also able to travel to Chang’an (now Xian) along this sea route.

South China Sea RouteGuangzhou represented the starting-point of the South China Sea Route, which extended across the Indian Ocean and then on to various countries situated around the Persian Gulf. The goods dispatched for trade consisted mainly of silk, chinaware, and tea, while imported merchandise included a variety of spices, flowers and grasses – hence it being commonly referred to as the sea’s ‘China Road’ and the sea’s ‘Flavor Road’.The route was first used in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and increased in popularity from the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280) to the Sui Dynasty (581–618). Up until the Tang Dynasty Anshi Rebellions (755–762), this route was viewed as a secondary alternative to the Silk Road, However, in the latter half of the eighth century, owing to the scourge of wars in the vast Western Regions, trade volumes along the Maritime Silk Road boomed as those on its overland counterpart steadily declined. As the Opium War broke out in 1840, the Silk Road on the Sea totally disappeared.

A diversity of routes and cargos These routes developed over time and according to shifting geopolitical contexts throughout history. For example, merchants from the Roman Empire would try to avoid crossing the territory of the Parthians, Rome’s enemies, and therefore took routes to the north, across the Caucasus region and over the Caspian Sea. Similarly, whilst extensive trade took place over the network of rivers that crossed the Central Asian steppes in the early Middle Ages, their water levels rose and fell, and sometimes dried up altogether, and trade routes shifted accordingly.

The legacy of the Silk Roads The Silk Road routes remained in use until 1453 A.D., when the Ottoman Empire boycotted trade with China and closed them. Although it’s been nearly 600 years since the Silk Road had been used for international trade, the routes had a lasting impact on commerce, culture and history that resonates even today.In the nineteenth century, a new type of traveler ventured onto the Silk Roads: archaeologists and geographers, enthusiastic explorers looking for adventure. Coming from France, England, Germany, Russia and Japan, these researchers traversed the Taklamakan desert in western China, in what is now Xinjiang, to explore ancient sites along the Silk Roads, leading to many archaeological discoveries, numerous academic studies, and most of all, a renewed interest in the history of these routes.





The Silk Roads across the Middle East and Western Asia

Along the land Silk Roads

Countries along the Silk Road

Major cities, broadly from the eastern Mediterranean to South Asia, and arranged roughly west to east in each area by modern-day country

• Turkey• Lebanon• Syria• Iraq• Iran

• Tabriz• Zanjan• Rasht• Kermanshah• Hamadan• Rey (or Ray in modern-day Tehran)• Hecatompylos (Damghan)• Sabzevar• Nishapur• Mashhad• Tus• Bam• Yazd• Qazvin

www.Mahan.aero Silk Routes



Central Asia• Turkmenistan• Uzbekistan• Tajikistan• Kazakhstan

Southern Routes and South Asia• Afghanistan• Pakistan• India• Nepal• Tibet (China)• Bangladesh• Bhutan• China

The eastern routes• Korea• Japan

Along the maritime Silk Routes• Pakistan• China• Korea• Bangladesh• Sri Lanka• India• Russia• Oman• Yemen• Somalia• Egypt• Turkey• Italy

In Southeast Asia• Kedah • Langkasuka• Ligor• Chi Tu• Gangga Nagara• Malacca• Pan Pan• India• Khmer• Vijaya of Champa• Kambuja• Vietnam• Indonesia



World Heritage Sites in Countries on the

Silk Road

Founded in the 5th century and spread over 118 small islands, Venice became a major maritime power in the 10th century. The whole city is an extraordinary architectural masterpiece in which even the smallest building contains works by some of the world’s greatest artists such as Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese and others. Venice and its lagoon were added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1987.

The Tomb of King Tongmyong (259-298 BCE( is located some 20km south of central Pyongyang, in a remote, serene locale. King Tongmyong is the founder of the Koguryo Kingdom, one of the famed Three Kingdoms of Korea. In total, there are 63 individual tombs of the period. The tomb has achieved World Heritage status as part of the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs inscribed by UNESCO in 2004 covering an area of 233 hectares (580 acres(.

Pyongyang, North KoreaTomb of King Tongmyong

Venice, ItalyVenice and its Lagoon



Nubia, EgyptAbu Simbel temples

The Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent were part of the northern lines of the Sasanid Persian Empire, which extended east and west of the Caspian Sea. The fortification was built in stone. The defence structures that were built by the Sasanid in the 5th century CE were in continuous use by the succeeding Persian, Arabic, Mongol, and Timurid governments for some 15 centuries until the Russian occupation in the 19th century.

Derbent, RussiaCitadel, Ancient City, and Fortres

The Historic Areas of Istanbul are a group of sites in the capital district of Fatih in the city of Istanbul, Turkey. These areas were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1985.This World Heritage Site includes structures such as the Sarayburnu, the Topkapı Palace, the Hagia Sophia, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Hagia Irene, Zeyrek Mosque, Süleymaniye Mosque, Little Hagia Sophia and the Walls of Constantinople.

The Abu Simbel temples are two massive rock temples at Abu Simbel, a village in Nubia, southern Egypt, near the border with Sudan. They are situated on the western bank of Lake Nasser. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979 known as the “Nubian Monuments”. The twin temples were originally carved out of the mountainside in the 13th century BC, during the 19th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Ramesses II. They serve as a lasting monument to the king and his queen Nefertari.

Istanbul, TurkeyHistoric Areas of Istanbul



Churches and Convents of Goa are monuments inscribed by UNESCO under the World Heritage List in 1986 as cultural property, which were built by the Portuguese colonial rulers of Goa between 16th and 18th centuries. The most significant of these monuments is the Basilica of Bom Jesus, which enshrines the tomb containing the relics of St. Francis Xavier. These monuments of Goa, known as the “Rome of the Orient,” were established by different Catholic religious orders, from 25 November 1510 onwards.

The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor (Qin Shi Huang) is located in Xi'an. This mausoleum was constructed over 38 years, from 246 to 208 BC, and is situated underneath a 76-meter-tall tomb mound shaped like a truncated pyramid. The layout of the mausoleum is modeled on the Qin capital Xianyang, divided into inner and outer cities. The tomb is located in the southwest of the inner city and faces east. The mausoleum includes the Terracotta Army to the east of the tomb mound. The Terracotta Army served as a garrison to the mausoleum and has yet to be completely excavated.

Goa, IndiaChurches and Convents of Goa

Xi’an, ChinaMausoleum of the First Qin Emperor

Bukhara is a city-museum, with about 140 architectural monuments and is the nation’s fifth-largest city. Humans have inhabited the region around Bukhara for at least five millennia, and the city has existed for half that time. Located on the Silk Road, the city has long served as a center of trade, scholarship, culture, and religion. UNESCO has listed the historic center of Bukhara (which contains numerous mosques and madrasas) as a World Heritage Site.

Bukhara, UzbekistanHistoric Centre of Bukhara



Sanmaekand is a city in modern-day Uzbekistan and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China and the Mediterranean, at times Samarkand was one of the greatest cities of Central Asia. By the time of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy (province(. The Mongols under Genghis Khan conquered Samarkand in 1220.

Lahore, PakistanThe Fort and Shilamar Gardens

Samarkand, UzbekistanSamarkand – Crossroads of Cultures

The Fort and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore are two distinct royal complexes from the Mughal era. The Fort is located at the northwest corner of the Walled City of Lahore and has been destroyed and rebuilt several times during its history. The Shalimar Gardens are examples of Mughal Gardens which were constructed by the emperor Shah Jahan in 1642. The gardens are influenced by Persian and Islamic traditions and cover 16 hectares of land area.

Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang’an (Xian)-Tianshan Corridor is a UNESCO World Heritage Site which covers the Chang’an-Tianshan portion of the ancient Silk Road and historical sites along the route. On June 22, 2014, UNESCO designated a 5,000 km stretch of the Silk Road network from Central China to the Zhetsyu Region of Central Asia as a World Heritage Site. The corridor spans China, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan and includes 33 new sites and several previously designated heritage sites.

China, Kazakhstan and KyrgyzstanSilk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang’an (X’ian)-Tianshan Corridor



Tabriz, IranBazaar of Tabriz

Susa, Iran

The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran, located in the West and East Azerbaijan Provinces in Iran, is an ensemble of three Armenian churches that were established during the period between the 7th and 14th centuries A.D. The edifices—the St. Thaddeus Monastery, the Saint Stepanos Monastery, and the Chapel of Dzordzor—have undergone many renovations. These sites were inscribed as cultural heritages under the UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

Azerbaijan, IranArmenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran

Bazaar of Tabriz is a historical market situated in the city center of Tabriz, Iran. It is one of the oldest bazaars in the Middle East and the largest covered bazaar in the world and is one of Iran’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Susa was an ancient city of the Proto-Elamite, Elamite, First Persian Empire, Seleucid, and Parthian empires of Iran, and one of the most important cities of the Ancient Near East. It is located in the lower Zagros Mountains about 250 km (160 mi) east of the Tigris River, between the Karkheh and Dez Rivers.The modern Iranian town of Shush is located at the site of ancient Susa. Shush is the administrative capital of the Shush County of Iran’s Khuzestan province.



Soltaniyeh, Iran

Yazd, Iran

Shushtar, IranShushtar Historical Hydraulic System

Soltaniyeh is the capital city of Soltaniyeh District of Abhar County, Zanjan Province, Azerbaijan, northwestern Iran. Soltaniyeh, located some 240 kilometres (150 mi( to the north-west of Tehran, was built as the capital of Mongol Ilkhanid rulers of Iran in the 14th century. In 2005, UNESCO listed Soltaniyeh as one of the World Heritage Sites. The road from Zanjan to Soltaniyeh extends until it reaches to the Katale khor cave.

Yazd is the capital of Yazd Province, Iran. The city is located 270 km (170 mi( southeast of Isfahan. It is currently 15th largest city in Iran. Since 2017, the historical city of Yazd is recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Because of generations of adaptations to its desert surroundings, Yazd has a unique Persian architecture. It is nicknamed the “City of Wind catchers”(. Yazd is also very well known for its Zoroastrian fire temples, ab anbars (cisterns), qanats (underground channels), yakhchals (coolers), Persian handicrafts, hand-woven cloth (Persian termeh(, silk weaving, Persian Cotton Candy, and its confectioneries.

Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System is an island city from the Sassanid era with a complex irrigation system. Located in Iran’s Khuzestan Province, it was registered on UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites in 2009, and is Iran’s 10th cultural heritage site to be registered on the United Nations’ list. Parts of the irrigation system are said to originally date to the time of Darius the Great, an Achaemenian king of Iran. It partly consists of a pair of primary diversion canals in the Karun River, one of which is still in use today.

proprietor : mahan air co. under the supervision of editorial board · 2018-03-08 · dolat abad...

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