project report (3)
TRANSCRIPT
A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BRICKS
PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
R.DHANABAL (01108111012)
D.GANESAN (01108111024)
R.KOKILA (01108111040)
T.SUJI (01108111098)
Under the Guidance of
Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, M.E.,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ANNA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 024
APRIL 2012
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work entitled “A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF BRICKS
PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE” is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the degree in B.E ., Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli, is a record
of the my own work carried out by me during the academic year 2011 – 2012 under the
supervision and guidance of Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN,M.E., Research supervisor, Department of
Civil Engineering, Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli. The extent and source of
information are derived from the existing literature and have been indicated through the
dissertation at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this work is original and has not
been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma, either in this or any other
University.
R.DHANABAL D.GANESAN
(01108111012) (01108111024)
R.KOKILA T.SUJI
(01108111040) (01108111098)
I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true
(Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, ME.,)
Assistant Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering,
Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli– 620 024.
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ANNA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 024
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE OF
BRICKS PRODUCING FROM SOLID WASTE” a bonafide work carried out by Mr.
R.DHANABAL(01108111012), Mr. D.GANESAN (01108111024), Ms.
R.KOKILA(01108111040), Ms. T.SUJI (01108111098).Under my direct supervision is
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Civil Engineering to Anna University of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli – 620 024. No part of the dissertation has been submitted for any degree/diploma
or any other academic award anywhere before.
SIGNATURE
Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, ME.,
SUPERVISOR
Forwarded by,
SIGNATURE
Dr. R.ILANGOVAN ME,Phd.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Examined on:
Internal Examiner External Examiner
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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is our privilege and honor to extend our sincere gratitude to our Professor and Head of
the Department, Dr. P. RAJESH PRASANNA Department of Civil Engineering for providing all
the necessary facilities to do this project.
We wish to express our whole hearted thanks to Dr.R.ILANGOVAN, Assistant
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.
We express our whole hearted gratitude to our guide Mr. V.RAJAGOPALAN, M.E.,
Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering for encouraging us, providing indispensable guidance
and patient perusal at each and every step of the work.
We express our special and sincere thanks to Dr. VISWANATHAN., M. Sc., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Physics Department, for his valuable suggestions during initial stages of
this project work.
We adorn our sincere thanks and gratefulness to our beloved staff members for
emboldening us to reach our achievement.
We are very grateful to OUR BELOVED PARENTS, all of classmates and friends for
their constant support to make this project work a success.
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ABSTRACT
Utilization of industrial, municipal, agricultural and other waste products in the industry
has been the focus of research for economical, environmental, and technical reasons. Sugar-cane
bagasse is a fibrous waste-product of the sugar refining industry. The 80% of bagasse is mixed
with 20% of coal, which is burned in boilers for theproduction of electrical energy. This waste-
product is causing serious environmental pollution. Granite processing industry generates a large
amount of wastes mainly in the form of powder during sawing and polishing processes,
which pollute and damage the environment. The chemical composition of bagasse ash and
granite waste was characterized by using X-Ray Diffraction method and compared with clay.
The objective of this research is to utilize bagasse ash and granite waste in the manufacturing of
bricks. Mixtures were prepared with 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 % wastes of total weight of clay.
The produced bricks are tested for mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile
strength and water absorption according to the requirements of the Indian Standard Codes. The
result shows that bagasse ash and granite waste 20% is optimum percentage to be used in the
manufacturing of conventional bricks. It is found that these bricks are better than traditional
bricks in the sense that solid wastes reduce the use of fertile soil of the earth for brick
manufacturing, thus, protecting the land for agricultural use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS x
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Solid Waste 1
1.2.1 Generation 4
1.2.2 Disposal 4
1.2.3 Environmental effects 4
1.3 Bricks in construction 5
1.3.1 Requirement of bricks 6
1.3.2 Clay in bricks 6
1.4 Need for the study 7
1.5 Objectives 7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 General 8
2.2 Bagasse ash Utilisation 8
2.3 Granite waste Utilisation 10
3. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 13
3.1 Bagasse ash 13
3.1.1 Waste Quantification 14
3.1.2 Environmental Impacts 14
3.2 Granite waste 14
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3.2.1 Waste Quantification 15
3.2.2 Environmental Impacts 16
3.3 Methodology 17
3.3.1 Collection of Bagasse Burnt Ash 17
3.3.2 Collection of Granite Waste 18
3.4 Chemical Analysis 18
3.4.1 XRD pattern of Bagasse Burnt Ash 19
3.4.2 XRD pattern of Granite Waste 20
3.5 Manufacturing methodology 29
3.5.1 Clay winning 30
3.5.2 Clay preparation 31
3.5.3 Bagasse Ash and Granite Waste preparation 31
3.5.4 Mix proportion 32
3.5.5 Moulding 33
3.5.6 Drying 33
3.5.7 Firing 34
3.6 Testing of Bricks 38
3.6.1 Compressive Strength 38
3.6.2 Water Absoption 38
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39
4.1 Result of XRD Analysis 39
4.2 Compressive Strength Test 41
4.3 Water Absorption Test 44
5. CONCLUSION 47
6. REFERENCES 48
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
1 Bagasse ash and Granite Waste Bricks Mix Proportion 32
2 Bagasse Ash Bricks Mix Proportion 32
3 Granite Waste Bricks Mix Proportion 32
4 Compressive Strength of new bricks 41
5 Water Absorption of new bricks 44
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
1 Bagasse Ash 13
2 Granite Waste 15
3 Methodology 17
4 XRD pattern of Bagasse burnt ash 19
5 XRD pattern of Granite waste 20
6 Standard Reference Material For SiO2 22
7 Standard Reference Material For Al2O3 23
8 Standard Reference Material For K2O 24
9 Standard Reference Material ForCaO 25
10 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 26
11 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 27
12 Standard Reference Material For Fe2O3 28
13 Manufacturing Methodology 29
14 Clay winning 30
15 Clay preparation 31
16 Drying 33
17 Firing 34
18 Various proportions of Bagasse ash & Granite Waste Bricks 35
19 Various proportions of Bagasse Ash Bricks 36
20 Various proportions of Granite Waste Bricks 37
21 XRD result of Bagasse ash 39
22 XRD result of Granite waste 40
23 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks 42
24 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash Bricks 42
25 Variation in Compressive Strength of Granite Waste Bricks 43
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26 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash &Granite Waste Bricks 45
27 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash Bricks 45
28 Variation in Water Absorption of GW Bricks 46
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION
XRD - X Ray Diffraction
RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation
EOU - Export Oriented Units
JCPDS- Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards
SRM - Standard Reference Material
BA - Bagasse Ash
GW - Granite Waste
% - Percentage
Wt - Weight
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The traditional construction materials such as concrete, bricks, hollow blocks, solid
blocks, pavement blocks and tiles are being produced from the existing natural resources. This is
damaging the environment due to continuous exploration and depletion of natural resources. The
issues related to environmental conservation have gained great importance in our society in
recent years.
Exposing the waste material to the environment directly can cause environmental
problems. Initiatives are emerging worldwide to control and regulate the management of
subproducts, residuals, and industrial waste in order to preserve the environment from the point
of view of environmental contamination as well as the preservation and care of natural areas.
Waste materials can be used to produce new product or can be used as admixtures so that
natural sources are used more efficiently and the environment is protected from waste deposits.
The cost of construction materials is increasing day by day because of high demand, scarcity of
raw materials, and high price of energy. From the standpoint of energy saving and conservation
of natural resources, the use of alternative constituents in construction materials is now a global
concern. For this, the extensive research and development works towards exploring new
ingredients are required for producing sustainable and environment friendly construction
materials. The present study investigates the potential use of various solid wastes in the
production of bricks.
1.2 SOLID WASTE
Solid waste as any garbage or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, including
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solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial,
mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities.
Types of Solid waste:
Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:
» Agro-waste (organic)
» Industrial waste (inorganic)
» Mining/mineral waste
» Non hazardous waste
» Hazardous waste
i. Agro-waste (organic):
Agro waste are those arising from agricultural industries such as bagasse, banana leaves
and stalks, saw mill waste, sisal fibre, rice and wheat straw husk, ground nut shell, cotton stalk,
jute stalk etc.India is primarily an agricultural country. In the absence of organised data, exact
estimates of the agricultural wastes are not available, but their availability in the country is more
than 500 million tonnes per year.
ii. Industrial waste (Inorganic):
Industrial waste is a type of waste produced by industrial activity, such as that
of factories, mills and mines. Much industrial waste is neither hazardous nor toxic. It mainly
consist of coal combustion residues, steel slag, bauxite red mud, Construction and
demolitiondebris (concrete rubble, tiles, waste bricks, etc.), metal, Phosphogypsum, waste
glass,granulated blast-furnace slag,waste steel slag, rubber tire, etc.
iii. Mining/mineral waste:
Mining wastes include waste generated during the extraction, beneficiation, and
processing of minerals. The entire operation brings out all sorts of unwanted materials which is
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nothing but waste. Rubble, which remains after minerals have largely been extracted, is also a
waste. Also at end of the processing of minerals there is toxic waste generation. Mining
operations of all kind produce waste. Since India produces 89 minerals, these result in diverse
kinds of potentially hazardous waste. Such mining/mineral wastes are Coal washeries waste;
mining wastetailing from iron, copper, zinc, goldand aluminium industries.
iv. Non hazardous waste:
Non-hazardous wastes, which comprise the other category of solid waste, are solid wastes
that do not meet theResource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and are not subject to
RCRA regulations. However, it is not safe to assume that waste classified as "non-hazardous"
poses no risk. This category is further subdivided into municipal solid waste and industrial waste.
Municipal solid waste is a broad category of non-hazardous solid waste that includes
animal carcasses as well as the typical garbage or trash.Agricultural solid waste is a subcategory
of municipal solid waste and is waste that is generated by the rearing of animals and the
production or harvesting of crops or trees.Industrial solid waste is a second subcategory of non-
hazardous solid waste and includes solid waste generated by industrial processes and
manufacturing. This category also includes medical waste and regulated medical waste, which
are particularly relevant for veterinarians.
v. Hazardous waste:
Hazardous waste is a waste with properties that make it dangerous or potentially harmful
to human health or the environment. Hazardous waste takes many physical forms and may be
solid, semi-solid, liquid, or even contained gases. The treatment, storage and disposal of
hazardous waste is regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA).Hazardous wastes are divided into two major categories: characteristic wastes and
listed wastes.
Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or
more of the following four hazardous traits:ignitability (i.e., flammable), reactivity, corrosivity,
toxicity.
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Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as a
hazardous waste which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical
products.
1.2.1 GENERATION
Solid waste generated in India is 48million tons and 25% from construction industry and
7-8 million tons of concrete and brick. Waste quantities are expected to reach 65 million shortly.
Population growth, rising standards of living increasing urbanization, and
industrialization all have contributed to increased solid waste generation in both industrialized
and developing countries. Solid waste is generated, in the beginning, with the recovery of raw
materials and thereafter at every step in the technological process as the raw material is
converted to a product for consumption.
The process of consumption of products results in the formation of solid waste in urban
areas. In addition, other processes such as street cleaning, waste water treatment, air pollution
control measures etc. also produce solid waste in urban areas.A society receives energy and raw
material as inputs from the environment and gives solid waste as output to the environment. In
the long-term perspective, such as input-output imbalance degrades the environment.
1.2.2 DISPOSAL
The final functional element in the solid waste management system is disposal. Proper
disposal of solid waste is a necessity to minimize environmental health impacts and degradation
of land resources. In developing countries, solid waste is commonly disposed of by transporting
and discharging in open dumps, which are environmentally unsafe. Systematic disposal methods
are composting, land filling and incineration. Looking at the most common disposal method of
open dumping to be 90% in India.
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1.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Solid wastes pose significant threats to public health and the environment if they are not
stored, collected, and disposed of properly. The most serious effects of improper solid waste
management include air pollution, contamination of drinking water supplies, and the spread of
human disease.
For a chemical to affect human health it must come in contact with or enter the human
body. There are several ways in which this can happen.
Skin contact: Chemicals that cause dermatitis usually do so through direct contact with
skin. Some chemicals like corrosive acids can damage the skin by a single contact while others,
like organic solvent, may cause damage by repeated exposure.
Inhalation: Inhalation is the most common source of workplace exposure to chemicals
and the most difficult to control. Air pollutants can directly damage respiratory tract or gets
absorbed through lung and cause
system/systemic effects.
Ingestion: Ground water and sub soil water contamination from leachates from refuse
dumps and poorly managed landfill sites can result in ingestion of toxic chemicals by population
groups who live far away from the factory sites and decades after the garbage has been dumped.
There are very few studies conducted in India on specific health problems resulting from
accidental exposure to toxic industrial solid waste. There had been reports that sacks, cardboard
cartons and paper envelopes contaminated with chemicals packed in them were burnt and the
irritating fumes from these caused respiratory problems. There had also been reports of skin or
respiratory irritation following exposure to corrosives chemicals
Wastes from non hazardous industries can at times produce health problems, not only
among the workers and handlers of waste, but also among general population. One example of
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this category is the cotton dust. Cotton waste are generally non hazardous; however they may, in
susceptible individuals provoke respiratory allergic reactions; allergy may be due to inhalation of
dust containing cotton wastes or fungus or other contaminants in the waste dust.
1.3 BRICKS IN CONSTRUCTION
Bricks are a versatile and durable building and construction material, with good load-
bearing properties, high thermal mass and potential low energy impact. It may well be called an
everlasting material because they neither burn nor decay. Bricks are traditionally manufactured
by mixing clay with enough water to form a mud that is then poured into a mould of the desired
shape and size, and hardened through fired in a kiln or dried in the sun.
Brick may satisfactorily be used in either a simple or an elaborate architectural scheme;
there are practically no limitations and it is certain that, whatever style is chosen, the exterior
effect in brick is more striking than when other materials are used, because of the wonderful
glowing colour a brick wall possesses. As the years go by the brick wall improves in appearance;
it takes on new beauty. Overall, bricks are a good example of a sustainable building practice and
are currently gaining in popularity around the world.
1.3.1 REQUIREMENT OF BRICKS
The construction sector is an important part of the Indian economy with the contribution
of 10% in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product)and is registering an annual growth of 9%. Clay
fired bricks are the backbone of this sector. The Indian brick industry is the second largest
producer of bricks in the world after China. India is estimated to produce more than 14000 crores
of bricks annually, mainly by adopting age-old manual traditional processes. In view of the
increased building construction activities and the various ambitious projects envisaged by the
central/State Government, the demand for bricks will increase manifold in the coming years.
1.3.2 CLAY IN BRICKS
Clay minerals are ubiquitous. Clays are not only anessential component of the soils to
which we owe oursurvival, but also the most ancient and essential rawmaterial of mankind used
for artifacts-pottery, bricks andtiles. Clay deposits are exploited practically in every country in
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the world and they are used most extensivelyin the ceramic, paper, rubber and chemical
industries.
In brick-making terms, clay covers a range of naturally occurring raw materials which are
used to make a product. The clays vary considerably in physical properties, colour, hardness etc,
and mineralogical content. They do, however, have certain properties in common. They have the
ability to be crushed and mixed with water to form a plastic material which can be moulded into
various shapes.
1.4 NEED FOR THE STUDY
» To reduce the environmental pollution caused by the various solid waste.
» To utilize the different solid waste in the production of bricks.
» To preserve the valuable natural resource of clay for the production of bricks.
» To determine the optimum percentage of various solid wastes incorporated in the
production of bricks.
1.4.1 OBJECTIVES
» To characterize the chemical properties of Bagasse ash and Granite processing waste.
» To produce the bricks using Bagasse ash and Granite waste and testing its suitability for
construction purpose.
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CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
Need for building materials is growing at an alarming rate and in order to meet the
demand for new buildings, new ways and techniques must be evolved. Manufacturing of
building materials like bricks/blocks, cement, steel, aggregates, etc. consumed in bulk quantities,
puts great pressure on natural resources (raw materials) and energy requirements. The use of
alternative materials for bricks should be encouraged in order to preserve precious fertile top
soil.
Sugarcane is the world's largest crop. In 2010, FAO estimates it was cultivated on about
23.8 million hectares, in more than 90 countries, with a worldwide harvest of 1.69 billion tonnes.
Brazil was the largest producer of sugar cane in the world. The next five major producers, in
decreasing amounts of production, were India, China, Thailand, Pakistan and Mexico. After
harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. Sugarcane bagasse is a
potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, countries such as Brazil,
India and China.
In the world market, there are nearly 300 varieties of granite. India supplies more than
160 varieties. In India, the processing industry is in three sectors; namely, small-scale units,
medium-scale units and 100% export-oriented units (EOU). The processing industry of granite in
the country has been developed over the years. Major production of granite in raw as well as
processed form is generally from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh and Orissa.
2.2 BAGASSE ASH UTILISATION
Environment friendly, energy-efficient and cost effective alternative materials developed
from solid wastes will show good market potential to cater to people’s needs in rural and urban
areas. Inclusion of industrial waste-based newer building materials, emphasizing their
environmental significance in the curriculum at higher education level and practical applications
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of wastes in construction sector will give fillip to such technology promotion. The scientific
advancement in recycling and using industrial and agricultural processes for utilizing wastes will
lead to a better use of world’s resources. The new and alternative building construction materials
developed using agro-industrial wastes have ample scope for introducing new building
components that will reduce to an extent the costs of building materials (Asokan Pappua et al.,
2007).
The utilization of waste materials in concrete manufacture provides a satisfactory
solution to some of the environmental concerns and problems associated with waste
management. Agro wastes such as rice husk ash, wheat straw ash, hazel nutshell and sugarcane
bagasse ash are used as pozzolanic materials for the development of blended cements (Ganesan
et al., 2007). Bagasse is the fibrous residue obtained from sugar cane after the extraction of sugar
juice at sugar cane mills (Osinubi and Stephen, 2005). Bagasse ash is the residue obtained from
the incineration of bagasse in sugar producing factories. Research works have been carried out
on the improvement of geotechnical characteristics of soils using bagasse ash (Osinubi and
Stephen 2007).
Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) is generated as a combustion by-product from boilers of
sugar and alcohol factories. Composed mainly of silica, this by-product can be used as a mineral
admixture in mortar and concrete (G.C. Cordeiro et al., 2008).The presence of oxides and carbon
in the ash will make it suitable for refectory and ceramic products such as insulation, membrane
filters and structural ceramics. Also with fine particle size characteristics, implies that this
bagasse ash can be used as facing sand moulding during casting operations. The ash can
withstand a temperature of up to 16000C with a density of 1.95g/cm3. The firing shrinkage value
of the bagasse ash is very low with a value is 0.85%. This result confirm with the structure
observed in the microstructure which is mainly carbon, silica and silicon carbide, since silica and
graphite (C) expand during firing (V. S. Aigbodion et al., 2010).
Bagasse ash has been utilized in the high strength Portland cement concrete which not
only improves the early strength but also increases the compactness of the concrete. It is an
effective mineral admixture and pozzolan with the optimal replacement ratio of 20% cement,
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which enhanced the high early strength and resistance to chloride diffusion and the water
permeability (Noor-ul-Amin 2010).
Ground bagasse ash can be used as a pozzolanic material in concrete with an acceptable
strength, lower heat evolution, and reduced water permeability with respect to the control
concrete (Nuntachai Chusilp et al., 2009). In presence of BA setting times are increased and free
lime is decreased. The compressive strength values increased with hydration time in the presence
of BA and the values were found to be higher than that of control. The blended cement was
found to be more resistant in an aggressive environment (N.B Singh et al., 2000).
Portland cement incorporating the cement replacement materials (industrial and
agricultural waste products) improves corrosion resistance of carbon steel. Sugar cane bagasse is
considered as waste in sugar mills and dumped in open space or used as fuel for boilers. The
corrosion rate of reinforcing steel and chloride penetration were significantly reduced, and
compressive strength was increased, with the incorporation of BA up to 20 percent replacement
in concrete (K. Ganesan et al., 2007).
Pozzolans can be produced with vibratory grinding of the sugar cane bagasse residual
ash. In this case, the grinding in vibratory mill for 120 min enables the production of an ash with
pozzolanic activity index of 100%; With the produced residual ash in ultrafine grinding during
120 min the cement replacement up to 20% is possible in high performance concrete with the
improvement of the rheological properties, non-reduction of the compressive strength and with
“very low” chloride-ion penetration (G. C. Cordeir et al., 2010).
2.3 GRANITE WASTE UTILISATION
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Rapid increase in stone processing units, generate lot of wastes during drilling, cutting
and polishing and cause environmental issues related to handling and disposal of the wastes.
Waste generated in stone processing industry consists of 15% of processing waste and 5% of
polishing waste The associated environmental problems include contamination of water
resources, air pollution due to air borne dry powder on windy days, blockage of drainage paths
and wastage of valuable natural resources of stones (Prasanna K and Kurian Joseph 2007).
The fine particles can cause more pollution than other forms of marble waste unless
stored properly in sedimentation tanks, and further utilized. The fine particles can be easily
dispersed after losing humidity, under some atmospheric conditions, such as wind and rain. The
white dust particles usually contain CaCO3 and thus can cause visual pollution. Clay and soils
have a high cation exchange capacity and can absorb high proportion of heavy metals and
cations, such as Ca, Mg, K and Na; yet soils are not as effective as marble and granite fine
particles in holding pollutants like Cl. The particle size of the slurry is less than 80 μm; it is later
consolidated as a result of accumulation. The waste in the water does not completely sink to the
ground, and much of it remains on the surface (Rania A. et al., 2011).
Marble and granite slurry cement bricks yield similar mechanical, in terms of
compressive strength, and physical, in terms of density and absorption, properties. There is a
positive effect of granite slurry on cement brick samples that reach its optimum at 10% slurry
incorporation. Absorption is the major drawback of slurry incorporation in cement bricks
according to the ASTM C55 where water absorption requirement is fulfilled only at Zero, 10 %,
and 20% slurry samples for grade S (Grade S for general use where moderate strength and
resistance to frost action and moisture are required) (Rania et al., 2011).
Incorporation of granite and marble wastes into raw clay material fired at low
temperature, results energy saving as well as the relief of disposal of industrial wastes. At higher
waste weight percentage and temperatures, the obtained strength indicates that the quality of the
waste incorporated bricks may be further improved. Moreover, it is important to note that the
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average compressive and flexural strengths obtained at 20 wt. % is higher than that of other
waste weight percentage. The water absorption and porosity of the waste incorporated briquette
specimens are inversely proportional to waste content as well as sintering temperatures, while
bulk density is directly proportional to waste content as well as sintering temperatures (S.
Dhanapandian and B.Gnanavel 2010).
Utilization of the sludge waste from stone cutting is essential in order to minimize the
waste and the environmental considerations. Moreover, it is an effective utilization of the
limited natural resources. The sludge generated from the stone cutting processes can be regarded
as an interesting raw material for the production of terrazzo tiles. The usage of sludge in these
applications could serve as an alternative solution to disposal (Kamel Al Zboon and Montasser
Tahat 2009).
Marble and granite blocks are cut into smaller blocks in order to give the required smooth
shape. During the cutting and polishing process about 25% marble and granite is resulted in dust,
mainly composed of SiO2, Al2O3,Fe2O3 and CaO, with minor contents of Mg, Ti, Mn and K
oxides (Segadaes et al., 2005), which can cause serious damages to the environment, especially
soil and underground water contamination, if not efficiently treated before disposal. A ceramic
body traditionally used to produce roofing tiles was reformulated by the addition of granite waste
from sawing operations (S.N. Monteiro et al., 2003). The replacement of feldspar by granite
waste into a vitrified ceramic tile body (Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira et al., 2006).
Solid wastes are today one of the worst problems in the word, mainly because of the
increase in volume and the high capacity of environmental contamination. The granite sawing
wastes have particle size distribution and mineralogical composition similar to conventional non-
plastic ceramic raw materials. These wastes can be used in substitution of conventional raw
materials in ceramic formulations in proportions up to 50 per cent. This can be important to save
traditional raw materials from the region and decreasing the aggression to the environment
(Romualdo Rodrigues Menezes et al., 2002).
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CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 BAGASSE ASH
The sugarcane industries are producing three types of wastes such as molasses, filter
press mud and bagasse. Molasses and bagasse are the valuable by products of the sugar industry.
Bagasse is a fibrous waste material that remains after crushing of sugarcane stalks.
Currently, sugarcane bagasse is burned in boilers together with the coal to produce steam, which
is utilized in the factory processes and also to power turbines for the production of electrical
energy. The electrical energy is utilized in sugar industry processes. There is worldwide
consensus that there is a need to recycle and reutilize waste residues for an efficient utilization of
natural resources. The ash produced from the above process contains 80% Bagasse ash and 20%
coal ash. The ash is utilized for the production of glass ceramic products due to its high silica
content.
Figure 1 Bagasse Ash
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3.1.1 WASTE QUANTIFICATION
India is the Second Largest Producer of Sugar after Brazil in the World. In 2010-1011,
the sugar production is 336.7 million tonnes. The sugar industry plays an important role in
India’s economy. It is the largest among the processing industries next to cotton textiles. The
volume of ash produced is 6kg per a tonne of sugarcane (1000 kg cane → 250 kg bagasse → 6
kg ash). In 2010- 2011, the bagasse ash produced is approximately about 2 millions.
3.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
» The ash from sugar industry was dumped on the land. It affects the natural mineralogy
of land.
» From the dump yard, ash flies around and settles on floors, office tables, and almost
everywhere, causing not only inconvenience but also health hazards for those living nearby.
» The important potential impact is contamination of ground water by leachates from the
ash disposal area.
» Vegetation loss at the disposal site.
3.2 GRANITE WASTE
During the processing of granite, the raw stone block is cut as demanded either into tiles
or slabs of various thicknesses(usually 2 or 4cm), using diamond blades. Water is showered on
blades while stone blocks are cut into sheets of varying thickness to cool the blades and absorbs
the dust produced during the cutting operation. The amount of wastewater from this operation is
very large. It is not recycled as the water so highly alkaline that, if re-used, it can dim the slabs to
be polished. In large factories, where the blocks are cut into slabs, the cooling water is stored in
pits until the suspended particles settle (sedimentation tanks), then the slurry is collected in
trucks and disposed of on the ground and left to dry. This water carries large amounts of stone
powder. Eventually, the sludge dries in the sun and its particles become airborne. This causes air
pollution problems for the surrounding area.
24
Another solid waste generated by the granite units is the cutting waste which results from
cutting slabs into the required dimensions. After the stone has been cut to the specific
dimensions, the slabs are finished either by polishing or texturing, as requested. The polishing
operation is fully automated with the use of powdered abrasives that keep on scrubbing the
surface of the marble until it becomes smooth and shiny. Water showers are essential to prevent
overheating of the blades. The fine powder resulting from the above operation named as granite
waste.
Figure2 Granite Waste
3.2.1 WASTE QUANTIFICATION
India is one among the leading countries in mining and export of granite and is rich in
granite reserves. Although granite is a minor mineral, it is a major contributor in foreign
exchange earnings. India is the second largest exporter of raw granite after China and ahead of
Brazil and South Africa. India ranked fifth in the export of processed (value added finished)
product. In 2012, the granite production is 10,841,073 tons. In India, about 6 million tonnes of
wastes from marble and granite industries are being released through cutting, polishing,
processing and grinding.
3.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
25
» Stone waste is generally a highly polluting waste due to both its highly alkaline nature,
and its manufacturing and processing techniques, which impose a health threat to the
surroundings.
» Granite industry is one of the most environmentally unfriendly industry. Cutting the
stones produces heat, slurry, rock fragments, and dust.
» The weathering of the worn steel grit and blades used in processing granite transfer
some quantities of toxic metals like Chromium. This endangers the quality of surface and ground
waters nearby.
» The fine particles can cause more pollution than other forms of waste unless stored
properly in sedimentation tanks, and further utilized. The fine particles can be easily dispersed
after losing humidity, under some atmospheric conditions, such as wind and rain. The white dust
particles usually contain CaCO3 and thus can cause visual pollution.
» The granite slurry could lead in the long run to water clogging of the soil, to increasing
soil alkalinity, and to disruption of photosynthesis and transpiration. The net effect is a reduction
of soil fertility and plant productivity. Even if those plants did not die out, their internal
chemistry will have been altered and their nutritional value poisoned by gases emitted by the
industry.
» Slurry and dust form the blanket on the plants and surfaces, it also affect the aesthetic
appearance.
26
3.3 METHODOLOGY
COLLECTON OF BAGASSE BURNT ASH
COLLECTION OF GRANITE WASTE
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WASTES
BRICK PRODUCTION
TESTING OF BRICKS
COMPARISION OF STRENGTH BETWEEN NEW
BRICKS AND CONVENTIONAL BRICKS
Figure 3 Methodology to be adopted
3.3.1 COLLECTION OF BAGASSE BURNT ASH
Bagasse burnt ash was collected from sugar industry located in Erode. In this
industry the bagasse (80%) was burned together with the coal (20%) for the production of
electrical energy. The electrical energy utilized for industrial processes. The remaining ash
carried by truck and dumped in the open fields of land.
27
3.3.2 COLLECTION OF GRANITE WASTE
The granite waste was collected from granite industry located in coimbatore. In this
industry, during the process of cutting and polishing the granite waste in the form of slurry is
generated. After the drying period of one month the waste was carried by the truck and dumped
in open fields of land.
3.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The chemical analysis of wastes was carried out by X-Ray Diffraction Method, which
was done in National Institute of Technology, Trichy.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a non-destructive technique that reveals detailed information
about the chemical composition and crystallographic structure of natural and manufactured
materials.
The other uses of X- Ray Diffraction are as follows:
»Identification of single-phase materials – minerals, chemical compounds, ceramics or
other engineered materials.
»Identification of multiple phases in microcrystalline mixtures (i.e., rocks).
»Determination of the crystal structure of identified materials.
»Identification and structural analysis of clay minerals.
»Recognition of amorphous materials in partially crystalline mixtures.
28
Figure 4 XRD pattern of Bagasse Ash
29
Figure 5 XRD pattern of Granite waste
30
The intensities and d-spacing values obtained for various peaks are compared with the
standard reference material given in the software named as JCPDS (JOINT COMMITTEE ON
POWDER DIFFRACTION STANDARDS).
The standard reference material for various compounds such as SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, K2O,
Fe2O3, Na2O is in the software is given in the following tables
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
3.5MANUFACTURING METHODOLOGY
The bricks were manufactured at near Keeranur. Three different series of bricks were
produced, which involves the addition of bagasse ash, granite waste with various proportions of
total weight of clay. For each proportion twelvebricks were moulded to test its compressive
strength and water absorption.
Clay winning
Clay preparation
Bagasse ash& granite waste preparation
Mix proportion
Moulding
Drying
Firing
Figure 13 Manufacturing processes of brick
3.5.1 CLAY WINNING
43
Figure 14 Clay Winning
»Clay winning means the extraction of clay from the quarry. The choice of method of
clay winning will depend on the depth, thickness, hardness and physical geology of the clay
beds.
»Clay deposits are found at the foot of hills or on agricultural land close to rivers (which
naturally generates conflicting interests between the use of land for brickmaking and for
agriculture). It must, however, be remembered that the fertile topsoil required for agriculture is
not used for brickmaking. These 30 to 50 cm of soil have to be removed before excavating the
clay for brickmaking.
»The criteria for choosing a suitable location are the quality of clay, availability of level
ground and closeness of a motorable road for transports.
»Hand-digging in small and medium-sized production plants is usually done to a depth of
less than 2 m. (After excavation of large areas they can be returned to agricultural use.)
»Mechanical methods, using drag-line and multi-bucket excavators, are required for
large-scale brickmaking plants. These methods require proportionately less excavating area, but
make deep cuts in the landscape.
44
»Particular attention is given to environmental factors both during the clay win and when
restoring the landscape after excavations are complete.
3.5.2 CLAY PREPARATION
Figure 15 Preparation of Clay
»Sorting is done by picking out roots, stones, limestone nodules, etc., or in some cases by
washing the soil.
»Crushing is required because dry clay usually forms hard lumps.
»Thorough mixing is needed and a correct amount of water. The effort of mixing can be
greatly reduced by allowing the water to percolate through the clay structure for some days or
even months. This process, known as "tempering", allows chemical and physical changes to take
place, improving its moulding characteristics. The clay must be kept covered to prevent
premature drying.
3.5.3 BAGASSE ASH AND GRANITE WASTE PREPARATION
»It was necessary to either grind the wastes into a powder or screen it to remove stones
and larger particles.
»The bagasse ash and granite wastes were prepared for required size by sieving.
45
3.5.4 MIX PROPORTION
»Three different series of bricks were produced, which involves the addition of bagasse
ash, granite waste with various proportions of total weight of clay.
»Mix proportions of 1) Bagasse ash & Granite waste bricks 2) Bagasse ash bricks 3)
Granite waste bricks are as follows:
Table 1 Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Bagasse Ash by
WeightGranite Waste by
Weight90% 5% 5%
80% 10% 10%
70% 15% 15%
60% 20% 20%
50% 25% 25%
Table 2 Bagasse Ash Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Bagasse Ash by
Weight90% 10%
80% 20%
70% 30%
60% 40%
50% 50%
Table 3 Granite Waste Bricks Mix ProportionClay by Weight Granite Waste by
Weight90% 10%
80% 20%
70% 30%
60% 40%
50% 50%
46
3.5.5 MOULDING
»All fired clay products require some form of compaction, either by dynamic compaction
(throwing, tamping) or static compaction (with mechanical or hydraulic equipment).
»In keeranur brick champer, Hand moulding systems i.e wooden moulds were used for
moulding. The size of the wooden mould is 22cm X 10cm X 7cm.
3.5.6 DRYING
Figure 16 Drying of Bricks
»Natural drying is done in the open under the sun, but a protective covering (eg leaves,
grass or plastic sheeting) is advisable to avoid rapid drying out. If it is likely to rain, drying
should be done under a roof. But traditionally, bricks are only made in the dry season.
»The new bricks are dried for a period of 5 days.
47
3.5.7 FIRING
Figure 17 Firing of Bricks
»Firing temperatures vary considerably between different clay types and are often quite
critical. During firing, bricks undergo a physical change. Clay particles and impurities are fused
together to produce a hard durable and weather resistant product. This is called vitrification. This
is usually accompanied by further shrinkage and a colour change.
»Firing – Wooden planks are used for firing the bricks. The new bricks are burnt in a
brick kiln for a period of 3 days.
»Cooling – Cold air is drawn into the kiln to cool the bricks slowly ready for sorting and
packing. This air becomes hot and can be drawn off and recycled for use in the drying process.
The new bricks are cooled for a period of 3 days.
48
Figure 18Various proportions of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks
49
Figure 19Various proportions of Bagasse Ash Bricks
50
Figure 20 Various proportions of Granite Waste Bricks
51
3.6 TESTING OF BRICKS
The produced new bricks are tested for the following properties:
1) Compressive strength
2) Water absorption
3.6.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially
directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are
crushed. The material compresses and shortens it is said to be in compression.
The Compressive strength is also defined as resistance to load per unit area and is
expressed in mega Pascal’s (MPa) or N/mm2.
The compressive strength is mathematically expressed as
Compressive strength= load/ surface area
The compressive strength is used to design of masonry to calculate the strength of a wall
and reflects the performance of the brick in a wall.
3.6.2 WATER ABSORTION TEST
The amount of water that a brick can absorb is measured by the cold water absorption
test. The amount of water absorbed by a composite material when immersed in water for a period
of 24 hours.
Water absorption, % by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water in given by the
formula,
Water absorption is used to indicate the pore spaces present in the bricks.
52
CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULT OF XRD ANALYSIS
Figure shows the chemical analyses by XRD of the sugarcane bagasse ash and granite
waste. The major components of the bagasse ash and granite waste are SiO2 and show the
highest concentration.
Figure 21 XRD result of Bagasse ash
53
Figure 22 XRD result of Granite waste
» In both the wastes commonly presented compounds are SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, K2O,
Fe2O3, Na2O.
» The d-spacing value related to the max intensity (i.e 100% intensity) of the SiO2 which
is obtained from the standard reference material is compared with the XRD values of wastes. The
same d-spacing value indicates the presence of SiO2.
» The d-spacing value of next max intensity from SRM of the SiO2 is also compared with
the XRD values of the wastes.
» To conform the presence of SiO2 three times the above procedure should be repeated.
» The procedure is also used to conform the presence of other compounds such as Al2O3,
CaO, K2O, Fe2O3, Na2O.
» The major peaks correspond to major compound. In both the wastes the major
compound found as silica (SiO2).
54
4.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The burnt bricks made of different proportions of bagasse ash, granite waste and clay
composition were tested for compressive strength. For each proportion the table shows the value
of average compressive strength of six bricks.
S.No
Mix proportion by
Weight percentage
of wastes
Average Compressive
Strength of Bagasse
Ash & Granite Waste
Bricks
N/mm2
Average Compressive
Strength of Bagasse
Ash Bricks
N/mm2
Average Compressive
Strength of Granite
Waste Bricks
N/mm2
1 Clay Brick (0%) 3.18 3.18 3.18
2 10% 4.09 3.41 4.55
3 20% 3.18 2.73 3.64
4 30% 2.95 1.59 3.18
5 40% 2.05 0.68 2.73
6 50% 1.36 0.25 2.27
Table 4 Compressive Strength of new bricks
The results show that both bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste bricks show
similar results, granite waste bricks show slightly higher values, as illustrated in Figure 22 to 25,
which is predictable due to the higher strength of natural granite stone.
Comparing with the ordinary clay brick, in terms of compressive strength, the 10%
bagasse ash & granite waste , bagasse ash, granite waste samples yield results slightly higher to
that of the clay brick. The 20% bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste also show similar
results to that of clay brick. The 30%, 40% and 50% bagasse ash & granite waste bricks, bagasse
ash bricks, Granite waste bricks results in the reduction of strength.
55
Figure 23 Variation in Compressive Strength of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash (%)
Com
pres
sive
str
engt
h ( N
/mm
2)
Figure 24 Variation in Compressive Strength of BA Bricks
56
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
0.51
1.52
2.53
3.54
4.5
Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste (%)
Com
pres
sive
str
engt
h ( N
/mm
2)
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
1
2
3
4
5
Replacement of clay with Granite Waste (%)
Com
pres
sive
str
engt
h ( N
/mm
2)
Figure 25 Variation in Compressive Strength of GW Bricks
These results emphasize the positive effect of bagasse ash & granite waste on brick
samples that reach its optimum at 20% waste incorporation, while at higher percentages,
agglomeration of wastes started to decreasing the compressive strength of bricks. Comparing to
the specifications, 20% replacement of clay by waste samples are acceptable, in terms of
compressive strength, compared to the Indian specifications even for structural requirements (3.5
N/mm2). It results that a maximum of 20% replacement can be done for moulding of bricks.
57
4.3 WATER ABSORPTION
The burnt bricks were tested for water absorption. Water absorption rate has been used as
an indication for porosity of the brick. For each proportion the table shows the value of average
water absorption of six bricks.
S.No
Mix proportion by
Weight percentage
of wastes
Average Water
absorption of Bagasse
Ash and Granite
Waste Bricks
(%)
Average Water
absorption of
Bagasse Ash
Bricks
(%)
Average Water
absorption of
Granite Waste
Bricks
(%)
1 Clay Brick (0%) 8.13 8.13 8.13
2 10% 8.42 10.43 8.78
3 20% 13.13 20.22 11.31
4 30% 16.94 25.96 13.08
5 40% 19.4 31.8 15.12
6 50% 23.36 41.38 17.88
Table 5 Water Absorption of new bricks
The results show that the water absorption of the brick increased with the increase of
waste content. Bagasse ash & granite waste and granite waste bricks show similar results, granite
waste bricks show slightly lower values. The variation of water absorption of these bricks as
illustrated in Figure 26 to 28.
Compared to the Indian specifications, 40% replacement of clay by bagasse ash and
granite waste, 50% replacement of clay by granite waste and 20% replacement of clay by
bagasse ash are acceptablein terms of water absorption.
58
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
5
10
15
20
25
Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste (%)
Wat
er A
bsor
ptio
n %
Figure 26 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash & Granite Waste Bricks
0 10 20 30 40 50 60051015202530354045
Replacement of clay with Bagasse Ash (%)
Wat
er A
bsor
ptio
n %
Figure 27 Variation in Water Absorption of Bagasse Ash Bricks`
59
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
5
10
15
20
Replacement of clay with Granite waste (%)
Wat
er A
bsor
ptio
n %
Figure 28 Variation in Water Absorption of Granite Waste Bricks
60
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Nowadays, large quantities of artificial and natural wastes in different forms are
generated all around the globe. Regarding to waste management methods, these kinds of wastes
need to be treated instead of being accumulated at open-air dumpsites or landfill, or disposed at
waterways and around the production facilities, causes environmental and health problems.
Utilization of these wastes is essential in order to minimize the waste and the environmental
considerations. Moreover, it is an effective utilization of the limited natural resources.
The incorporation of industrial wastes or sub-products in bricks is becoming a common
practice. Sugarcane and Granite processing industry generates a large amount of wastes, which
pollute and damage the environment. Therefore this work aims to characterize and evaluate the
possibilities of using the bagasse ash and granite wastes, generated by the process industries, as
alternative raw materials in the production of bricks.
The waste can be reused as a replacement of clay with respect to the chemical
characteristics.Bagasse ash & granite waste bricks yield similar mechanical, in terms of
compressive strength, and physical, in terms of water absorption, properties. The average
compressive strength obtained at 10% by weight is higher than that of other waste weight
percentage. Also the compressive strength obtained at 20% by weight is similar to that of clay
brick. The water absorption and porosity of the waste incorporated bricks are directly
proportional to waste content and these values are below 20% according to IS specifications.
There is a positive effect of bagasse ash & granite waste on clay brick samples that reach
its optimum at 20% by weight can be incorporated into raw clay materials of brick chambers,
without degrading their mechanical properties. Finally, bagasse ash &granite waste as an
alternative raw material in brick production will induce a relief on waste disposalconcerns.
Further, the incorporation of bagasse ash & granite wastes in brick production leads to a new
method of wastes disposal and found to be an environmentally friendly recycling process in brick
industries.
61
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