Prohibition in the United States 1

Prohibition in the United States

Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine breweryduring the Prohibition era

Prohibition in the United States was a national banon the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol,in place from 1920 to 1933.[1] The ban was mandatedby the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, andthe Volstead Act set down the rules for enforcing theban and defined the types of alcoholic beverages thatwere prohibited. Private ownership and consumption ofalcohol was not made illegal. Prohibition ended withthe ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, whichrepealed the Eighteenth Amendment, on December 5,1933.

The introduction of alcohol prohibition and itssubsequent enforcement in law was a hotly debatedissue. The contemporary prohibitionists ("dries")labeled this as the "Noble Experiment"[2] and presentedit as a victory for public morals and health. Theconsumption of alcohol overall went down by half in the 1920s; and it remained below pre-Prohibition levels untilthe 1940s.[3]

Anti-prohibitionists ("wets") criticized the alcohol ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a centralaspect of urban, immigrant and Catholic everyday life. Effective enforcement of the alcohol ban during theProhibition Era proved to be very difficult and led to widespread flouting of the law. The lack of a solid popularconsensus for the ban resulted in the growth of vast criminal organizations, including the modern American Mafia,and various other criminal cliques. Widespread disregard of the law also generated rampant corruption amongpoliticians and within police forces.

HistoryThe Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18, 1917. Having been approved by 36 states, the18th Amendment was ratified on January 16, 1919 and effected on January 17, 1920.[4]

On November 18, 1918, before the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, the United States Congress passed thetemporary Wartime Prohibition Act, which banned the sale of alcoholic beverages having an alcohol content ofgreater than 2.75%.[5] (This act, which was intended to save grain for the war effort, was passed after the armisticewas signed on November 11, 1918.) The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30, 1919, and July 1, 1919became widely known as the "Thirsty-First".[6][7]

Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President WoodrowWilson's veto on October 28, 1919, and established the legal definition of intoxicating liquor, as well as penalties forproducing it.[8] Though the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the federal government did little to enforce it.By 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs.[9]

While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation oframpant underground, organized and widespread criminal activity.[10] Many were astonished and disenchanted withthe rise of spectacular gangland crimes (such as Chicago's St. Valentine's Day massacre), when prohibition wassupposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personalliberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime.[11]

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On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen-Harrison Act, legalizing weak beersand wines. On December 5, 1933, the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the EighteenthAmendment. However, United States federal law still prohibits the manufacture of distilled spirits without meetingnumerous licensing requirements that make it impractical to produce spirits for personal beverage use.[12]

Origins

The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by Nathaniel Currier supporting thetemperance movement, January 1846

Alcohol and alcoholism have been a contentioustopic in America since the colonial period.

In May 1657, the General Court of Massachusettsmade the sale of strong liquor "whether known bythe name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy,etc." illegal.[13]

In general, informal social controls in the homeand community helped maintain the expectationthat the abuse of alcohol was unacceptable."Drunkenness was condemned and punished, butonly as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itselfwas not looked upon as culpable, any more thanfood deserved blame for the sin of gluttony.Excess was a personal indiscretion."[14] Wheninformal controls failed, there were always legalones.

One of the foremost physicians of the late 18th century, Benjamin Rush, argued in "The Inquiry into the Effects ofArdent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind" in 1784 that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to physicaland psychological health and went so far as to label drunkenness as a disease (he believed in moderation rather thanprohibition).[15] Apparently influenced by Rush's widely discussed belief, about 200 farmers in a Connecticutcommunity formed a temperance association in 1789. Similar associations were formed in Virginia in 1800 and NewYork in 1808.[16]

Within the next decade, other temperance organizations were formed in eight states, some being statewideorganizations. The words of Rush and other early temperance reformers served to dichotomize the use of alcohol formen and women. While men enjoyed drinking and often considered it vital to their health, women who began toembrace the ideology of 'true motherhood' refrained from consumption of alcohol. Middle-class women wereconsidered the moral authorities of their households and consequently rejected the drinking of alcohol, which wasconsidered a threat to the home.[17]

In 1830, on average, Americans consumed 1.7 bottles of hard liquor per week, three times the amount consumed in2010.[10]

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Development of the Prohibition movement

"Who does not love wine wife andsong, will be a fool for his lifelong!"— a vigorous 1873 assertion of the

cultural values ofGerman-Americans.

This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazettenewspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-SaloonLeague and the Women's Christian Temperance

Union's campaign against the producers andsellers of beers in Hawaii

The American Temperance Society (ATS), 1826, helped to initiate thefirst temperance movement and consequently served as a foundationfor many later groups. By 1835, the ATS had reached 1.5 millionmembers, with women constituting 35-60% of individual chapters.[18]

The prohibition, or "dry", movement continued in the 1840s,spearheaded by pietistic religious denominations, especially theMethodists. The late 19th century saw the temperance movementbroaden its focus from abstinence to all behavior and institutionsrelated to alcohol consumption. Preachers such as Reverend Mark A.Matthews linked liquor-dispensing saloons with prostitution.

Some successes were registered in the 1850s, including Maine's totalban on the manufacture and sale of liquor, adopted in 1851. However,the ban in Maine was repealed in 1856. The movement soon loststrength, and was marginalized during the American Civil War(1861–1865).

The issue was revived by the Prohibition Party, founded in 1869, andthe Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1873.The WCTU advocated the prohibition of alcohol as a method forpreventing possible abuses from the alcoholic husbands.[19] One of itsmethods to achieve that goal was education. It was believed that if itcould "get to the children" it could create a "dry" sentiment leading toprohibition. Frances Willard, the second president of the WCTU, heldthe aims of the organization were to create a "union of women from alldenominations, for the purpose of educating the young, forming abetter public sentiment, reforming the drinking classes, transformingby the power of Divine grace those who are enslaved by alcohol, andremoving the dram-shop from our streets by law."[20] While stilldenied universal voting privileges, women in the WCTU followedFrances Willard's "Do Everything" doctrine and used temperance as amethod of entering into politics and furthering other progressive issuessuch as prison reform and labor laws.[21]

In 1881, Kansas became the first state to outlaw alcoholic beverages inits Constitution, with Carrie Nation gaining notoriety for enforcing the provision herself by walking into saloons,scolding customers, and using her hatchet to destroy bottles of liquor. Nation recruited ladies into the Carrie NationProhibition Group, which Nation also led. While Carrie Nation's vigilante techniques were rare, other activistsenforced the cause by entering saloons, singing, praying, and urging saloon keepers to stop selling alcohol.[22] Manyother states, especially in the South, also enacted prohibition, along with many individual counties.

Many court cases also debated the subject under different lights and for different situations, there was an overall lean towards prohibition, however, many cases still ruled opposed to the believed effects. In Mugler v. Kansas, 1887, Justice Harlan, wrote, "We cannot shut out of view the fact, within the knowledge of all, that the public health, the public morals, and the public safety, may be endangered by the general use of intoxicating drinks; nor the fact established by statistics accessible to every one, that the idleness, disorder, pauperism and crime existing in the country, are, in some degree... traceable to this evil."[23] In support of prohibition, Crowley v. Christensen, 1890, said, "The statistics of every state show a greater amount of crime and misery attributable to the use of ardent spirits

Prohibition in the United States 4

obtained at these retail liquor saloons than to any other source."[23]

The proliferation of neighborhood saloons in the post-Civil War era was a phenomenon of an increasinglyindustrialized, urban workforce. “Workingmen” bars were popular social gathering places of respite from both theworkplace and the domesticity of home and family life. The brewing industry itself was actively involved inestablishing a lucrative consumer base in the business chain. The saloons were more often than not “tie-ins” wherethe saloon keeper‘s operation was financed by a brewer and was contractually obligated to sell the brewer’s productto the exclusion of any and all other competing brands. The business model often included the concept of the “freelunch” —a bill of fare commonly consisting of heavily salted food meant to induce thirst and the purchase ofdrink.[24] In the Progressive Era (1890–1920), hostility to saloons and their political influence became widespread,with the Anti-Saloon League superseding the Prohibition Party and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union as themost influential advocate of prohibition, when the latter two groups chose to piggyback other social reform issues,such as women's suffrage, onto their prohibition platform.Prohibition was an important force in state and local politics from the 1840s through the 1930s. The political forcesinvolved were ethnoreligious in character, as demonstrated by numerous historical studies.[25] Prohibition wasdemanded by the "dries" – primarily pietistic Protestant denominations, especially the Methodists, Northern Baptists,Southern Baptists, New School Presbyterians, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, Quakers and ScandinavianLutherans. They identified saloons as politically corrupt and drinking as a personal sin. Other active organizationsincluded the Women's Church Federation, the Women's Temperance Crusade, and the Department of ScientificTemperance Instruction. They were opposed by the "wets" – primarily liturgical Protestants (Episcopalians, GermanLutherans) and Roman Catholics, who denounced the idea that the government should define morality.[26] Even inthe wet stronghold of New York City there was an active prohibition movement, led by Norwegian church groupsand African-American labor activists who believed that Prohibition would benefit workers, especiallyAfrican-Americans. Tea merchants and soda fountain manufacturers generally supported Prohibition, thinking a banon alcohol would increase sales of their products.[27]

Governor James P. Goodrich signs the Indianaprohibition act, 1917.

Prohibition represented a conflict between urban and rural valuesemerging in the United States. Given the mass influx of immigrants tothe urban dwellings of the United States, many individuals within theprohibition movement associated the crime and morally corruptbehavior of the cities of America with their large immigrantpopulations. In a backlash to the new emerging realities of theAmerican demographic, many prohibitionists subscribed to thedoctrine of “nativism” in which they endorsed the notion that Americawas made great as a result of its white Anglo-Saxon ancestry. Thisfostered xenophobic sentiments towards urban immigrant communitieswho typically argued in favor of abolishing prohibition.[28]

Additionally, these nativist sentiments were a part of a larger process of Americanization taking place during thesame time period.[29]

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Political cartoon describing the alliance between the prohibition andwomen suffrage movements.

Two other amendments to the constitution werechampioned by "dries" to help their cause. The Federalincome tax replaced the alcohol taxes that funded thefederal government.[30]p.57 Also, since women tended tosupport prohibition, temperance organizations supportedwomen suffrage.[30]

In the 1916 presidential election, both Democraticincumbent Woodrow Wilson and Republican candidateCharles Evans Hughes ignored the Prohibition issue, aswas the case with both parties' political platforms.Democrats and Republicans had strong wet and dryfactions, and the election was expected to be close, withneither candidate wanting to alienate any part of hispolitical base.

In January 1917, the 65th Congress convened, in whichthe dries outnumbered the wets by 140 to 64 in theDemocratic Party and 138 to 62 among Republicans.With America's declaration of war against Germany inApril, German-Americans—a major force againstprohibition—were sidelined and their protestssubsequently ignored. In addition, a new justification forprohibition arose: prohibiting the production ofalcoholic beverages would allow moreresources—especially the grain that would otherwise beused to make alcohol—to be devoted to the war effort.While "war prohibition" was a spark for the movement,[31] by the time Prohibition was enacted, the war was over.

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The Defender Of The 18th Amendment. FromKlansmen: Guardians of Liberty published by the

Pillar of Fire Church

A resolution calling for a Constitutional amendment to accomplishnationwide Prohibition was introduced in Congress and passed by bothhouses in December 1917. By January 16, 1919, the Amendment hadbeen ratified by thirty-six of the forty-eight states. On October 28,1919, the amendment was implemented by the Volstead Act.

Start of national prohibition (January 1920)

Prohibition began on January 17, 1920, when the EighteenthAmendment went into effect. A total of 1,520 Federal Prohibitionagents (police) were given the task of enforcing the law.Although it was highly controversial, Prohibition was widely supportedby diverse groups. Progressives believed that it would improve societyas generally did women, southerners, those living in rural areas andAfrican-Americans. There were a few exceptions such as the Woman’sOrganization for Prohibition Reform who fought against it. WillRogers often joked about the southern pro-prohibitionists: "The Southis dry and will vote dry. That is, everybody sober enough to stagger tothe polls." Supporters of the Amendment soon became quite confidentthat it would not be repealed, to the point that one of its creators,Senator Morris Sheppard, joked that "there is as much chance of

repealing the Eighteenth Amendment as there is for a humming-bird to fly to the planet Mars with the WashingtonMonument tied to its tail."[32]

At the same time, songs emerged decrying the act; after Edward, Prince of Wales, returned to Britain following his1919 tour of Canada, he recounted to his father, King George V, a ditty he'd heard at a border town:

“Four and twenty Yankees, feeling very dry,Went across the border to get a drink of rye.When the rye was opened, the Yanks began tosing,"God bless America, but God save the King!"[33]”

Orange County Sheriff's deputies dumping illegalalcohol, 1932

The issue of Prohibition became a highly controversial one amongmedical professionals, because alcohol was widely prescribed byphysicians of the era for therapeutic purposes. Congress held hearingson the medicinal value of beer in 1921. Subsequently, physiciansacross the country lobbied for the repeal of Prohibition as it applied tomedicinal liquors.[34]

While the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol was illegal in theU.S., Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed the making at home ofwine and cider from fruit (but not beer). Up to 200 gallons per yearcould be made, and some vineyards grew grapes for home use. Also,one anomaly of the Act as worded was that it did not actually prohibitthe consumption of alcohol; many people actually stockpiled wines and liquors for their own use in the latter part of1919 before sales of alcohol became illegal the following January.

Alcoholic drinks were not always illegal in all neighboring countries. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean flourished as their products were either consumed by visiting Americans or smuggled to the U.S.

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The Detroit River, which forms part of the border with Canada, was notoriously difficult to control. And when theUnited States Government complained to the British government that its law was being undermined by officials inNassau, The Bahamas, the British Colonial Office head refused to intervene.[35] Winston Churchill believed thatProhibition was "an affront to the whole history of mankind".[36]

Chicago became a haven for Prohibition dodgers during the time known as the "Roaring Twenties". Many ofChicago's most notorious gangsters, including Al Capone and his enemy Bugs Moran, made millions of dollarsthrough illegal alcohol sales. By the end of the decade Capone controlled all 10,000 speakeasies in Chicago andruled the bootlegging business from Canada to Florida. Numerous other crimes, including theft and murder, weredirectly linked to criminal activities in Chicago and elsewhere in violation of prohibition.Three separate Federal Agencies were to enforce the Volstead Act:• United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement[37][38]

• US Treasury Department IRS Bureau of Prohibition[39][40]

• US Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition[41][42]

A policeman with wrecked automobile and confiscated moonshine,1922 Removal of liquor during prohibition.

A 1933 newsreel about the end of prohibition.

As the prohibition years continued, more of thecountry’s populace came to see prohibition asillustrative of class distinctions, a law unfairly biased inits administration favoring social elites. "Prohibitionworked best when directed at its primary target: theworking-class poor." [43] Historian Lizabeth Cohenwrites: “ A rich family could have a cellar-full ofliquor, but if a poor family had a bottle of home-brew,there would be trouble.” Working-class people wereinflamed by the fact that their employer could dip into acache of private stock while they, the employee, wasdenied a similar indulgence.[44]

Indeed, before the date that the Eighteenth Amendmentbecame national law, many of the well-to-do stockpiled alcohol for home consumption. They bought out theinventories of warehouses, saloons, club store rooms, they emptied out liquor retailers and wholesalers. Americanlawmakers themselves followed these practices at the highest levels of government. President Woodrow Wilsonmoved his own supply of alcoholic beverages to his Washington residence after his term of office ended. Hissuccessor, Warren G. Harding relocated his own large supply into the White House after inauguration.[45][46]

Prohibition in the United States 8

In October 1930, just two weeks before the Congressional midterm elections, bootlegger George Cassiday, "the manin the green hat," came forward and told how he had bootlegged for ten years for Congress. One of the fewbootleggers ever to tell his story, he wrote five front page articles in The Washington Post. He estimated that eightypercent of congressmen and senators drank, even though these same people were the ones passing dry laws. This hada significant impact on the midterm election, which saw Congress shift from a dry Republican majority to a wetDemocratic majority. The Democrats understood that Prohibition was unpopular and called for its repeal.[47]

As Prohibition became increasingly unpopular, especially in the big cities, "Repeal" was eagerly anticipated.Economic urgency played no small part in accelerating the advocacy for repeal. Prior to 1920, and the institution ofthe Volstead Act, approximately fourteen percent of federal, state and local tax revenue was derived from alcoholcommerce. The government badly needed income and further felt that reinstating the manufacture and sale of alcoholwould create desperately needed jobs for the unemployed.[48]

On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an amendment to the Volstead Act known as theCullen-Harrison Act, allowing the manufacture and sale of "3.2 beer" (3.2% alcohol by weight, approximately 4%alcohol by volume) and light wines. The original Volstead Act had defined "intoxicating beverage" as one withgreater than 0.5% alcohol.[8] Upon signing the amendment, Roosevelt made his famous remark; "I think this wouldbe a good time for a beer."[49]

Repeal of prohibition (April 1933)

The Cullen-Harrison Act became law on April 7, 1933, and on April 8, 1933, Anheuser-Busch, Inc. sent a team ofClydesdale horses to deliver a case of Budweiser to the White House. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed onDecember 5, 1933 with ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment. Despite the efforts of Heber J. Grant, a manwho would later become a prophet in the LDS Church, a Utah convention helped ratify the 21st Amendment.[50]

While Utah can be considered the deciding 36th state to ratify the Amendment and make it law, the day Utahapproved the Amendment, both Pennsylvania and Ohio approved it as well.One of the main reasons why enforcement of prohibition did not proceed smoothly was the inefficient means ofenforcing the laws set forth by the 18th amendment. From its very inception, the law lacked legitimacy in the eyes ofthe public who had previously been drinkers and yet completely law-abiding citizens. The public in some instancesviewed the laws as being “arbitrary and unnecessary” and therefore were willing to breach them. Consequently, lawenforcements agents who had not been bribed to turn a blind eye, found themselves overwhelmed by the dramaticrise in the illegal distribution of alcohol on such a wide scale due to the Volstead Act. The scale of the task was notanticipated and consequently the necessary resources to pursue it were not allocated. Additionally, enforcement ofthe 18th amendment lacked centralized authority and many attempts to impose prohibitionist laws were deterred dueto the lack of transparency between federal and state authorities. Furthermore, the reality of American geographycontributed significantly to the difficulties in enforcing prohibition. The terrain of valleys, mountains, lakes andswamps as well as the extensive seaways, ports and massive borders running along Canada and Mexico made itexceedingly difficult for prohibition agents to stop bootleggers given their lack of resources. Ultimately it wasrecognized with its repeal that the means by which the law was to be enforced was not pragmatic, and that in manycases the legislature did not match the general public opinion.[51]

Prohibition was a major blow for the alcohol industry and repeal was therefore a step toward the amelioration of onesector of the economy. A perfect example for this is the case of St. Louis. The city had been one of the mostimportant alcohol producers before prohibition started and was ready to take back its position as soon as possible. Itsmajor brewery had "50,000 barrels" of beer ready to be sent since March 22. It was the first alcohol producer to refillthe market, but others followed. This slowly allowed stores to obtain alcohol after, of course, having obtained alicense. The restart of beer production allowed thousands of workers to find jobs again.[52]

Prohibition created a black market that competed with the formal economy, which already was under pressure. Roosevelt was elected based on the New Deal, which promised improvement to the economy that was only possible

Prohibition in the United States 9

if the formal economy competed successfully against various economic forces, including the effects of prohibition'sblack market. This influenced his support for ratifying the 21st amendment, which repealed the 18th amendment thathad established prohibition.[53]

Post-repealFurther information: Dry state, Dry county, and List of dry communities by U.S. state

Map showing dry (red), wet (blue), and mixed (yellow) counties in the United States. (SeeList of dry communities by U.S. state.)

The Twenty-first Amendment does notprevent states from restricting orbanning alcohol. This led to apatchwork of laws in which alcoholmay be legally sold in some but not alltowns or counties within a particularstate. After repeal of the 18thamendment, some states continued toenforce prohibition laws. Mississippi,which had made alcohol illegal in1907, was the last state to repealProhibition in 1966. Kansas did notallow sale of liquor "by the drink"(on-premises) until 1987. To thepresent day, there are still numerous"dry" counties and towns in Americathat restrict or prohibit liquor sales.[54]

Additionally, many tribal governments prohibit alcohol on Indian reservations. Federal law also prohibits alcohol onIndian reservations,[55] although this law is currently only enforced if there is a concomitant violation of local triballiquor laws.[56] The federal law prohibiting alcohol in Indian country pre-dates the Eighteenth Amendment. Noconstitutional changes were necessary prior to the passage of this law, as Indian Reservations and federal territorieshave always been considered areas of direct federal jurisdiction.

At the end of Prohibition, some supporters openly admitted its failure. A letter written in 1932 by John D.Rockefeller, Jr., states:[57]

When Prohibition was introduced, I hoped that it would be widely supported by public opinion and the daywould soon come when the evil effects of alcohol would be recognized. I have slowly and reluctantly come tobelieve that this has not been the result. Instead, drinking has generally increased; the speakeasy has replacedthe saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has appeared; many of our best citizens have openly ignoredProhibition; respect for the law has been greatly lessened; and crime has increased to a level never seen before.

It is not clear if Prohibition did reduce per-capita consumption of alcohol. While some historians claim that not untilthe 1960s did consumption in the United States exceed pre-Prohibition levels.[58] others claim that the consumptionlevels of alcohol reached the pre-prohibition levels several years after its enactment, and have risen afterwards.[59]

Cirrhosis of the liver, normally a result of alcoholism, dropped nearly 2/3 during Prohibition.[60][61]

Regardless, in the decades after Prohibition Americans gradually shed any stigma they might have had againstalcohol. According to a Gallup Poll survey conducted almost every year since 1939, some two-thirds of Americanadults 18 and older drink alcohol.[62]

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Prohibition and pietistic ProtestantismProhibition in the early to mid-twentieth century was fueled by the Protestant denominations in the U.S.[63] Pietisticchurches in the U.S. sought to end drinking and the saloon culture during the Third Party System. Liturgical ("high")churches (Catholic, Epsicopal, German Lutheran) opposed prohibition laws because they did not want thegovernment deciding what was and was not moral.[64]

Revivalism in Second Great Awakening and the Third Great Awakening in the mid and late 19th century set thestage for the bond between pietistic Protestantism and prohibition in the United States: “The greater prevalence ofrevival religion within a population, the greater support for the Prohibition parties within that population.”[65]

Historian Nancy Koester expressed the belief that Prohibition was a “victory for progressives and social gospelactivists battling poverty”.[66] Prohibition also united progressives and revivalists.[67]

Effects of the Prohibition

Organized crimeOrganized crime received a major boost from Prohibition. Mafia groups limited their activities to prostitution,gambling, and theft until 1920, when organized bootlegging manifested in response to the effect of Prohibition.[68] Aprofitable, often violent, black market for alcohol flourished. Powerful criminal gangs corrupted law enforcementagencies, leading to racketeering. In essence, prohibition provided a financial basis for organized crime toflourish.[69]

Rather than reducing crime it seemed, Prohibition had transformed the cities into battlegrounds between opposingbootlegging gangs. In a study of over 30 major U.S cities during the prohibition years of 1920 and 1921, the numberof crimes increased by 24%. Additionally, theft and burglaries increased by 9%, homicide by 12.7%, assaults andbattery rose by 13%, drug addiction by 44.6% and police department costs rose by 11.4%. It has been speculated thatthis was largely the result of “black-market violence” as well as law enforcing resources having been divertedelsewhere. Despite the beliefs of the prohibitionist movement that by outlawing alcohol crime would surely bereduced, the reality was that the Volstead Act led to worse social conditions than were experienced prior toprohibition as demonstrated by more lethal forms of alcohol, increased crime rates, and the establishment of a blackmarket dominated by criminal organizations.[70]

Furthermore, stronger liquor surged in popularity because its potency made it more profitable to smuggle. To preventbootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to produce illegal beverages, the government ordered the poisoningof industrial alcohols. In response, bootleggers hired chemists who successfully renatured the alcohol to make itdrinkable. As a response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add more deadly poisons, including theparticularly deadly methyl alcohol. New York City medical examiners prominently opposed these policies becauseof the danger to human life. As many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol before Prohibitionended.[71]

In the "Chemist's War" it does not appear that the government intended to kill Americans with these poisons. Theywrongly assumed that people out of fear would stop drinking alcohol. New York City medical examiner CharlesNorris believed the government took responsibility for murder when they knew the poison was not detering peopleand they continued to poison industrial alcohol (which would be used in drinking alcohol) anyway. Charles Norrissaid, "The government knows it is not stopping drinking by putting poison in alcohol..."[Y]et it continues itspoisoning processes, heedless of the fact that people determined to drink are daily absorbing that poison. Knowingthis to be true, the United States government must be charged with the moral responsibility for the deaths thatpoisoned liquor causes, although it cannot be held legally responsible." [72]

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Al Capone, the Prohibition-era leader of organized crime in Chicago.

Another lethal substance that was often substituted foralcohol was "canned heat," also commonly known asSterno. By forcing the substance through a makeshiftfilter, such as a handkerchief, to create a rough liquorsubstitute. However, the result was poisonous, thoughnot often lethal. Many of those who were poisoned as aresult united to sue the government for reparations afterthe end of Prohibition.[73]

Making alcohol at home was very common duringProhibition. Stores sold grape concentrate with warninglabels that listed the steps that should be avoided toprevent the juice from fermenting into wine. As well,some drug stores would sell a "medical wine" with around a 22% alcohol content; in order to justify the sale, thewine was given a medicinal taste.[73] Home-distilled hard liquor was referred to as “bathtub gin” in northern cities,and moonshine in the rural areas of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. Home-brewing goodhard liquor was easier than brewing good beer.[73] Since selling privately distilled alcohol was illegal and bypassedtaxation by the government, the law relentlessly pursued manufacturers.[74]

In response, the bootleggers in southern states started creating their own souped-up, stock-looking cars by enhancingtheir cars’ engines and suspensions to create a faster vehicle. Having a faster vehicle during Prohibition, theypresumed, would improve their chances of outrunning and escaping agents of the Bureau of Prohibition, commonlycalled "revenue agents" or "revenuers." These cars became known as “moonshine runners” or "'shine runners".[75]

Ships were also known to collaborate with the underground liquor market, by loading their stocks with ingredientsfor liquors, which anyone could legally purchase (these include: benedictine, vermouth, scotch mash, and even ethylalcohol).[76]

Prohibition also had a large effect on the music industry in the United States, specifically with jazz. Speakeasiesbecame far more popular during that time and the effects of the Great Depression caused a migration that led to agreater dispersal of jazz music. Movement began from New Orleans and went north through Chicago and to NewYork. This also meant developing different styles in the different cities. Because of its popularity in speakeasies andthe development of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very popular very fast. It was also at the forefrontof the minimal integration efforts going on at the time, as it united mostly black musicians with mostly whitecrowds.[77]

Along with other economic effects, the enactment of prohibition and the resulting enforcement and the resourcesdedicated to that enforcement increased. During the 1920s, the annual budget of the Bureau of Prohibition went from$4.4 million to $13.4 million. Additionally, the Coast Guard spent an average of $13 million annually onprohibition.[78] These numbers do not take into account the costs to local and state governments.When repeal of Prohibition occurred in 1933, organized crime lost nearly all of its black market alcohol profits inmost states (states still had the right to enforce their own laws concerning alcohol consumption) because ofcompetition with low-priced alcohol sales at legal liquor stores.

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Other impacts

Pre-Prohibition saloons were mostly male establishments;post-Prohibition bars catered to both males and females.

As a result of prohibition, the advancements ofindustrialization within the alcohol industry wereessentially reversed. This was achieved by large scalealcohol producers being shut down for the most partand individual citizens taking it upon themselves toproduce alcohol illegally. This process reversed theefficiency of mass producing and retailing alcoholicbeverages. Closing manufacturing plants and tavernsresulted in economic reversal. The EighteenthAmendment originally did not have this effect on theindustry due to its failure to define what an“intoxicating” beverage was. The Volstead Act’sdefinition of 0.5% or more alcohol by volumeconstituting “intoxicating” shut down the brewers who had expected to still be able to produce beer of moderatestrength.[79]

As the saloon began to die out, public drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in increased socialacceptance of women drinking in the semi-public environment of the speakeasies. This new norm establishedwomen as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who sought to expand their clientele.[79]

And in the year before the Volstead Act became law, it was estimated by the 1930 Prohibition Commissioner, thatthe average drinking American spent $17 per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, because enforcement diminishedthe supply, this had increased to $35 per year (there was no inflation in this period), resulting in an illegal alcoholbeverage industry that made an average of $3 billion per year in illegal untaxed income.[80]

Heavy drinkers and alcoholics were among the most affected parties during prohibition. Those who were determinedto find liquor could still do so, but those who saw their drinking habits as destructive typically had difficulty infinding the help they sought. The self-help societies had withered away along with the alcohol industry and in 1935 anew self-help group was founded: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).[79]

Prohibition had a notable effect on the alcohol brewing industry in the United States. When Prohibition ended, onlyhalf the breweries that previously existed reopened. Wine historians also note Prohibition destroyed what was afledgling wine industry in the United States. Productive wine quality grape vines were replaced by lower qualityvines growing thicker skinned grapes that could be more easily transported. Much of the institutional knowledge wasalso lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether.[81]

Distilled spirits became more popular during Prohibition,[73] and because of its higher alcohol content in comparisonto fermented wine and beer, mixing and watering down the hard alcohol also became common.[73]

Winemaking during Prohibition

The Volstead Act specifically allowed individual farmers to make certain wines "on the legal fiction that it was anon-intoxicating fruit-juice for home consumption",[82] and many people did so. Enterprising grape farmersproduced liquid and semi-solid grape concentrates, often called "wine bricks" or "wine blocks".[83] This demand ledCalifornia grape growers to increase their land under cultivation by about 700% in the first five years of prohibition.The grape concentrate was sold with a warning: "After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place theliquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it would turn into wine."[14] One grape blockproducer sold nine varieties: Port, Virginia Dare, Muscatel, Angelica, Tokay, Sauterne, Riesling, Claret andBurgundy.

Prohibition in the United States 13

The Volstead Act allowed the sale of sacramental wine to priests and rabbis. This was used as a loophole to purchasewine by imposters as well.[30]

Notes[1] Wayne Curtis, "Bootleg Paradise," (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ node/ 61839) American Heritage, April/May 2007.[2] Prohibition: The Noble Experiment (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 04oct/ 00492/ ) Oracle ThinkQuest[3] Jack S. Blocker et al. eds (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C& pg=PA23). ABC-CLIO. p. 23. .[4] Vick, Dwight (2010). Drugs and Alcohol in the 21st Century: Theory, Behavior, and Policy (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=fwRF5tFand8C& pg=PA128& dq="alcohol+ prohibition+ became+ law+ on+ january+ 17"& hl=en&ei=kf01Tf70NoeqhAfQta3PCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& sqi=2& ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q="alcoholprohibition became law on january 17"& f=false). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7637-7488-2. . Retrieved 2011-01-18.

[5] Miller, William D. Pretty Bubbles in the Air: American in 1919, University of Illinois Press, 1991, p. 151. ISBN 0-252-01823-0[6] Burlington Historical Society 2010 March newsletter (http:/ / www. burlingtonhistory. org/ Newsletters/ 2010 March newsletter-1. htm)[7] Fitzgerald, F. Scott This Side of Paradise (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ thissideofparadi00fitzuoft#page/ 223/ mode/ 1up), Charles

Scribner's Sons, 1920, p. 223. ("The advent of prohibition with the 'thirsty-first' put a sudden stop to[...]" [referring to July of 1919]); andFitzgerald, F. Scott The Beautiful and the Damned (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zhP5Ez_rLWsC& pg=PA407& lpg=PA407&dq=prohibition+ "thirsty-first"& source=bl& ots=RGlcJHsJAB& sig=8rySnj5-X_-4NUMhARZFTBnNWQ8& hl=en&ei=quqpTcOTBefRiAKrs6XvDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CCQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=prohibition"thirsty-first"& f=false), Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 407, note 321.2 ("[W]hen prohibition came in July [...]").

[8][8] "Beer: A History of Brewing in Chicago", Bob Skilnik, Baracade Books, 2006, ISBN 978-1-56980-312-7[9] "Teaching With Documents: The Volstead Act and Related Prohibition Documents" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ education/ lessons/

volstead-act/ ). United States National Archives. 2008-02-14. . Retrieved 2009-03-24.[10] Von Drehle, David (24 May 2010). "The Demon Drink" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1989146,00. html). New

York, New York: Time. pp. 56. .[11] David E. Kyvig, Repealing National Prohibition (2000)[12] "TTBGov General Alcohol FAQs" (http:/ / www. ttb. gov/ faqs/ genalcohol. shtml#g1). United States Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade

Bureau. 2006-04. . Retrieved 2010-11-07.[13] Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits : A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. HarperCollins. p. 73.

ISBN 0-06-054218-7.[14] Aaron, Paul; Musto, David (1981). "Temperance and Prohibition in America: An Historical Overview". In Moore, Mark H.; Gerstein, Dean

R.. Alcohol and Public Policy: Beyond the Shadow of Prohibition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. pp. 127–181.ISBN 0-309-03149-4.

[15] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 10.[16] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 16.[17] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 16.[18] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movements: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 14.[19] Bordin, Ruth (1981). Women and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 8.[20] Willard, Frances E. (2007). Let Something Good Be Said: Speeches and Writings of Frances E. Willard. Chicago: University of Illinois

Press. pp. 78.[21] Blocker, Jack S. (1989). American Temperance Movement: Cycles of Reform. Boston: Twayne Publishers. pp. 13.[22] "Carry A. Nation: The Famous and Original Bar Room Smasher" (http:/ / www. kshs. org/ exhibits/ carry/ carry1. htm). Kansas Historical

Society. 2002-11-01. . Retrieved 2008-12-21.[23][23] Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review. Volume: 222. Number: 828. September, 1925. 40-44.[24][24] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 86-87, ISBN

978-0-8147=2028-8[25] Paul Kleppner, The Third Electoral System 1853-1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures. (1979) pp 131-39; Paul Kleppner, Continuity

and Change in Electoral Politics, 1893-1928. (1987); Ballard Campbell, "Did Democracy Work? Prohibition in Late Nineteenth-centuryIowa: a Test Case." Journal of Interdisciplinary History (1977) 8(1): 87-116; and Eileen McDonagh, "Representative Democracy and StateBuilding in the Progressive Era." American Political Science Review 1992 86(4): 938-950.

[26][26] Jensen (1971) ch 5.[27] Lerner, Michael A. Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City, Harvard University Press, 2007.[28] Lerner, Michael A. Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City, Harvard University Press, 2007 p.96-97[29] Us Americanization –American National Identify and Ideologies of Americanization (http:/ / science. jrank. org/ pages/ 8266/

Americanization-U-S-American-National-Identity-Ideologies-Americanization. html)[30] Okrent, Daniel. (2010). Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-7702-3. OCLC 419812305[31] E.g., "The Economics of War Prohibition", pp. 143-144 in: Survey Associates, Inc., The Survey, Volume 38, April–September, 1917.[32] Kyvig, David E: "Women Against Prohibition." American Quarterly. 28, no. 4 (Autumn, 1976), 465-482.

Prohibition in the United States 14

[33] Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Garry (1991). Royal Observations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=z0tRpB891bIC& printsec=frontcover&dq=toffoli& cd=4#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd.. p. 41. ISBN 1-55002-076-5. . Retrieved 7 March 2010.

[34] Appel, Jacob M. "Physicians Are Not Bootleggers: The Short, Peculiar Life of the Medicinal Alcohol Movement." The Bulletin of theHistory of Medicine (Summer, 2008)

[35] Prohibition, part II A Nation of Scofflaws (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ kenburns/ prohibition/ ). A documentary film series by Ken Burns andLynn Novick. Video excerpt (http:/ / video. pbs. org/ video/ 2086033109).

[36] Howe, Scott N. (25 April 2010). "Probing Prohibition" (http:/ / drinkboston. com/ 2010/ 04/ 25/ probing-prohibition/ ). DrinkBoston. .Retrieved 15 February 2012.

[37] United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/3947-united-states-coast-guard-office-of-law-enforcement-us-government#ixzz1eaFKZRuK)

[38][38] 11 Coast Guard men killed between 1925 and 1927[39] Bureau of Prohibition (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/

5854-united-states-department-of-the-treasury-internal-revenue-service-prohibition-unit-us-government)[40][40] 56 agents killed between 1920 and 1927[41] Bureau of Prohibition (http:/ / www. odmp. org/ agency/ 5856-united-states-department-of-justice-bureau-of-prohibition-us-government)[42][42] 34 agents killed between 1930 and 1934[43] Oshinsky, David, "The Rise and Fall of Prohibition," The New York Times, book review, May 13, 2010[44][44] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 189, ISBN

978-0-8147-2028-8[45] Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press. pp. 42–45.

ISBN 978-1-60949-236-6.[46][46] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 145, ISBN

978-0-8147-2028-8[47] Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press. pp. 125–133.

ISBN 978-1-60949-236-6.[48][48] Davis, Marni, "Jews And Booze: Becoming American In The Age Of Prohibition," New York University Press, 2012, p. 191, ISBN

978-0-8147-2028-8[49] Friedrich, Otto; Gorey, Hays (February 1, 1982). "F.D.R.'s Disputed Legacy" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/

0,9171,954983-6,00. html). Time. . Retrieved May 22, 2010.[50] Reeve, W. Paul, "Prohibition Failed to Stop the Liquor Flow in Utah" (http:/ / historytogo. utah. gov/ utah_chapters/ from_war_to_war/

prohibitionfailedtostoptheliquorflowinutah. html). Utah History to Go. (First published in History Blazer, February 1995)[51][51] Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Dated

January 7th 1931 "Bad Features of the Present Situation and Difficulties in the Way of Enforcement[52][52] New York Times, 50,000 barrels ready in St Louis, March 23rd 1933[53][53] Prohibition, Repeal, and Historical Cycles, Dwight B Heath, Brown University Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies[54] Burkhart, Jeff (2010). "The Great Experiment: Prohibition Continues" (http:/ / nationalgeographicassignmentblog. com/ 2010/ 08/ 19/

the-great-experiment-prohibition-continues/ ). National Geographic Assignment. . Retrieved 2010-11-20.[55][55] 18 USC, § 1154[56] Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs (March 1, 2008). "Survey of American Indian alcohol statutes, 1975-2006: evolving needs and

future opportunities for tribal health" (http:/ / goliath. ecnext. com/ coms2/ gi_0199-7634942/ Survey-of-American-Indian-alcohol. html). .[57] Letter on Prohibition - see Daniel Okrent, Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center, New York: Viking Press, 2003. (pp.246/7).[58] The Jazz Age: The American 1920s - Prohibition (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display. cfm?HHID=441) Digital

History[59] Did Alcohol Use Decrease During Alcohol Prohibition? (http:/ / druglibrary. org/ prohibitionresults1. htm) Drug Library[60] (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display. cfm?HHID=441)[61] (http:/ / pubs. niaaa. nih. gov/ publications/ arh27-3/ 209-219. htm)[62] Peck, Garrett (2009). The Prohibition Hangover: Alcohol in America from Demon Rum to Cult Cabernet. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers

University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-8135-4592-9.[63] Howard Clark Kee, Christianity: A Social and Cultural History. 2nd ed. (Prentice Hall, 1998) p. 486[64] Richard J. Jensen (1971). The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896 (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=XpCgCNZwpvoC& pg=PA67). U. of Chicago Press. p. 67. .[65] George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change : Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United

States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.p.65[66] Nancy Koester, Fortress Introduction to the History of Christianity in the United States (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007) p. 154.[67] Robert Francis Martin (2002). Hero of the Heartland: Billy Sunday and the Transformation of American Society, 1862-1935 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=dxIH-kJrANwC& pg=PA111). Indiana U.P.. p. 111. .[68] Organized Crime - American Mafia (http:/ / law. jrank. org/ pages/ 11944/ Organized-Crime-American-Mafia. html), Law Library -

American Law and Legal Information

Prohibition in the United States 15

[69][69] Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. DatedJanuary 7th 1931

[70][70] Charles Hanson Towne, The Rise and Fall of Prohibition: The Human Side of What the Eighteenth Amendment Has Done to the UnitedStates (New York: Macmillan, 1923) p.159-162

[71] Blum, Deborah. "The Chemist's War: The Little-told Story of how the U.S. Government Poisoned Alcohol During Prohibition, with DeadlyConsequences" (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2245188), Slate. Washington Post, Feb. 2010. Web. 19 Feb. 2010.

[72] Blum, Deborah. "The Chemist's War" (http:/ / www. slate. com/ articles/ health_and_science/ medical_examiner/ 2010/ 02/the_chemists_war. 2. html) Slate. February 19, 2010.

[73] Lusk, Rufus S. "The Drinking Habit". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume: 163. Prohibition: ANational Experiment. September, 1932. 46-52.

[74][74] Oldham, Scott. "NASCAR Turns 50." Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Aug. 1998. Web. 23 Nov. 2009.[75][75] "NASCAR, an Overview - Part 1." Suite101.com. Google. Web. 22 Nov. 2009.[76] Willing, Joseph K. "The Profession of Bootlegging". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume: 125.

Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment. May, 1926. 40-48.[77] Erenberg, Lewis A. Swingin' the Dream : Big Band Jazz and the Rebirth of American Culture (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press),

1998.[78] Bureau of Prohibition, Statistics Concerning Intoxicating Liquors. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1930. pp. 2.[79] Blocker, Jr., Jack S. (February 2006). "Did Prohibition Really Work?". American Journal of Public Health 96 (2): 233–243.[80] "Interview With Dr. James M. Doran." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OigDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA19& dq=1930+ plane+

"Popular& hl=en& ei=UoKOTpXcNMOUtwfE1sSLDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage& q=1930 plane "Popular& f=true) Popular Science Monthly, November 1930, interview withProhibition Commissioner, see p. 147

[81] Karen MacNeil, The Wine Bible, pp.630-631.[82] Time magazine article from 1931 on wine bricks (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,742105,00. html)[83] Burnham, Kelsey (2010-04-18). "Prohibition in Wine Country". Napa Valley Register.

References• Blocker, Jack S., et al. eds (2003). Alcohol and Temperance in Modern History: An International Encyclopedia

(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=BuzNzm-x0l8C& pg=PA23). ABC-CLIO. p. 23.• Ken Burns, Lynn Novick (October 2011). Prohibition (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ kenburns/ prohibition/

watch-video/ #id=15393956). PBS. ISBN 978-1-60883-430-3. OCLC 738476083.• Jensen, Richard J. (1971). The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888-1896 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=XpCgCNZwpvoC). U of Chicago Press. full text online• Kingsdale, Jon M. "The 'Poor Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," American

Quarterly vol. 25 (October, 1973): 472-89. in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2711634)• Kyvig; David E. Law, Alcohol, and Order: Perspectives on National Prohibition Greenwood Press, 1985.• Lender, Mark, ed. Dictionary of American Temperance Biography Greenwood Press, 1984• Miron, Jeffrey A. and Jeffrey Zwiebel. “Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition.” American Economic Review

81, no. 2 (1991): 242-247.• Miron, Jeffrey A. "Alcohol Prohibition" (http:/ / www. eh. net/ encyclopedia/ article/ miron. prohibition. alcohol)

Eh.Net Encyclopedia (2005)• Moore, L.J. "Historical interpretation of the 1920s Klan: the traditional view and the popular revision" Journal of

Social History, 1990, 24 (2), 341-358. in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3787502)• Sellman; James Clyde. "Social Movements and the Symbolism of Public Demonstrations: The 1874 Women's

Crusade and German Resistance in Richmond, Indiana" Journal of Social History. Volume: 32. Issue: 3. 1999. pp557+.

• Rumbarger; John J. Profits, Power, and Prohibition: Alcohol Reform and the Industrializing of America,1800–1930, State University of New York Press, 1989.

• Sinclair; Andrew. Prohibition: The Era of Excess 1962.• Timberlake, James. Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920 Harvard University Press, 1963.• Tracy, Sarah W. and Caroline Jean Acker; Altering American Consciousness: The History of Alcohol and Drug

Use in the United States, 1800–2000. University of Massachusetts Press, 2004

Prohibition in the United States 16

• Walsh, Victor A. "'Drowning the Shamrock': Drink, Teetotalism and the Irish Catholics of Gilded-AgePittsburgh," Journal of American Ethnic History vol. 10, no. 1-2 (Fall 1990-Winter 1991): 60-79.

• Lusk, Rufus S. "The Drinking Habit". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Volume:163. Prohibition: A National Experiment. September, 1932. 46-52.

• Willing, Joseph K. "The Profession of Bootlegging". Annals of the American Academy of Political and SocialScience. Volume: 125. Modern Crime: Its Prevention and Punishment. May, 1926. 40-48.

• Hopkins, Richard J. "The Prohibition and Crime". The North American Review. Volume: 222. Number: 828.September, 1925. 40-44.

Further reading• Behr, Edward. (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN

1-55970-356-3.• Burns, Eric. (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

ISBN 1-59213-214-6.• Clark, Norman H. (1976). Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition. New York: Norton.

ISBN 0-393-05584-1.• Kahn, Gordon, and Al Hirschfeld. (1932, rev. 2003). The Speakeasies of 1932. New York: Glenn Young Books.

ISBN 1-55783-518-7.• Kobler, John. (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN

0-399-11209-X.• Lerner, Michael A. (2007). Dry Manhattan: Prohibition in New York City. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press. ISBN 0-674-02432-X.• Murdoch, Catherine Gilbert. (1998). Domesticating Drink: Women, Men, and Alcohol in America, 1870-1940.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5940-9.• Okrent, Daniel. (2010). Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-7702-3.

OCLC 419812305• Peck, Garrett (2011). Prohibition in Washington, D.C.: How Dry We Weren't. Charleston, SC: The History Press.

ISBN 1-60949-236-6.• Peck, Garrett. (2009). The Prohibition Hangover: Alcohol in America from Demon Rum to Cult Cabernet.

Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-4592-7.• Pegram, Thomas R. (1998). Battling Demon Rum: The Struggle for a Dry America, 1800-1933. Chicago: Ivan R.

Dee. ISBN 1-56663-208-0.• Waters, Harold. (1971). Smugglers of Spirits: Prohibition and the Coast Guard Patrol. New York: Hastings

House. ISBN 0-8038-6705-0.

External links• Alcohol prohibition (http:/ / eh. net/ encyclopedia/ miron. prohibition. alcohol. php) (EH.Net economic history

encyclopedia)• The Effect of Alcohol Prohibition on Alcohol Consumption (PDF) (http:/ / www. economics. harvard. edu/

faculty/ miron/ files/ drunk_revised_for_el. pdf)• Hypertext History — U.S. Prohibition (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ database/ article_display.

cfm?HHID=441)• Prohibition news page (http:/ / historyofalcoholanddrugs. typepad. com/ alcohol_and_drugs_history/ prohibition/

index. html) — Alcohol and Drugs History Society• About.com: Prohibition (in the U.S.) (http:/ / history1900s. about. com/ od/ 1920s/ p/ prohibition. htm)

Prohibition in the United States 17

• Did Prohibition Reduce Alcohol Consumption and Crime? (http:/ / www. druglibrary. org/ Prohibitionresults.htm)

• Report on the Enforcement of the Prohibition Laws of the United States by the National Commission on LawObservance and Enforcement (Wickersham Commission Report on Alcohol Prohibition) (http:/ / druglibrary. org/schaffer/ Library/ studies/ wick/ index. html)

• Senate Judiciary Committee Hearings on Alcohol Prohibition — 1926 (http:/ / www. druglibrary. org/ schaffer/history/ e1920/ senj1926/ Default. htm)

• Policy Analysis — Alcohol Prohibition Was A Failure (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ pas/ pa-157. html)• Prohibition in Appalachia: "Little Chicago" The Story of Johnson City,Tennessee (http:/ / www. johnsonsdepot.

com/ chicago/ chicago. htm)• Free from the Nightmare of Prohibition (http:/ / harrybrowne. org/ GLO/ DrugWar. htm) (by Harry Browne)• Historic Images of US Prohibition (http:/ / www. old-picture. com/ prohibition-index-001. htm)• Prohibition: How Dry We Ain't (http:/ / www. life. com/ image/ first/ in-gallery/ 37542/

prohibition-how-dry-we-aint) - slideshow by Life magazine• "Interview With Dr. James M. Doran." (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OigDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA19&

dq=1930+ plane+ "Popular& hl=en& ei=UoKOTpXcNMOUtwfE1sSLDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=3& ved=0CDwQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage& q=1930 plane "Popular& f=true) Popular Science Monthly,November 1930, pp. 19–21/146-147, interview with the Prohibition Commissioner 1930.

• "How Are You Going to Wet Your Whistle?" as recorded by Billy Murray (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ jukebox/recordings/ detail/ id/ 6991)

Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and ContributorsProhibition in the United States  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520834845  Contributors: 21655, 32red, 8TheSteer, A8UDI, AWoodland, Abce2, Aboklage, Acather96,Adam Keller, Adambro, Adom2000, Afterbirths, Aglomax, Agne27, Aharm, AirdishStraus, Aitias, Alansohn, Alex43223, AlexiusHoratius, AlexnHills, Alicekim53, Allmidgetsunited,Allstarecho, Amcalabrese, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andy120, Antandrus, Archanamiya, Arekellyproductions, Arlesd, Asc85, Ashman1992, Ashmoo, Autocracy, Avenged Eightfold,Awest6033, BBrad31, Bad Gopher Gear, Badger Drink, Barfbag123, Baseball Bugs, BaseballCougz, BaseballDetective, Bdell555, Bdimag, Bearian, Beland, Ben Ben, Bender235, Bento00,Betempte, Bill, Billlogalneedslove, Bipedantics, Biruitorul, Bkwillwm, BlameHim, Bluebasket, Bmclaughlin9, Bobblehead, Bobby122, Bobdylanfan, Bobmack89x, Bobo192, Bostonian Mike,Bparm, Bradley0110, Brandmeister, Braningillespie, Brevitas, Bridgecross, Brogman, Brownings, Buz lightning, Buzzbo, Buzztootight, Bwmcmaste, CTF83!, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eatme, CanadianLinuxUser, Canationalist, Canoe1967, Canterbury Tail, Captain-n00dle, Carcharoth, CardinalDan, Carlosjde, Catdude, CatherineMunro, Cathy Richards, Chris the speller, Chrisbolt,Christopher Mann McKay, Chuckiesdad, Civil Engineer III, Clarince63, Clemux, Closedmouth, Comm315ae, CorpsBride, Countmall, Cpiral, CredoFromStart, Cryptic, Cyrius, DVdm, DanielQuinlan, Daniel11, DarcMac, DarkAdonis255, Darwinek, Davethedope, David Justin, Dead lotus, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Delldot, Dem1995, DerHexer, DesmondW, Diamondpkm,Discospinster, Dispenser, Dizzytheegg, Dmn0303, Docjay8406, DodgerDean, Doniago, Download, Dr bab, Droundy, Dto, Durova, Dynamike74, E. Ripley, Eaglizard, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Edison,Edivorce, Ekilfeather, Elektrik Shoos, Eliz81, Eog1916, Ericbakkum, Ericoides, Erpert, EryZ, Escape Orbit, Esrever, Euryalus, Everyking, Excirial, Facts707, Farras Octara, Fastily, Favonian,Fdesroches, FishUtah, Flex, Flowanda, Fluffernutter, Flyguy649, FoCuSandLeArN, Frehley, Friman, Fritzophrenic, Fryed-peach, Furrykef, Fæ, Gadfium, Gamgee, GandalfDaGraay, Garrettpeck,GcSwRhIc, Geni, GeorgeLouis, Gilliam, Giraffedata, Glacialfox, Gogo Dodo, Gomm, Gooseterrain, Gordym, Gototown, Grafen, Grahamdubya, Grayshi, Grblomerth, GregorB, GrindtXX,Ground Zero, Gtg204y, Gurch, Gveret Tered, HADRIANVS, HJ Mitchell, Hagerman, Hanacy, Haukurth, Hayden120, Hellasangle, HenryJohnson, Henrysh, HistoryNut, Hldavis4 uncg, Hmains,Hoplophile, HowardHawks, Hugo999, Hult041956, Hut 8.5, Hydrox, Hyperbole, I, Englishman, I.C. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Detroit police prohibition.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Detroit_police_prohibition.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (not listed)File:The Drunkard's Progress - Color.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Drunkard's_Progress_-_Color.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NathanielCurrierFile:WeinWeibUGesang.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WeinWeibUGesang.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Aotake, BlackIceNRW,Infrogmation, JPS68, Spinningspark, Tomas e, Wst, 1 anonymous editsFile:Woman's Christian Temperance Union Cartoon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Woman's_Christian_Temperance_Union_Cartoon.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Alicekim53File:Indiana Goes Dry 1917.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indiana_Goes_Dry_1917.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Central News Photo Service photoFile:The Gennii of Intolerance - A Dangerous Ally.tif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Gennii_of_Intolerance_-_A_Dangerous_Ally.tif  License: Public Domain Contributors: Oscar Edward Cesare (1885-1948)File:defender18thkkk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Defender18thkkk.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath, NJFile:Orange County Sheriff's deputies dumping illegal booze, Santa Ana, 3-31-1932.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orange_County_Sheriff's_deputies_dumping_illegal_booze,_Santa_Ana,_3-31-1932.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Orange County ArchivesFile:Policeman and wrecked car and cases of moonshine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Policeman_and_wrecked_car_and_cases_of_moonshine.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Infrogmation, MarmadukePercy, Theodulf, 1 anonymous editsFile:5 Prohibition Disposal(9).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:5_Prohibition_Disposal(9).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnkownFile:Repeal of Prohibition newsreel ca1933.ogv  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Repeal_of_Prohibition_newsreel_ca1933.ogv  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Guerillero, Infrogmation, Kozuch, Mahanga, Queeg, Rd232, ScewingFile:Alcohol control in the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alcohol_control_in_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:USA_Counties_with_FIPS_and_names.svg: *USA_Counties_with_names.svg: User:Mr. Matté derivative work: Kbh3rd (talk) derivative work: Fry1989File:AlCaponemugshotCPD.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlCaponemugshotCPD.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: en:United States Department ofJusticeFile:Raceland Louisiana Beer Drinkers Russell Lee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raceland_Louisiana_Beer_Drinkers_Russell_Lee.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Arbitrarily0, Infrogmation

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