program for handling yard waste - west virginia
TRANSCRIPT
PROGRAMFOR HANDLINGYARD WASTE
IN WEST VIRGINIA
GASTON CAPERTON, GOVERNOR
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCELABOR, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
RESOURCES
Prepared by:
THE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BOARD
WEST VIRGINIAYARD WASTE PROGRAM
MAY 1993
WV Solid Waste Management Board1615 Washington Street, East
Charleston, WV 25311304/558-0844
304/558-0899 (Fax)
Pursuant to W.Va. Code §20-11-8(b)
John Ranson Joyce Manyik Secretary, CLER Chair
Charles F. JordanDirector
Editor’s Note: The ban on landfilling yard waste was extended to January 1, 1997, by theLegislature.
WV SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BOARD
CHAIR Joyce Manyik
1146 Summit DriveSt. Albans, WV 25177
Term Ending: June 30, 2000(304) 727-8191
VICE CHAIRMark Nesselroad
1369 Stewartstown RoadMorgantown, WV 26505
Term Ending: June 30, 1996(304) 599-0395
MEMBERSMartha H. Moore Jerry E. Lawson
928 Riverside Drive 401 State Rpite 10 North Welch, WV 24801 Branchland, WV 25506Term Ending: June 30, 1998 Term Ending: June 30, 1997 (304) 436-3114 (O) (304) 824-5794 (H)
(304) 824-3047 (O)
Mallie CombsHC 70, Box 101
Morefield, WV 26836Term Ending: June 30, 1999
(304) 538-9368, (304) 538-6287 (O)
EX OFFICIO MEMBERS
Gretchen O. Lewis (Proxy)Joseph P. SchockSecretary of the Department of Department of Health & HumanHealth& Human Resources ResourcesBuilding 3, Room 206 Environmental Health1900 Kanawha Boulevard East 815 Quarrier St., Suite 418Charleston, WV 25305 Charleston, WV 25301-2616(304) 558-0684 (304) 558-2981
Laidley Eli McCoy, Ph.D. (Proxies) B. F. “Cap” Smith/DickCookeDirector Division of Environmental ProtectionDivision of Environmental Protection 1356 Hansford Street10 McJunkin Road Charleston, WV 25301-1401Nitro, WV 25143-2506 (304) 558-5929(304) 759-0515
WV SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BOARD STAFF
Executive Director .................................................................................... Charles F. Jordan
Fiscal Section ............................................................................................ David Pauley
Chief Planner ............................................................................................. Michael Volpe
Planner II .................................................................................................... Glenn Jarrell
Planner I ..................................................................................................... Rita Meneses
Administrative Aide .................................................................................. Pat Grishaber
Accounting Assistant III ........................................................................... Sharon Waugh
Secretary .................................................................................................... Diana Schwab
The information for this document was compiled and authored by the SWMB staff.
Table of Contents
Page #YARD WASTE ..................................................................................................... 1
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
SECTION 2 DETERMINING THE VOLUME OF YARD WASTE ............. 5
SECTION 3 YARD WASTE COLLECTION .............................................. 53.1 Methods of Collection .............................................................. 63.2 Dropoff Sites ........................................................................... 73.3 Collection Schedules ............................................................... 7
SECTION 4 COMPOSTING METHODS .................................................. 74.1 Composting as a Waste Management Alternative .................. 74.2 The Compost Process ............................................................. 84.3 Backyard Composting .............................................................. 94.4 Yardwaste Composting Technologies ................................... 10
4.4.1 Minimal Technology ................................................. 114.4.2 Low-Level Technology ............................................. 124.4.3 Intermediate-Level Technology ................................ 144.4.4 High-Level Technology ............................................ 16
4.5 Personnel............................................................................... 164.5.1 Requirements ........................................................... 164.5.2 Development of Operator TrainingCertification Program ......................................................... 17
SECTION 5 CHOOSING A SITE............................................................ 175.1 Site Area Requirements.......................................................... 18
5.1.1 Location ................................................................... 185.1.2 Zoning ...................................................................... 185.1.3 Topography .............................................................. 185.1.4 Buffer Zone .............................................................. 195.1.5 Water Source ........................................................... 195.1.6 Groundwater/Bedrock .............................................. 195.1.7 Wetland and Stream Encroachment ........................ 205.1.8 Soil Considerations .................................................. 205.1.9 Ownership ................................................................ 20
SECTION 6 QUALITY AND SITE CONTROLS ...................................... 216.1 Green Waste.......................................................................... 216.2 Quality of the End Product ..................................................... 216.3 Site Control ............................................................................ 226.4 Record Keeping ..................................................................... 226.5 Contingency Plan................................................................... 23
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SECTION 7 ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN COMPOSTING ..... 23
SECTION 8 MARKETS AND USES FOR YARD WASTE...................... 248.1 User Types ............................................................................ 248.2 Transportation........................................................................ 258.3 User Resistance to Change ................................................... 268.4 Demand ................................................................................. 268.5 Distribution ............................................................................. 26
SECTION 9 REGULATORY APPROVALS AND PERMITS .................. 28
SECTION 10 PUBLIC EDUCATION ...................................................... 2910.1 Using the News Media ......................................................... 3010.2 Publicity Without the News Media ....................................... 31
SECTION 11 EVALUATING THE COST OF YARD WASTECOMPOSTING OPTIONS ....................................................................... 31
CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................... 32
ACTION AGENDA FOR YARDWASTE MANAGEMENT ........................ 32
APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................... 351. Front-End Loaders ................................................................... 352. Vacuum Leaf Collectors ........................................................... 353. Grinders ................................................................................... 364. Chippers .................................................................................. 375. Shredders and Screeners - Finishing Equipment .................... 376. Compost Turners ..................................................................... 387. Monitoring Equipment .............................................................. 38
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................. 40
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 42
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 PROJECTED TIMELINE FOR IMPLEMENTIGYARD WASTE COMPOST........................................................................ 4
TABLE 2 COMPOST USERS................................................................. 24
TABLE 3 POTENTIAL MARKETS AND COMPOSTCHARACTERISTICS............................................................................... 28
TABLE 4 METHODS OF PUBLICITY..................................................... 30
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 SWMB YARDWASTE PROGRAM........................................... 3
FIGURE 2 YARDWASTE PROGRAM MILESTONES........................... 34
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YARD WASTE
SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
Composting of yard waste is an attractive disposal option for many communities
who wish to recycle plant nutrients, save landfill space and comply with West Virginia
laws prohibiting yard waste disposal in sanitary landfills. Composting can be a low-
effort, cost-effective and environmentally sound method to reuse a community’s yard
waste. Landfill space is conserved, disposal costs reduced and a useful end product is
produced with composting. Composting is a controlled process requiring advanced
planning and ongoing management. Key decision areas regarding yard waste collec-
tion, processing and compost end use will be addressed in this program. Table 1
summarizes the projected time schedule needed for implementing yard waste
composting projects.
Yard waste, which traditionally includes grass clippings, leaves and light brush,
can easily be composted in the back yard or in centralized composting operations. A
waste quantification and characterization study conducted for the West Virginia Solid
Waste Management Board (SWMB) indicates that yard waste makes up about 6% of
the waste stream (Source: Preliminary Feasibility Study of Alternative Project Concepts
for Processing and Materials Recovery of Solid Wastes Generated Within Waste Shed
“H”, William F. Cosulich Associates, LTD., 1991). It should be noted, however, that this
survey was conducted in November 1990. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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(USEPA) estimates that approximately 19% of the waste stream is yard waste. This indi-
cates composting may reduce the volume of waste going into landfills in West Virginia. If
one includes other organic waste (paper, food waste, and other wood waste) the volume of
material which can be composted jumps to over fifty percent of the waste stream.
A number of small-scale, low-technology composting operations are currently in
operation in various parts of West Virginia. These are primarily windrow operations which
use chippers and end loaders as their sole equipment. Many of these operations were
originally designed to avoid the tipping fees involved in the disposal of Christmas trees.
The final product, mulch or compost, is often given away. Citizens take the shredded
material for mulch before it can decompose into humus.
1.1 The Major Components of a Yard Waste Program
The major components of a yard waste program include:
1. Determining the volume of yard waste
2. Collection methods
3. Evaluating different composting methods
4. Choosing a site
5. Determining end uses for composting
6. Securing regulatory approvals and permits
7. Alerting and educating residents
8. Developing a protocol for monitoring the composting operation
9. Evaluating costs and benefits
10. Health and safety considerations
The major components of a yard waste program are depicted graphically in Figure 1.
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3
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SECTION 2 DETERMINING THE VOLUME OF YARD WASTE
Estimating the volume of yard waste is necessary to determine the size and type of
operation as well as to compute the amount of finished compost that may be available.
One way to measure yard waste volumes is to monitor the spring and fall collection
periods by measuring truck loads collected. The volume of yard waste managed at a
composing site will vary with the size of the area serviced, the method of collection and the
convenience of the collection site to residents and haulers. The density of yard waste
varies significantly but averages about 350 pounds per cubic yard when collected.
Although municipal waste generation is typically estimated on a per capita basis, the
relationship between population and generation rates for yard wastes varies widely accord-
ing to community characteristics such as population density, number of trees, annual rain
fall and average lawn size.
The more rural areas of the State will have little yard waste to go to a composting
facility. Most yard waste will be disposed of by being left on the lawn or left on an area of
the property. In the urban areas, such as those in Wasteshed H, collection will become
more significant and the class of composting needed will be greater.
The types and amount of yard waste generated varies significantly throughout the
year. Leaves account for most of the yard wastes generated from October through Novem-
ber, with about a six-week collection period. Grass clippings, shrub prunings, trees and
garden wastes predominated from April through October for approximately 26 weeks.
Although an estimation of yard wastes is necessary to determine what type of site is
necessary, the only accurate generation rates will come from recording the amounts that
are actually collected and/or delivered to the composting site during the first years of opera-
tion.
SECTION 3 YARD WASTE COLLECTION
Yard waste collection involves municipal and private haulers and independent haul-
ing by residents and groundskeepers. The best method of yard waste collection is actually
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no collection. Residents are encouraged to leave grass clippings on their yard. Education
will be necessary for proper care of the lawn with mulching mowers or blades.
3.1 Methods of Collection
Decision makers for cities or counties providing for yard waste collection must make
a series of choices about collection techniques and equipment. Cities and counties that
provide for a collection system for solid waste may want to also provide one for yard waste
not composted by the resident.
There are three basic methods of collecting yard waste for composting:
1. A drop-off system at the landfill or transfer station
2. Curbside collection in bags
3. Bulk collection in which yard waste is scooped, shredded, raked, swept or
vacuumed directly off the streets and along rights of way.
The best combination of collection techniques and equipment choices for a county
or municipality is the one which most efficiently provides the compost required by the end
user. Yard waste can be collected bagged or unbagged. Bagged yard waste typically has
little extraneous material and can be collected quickly with a standard compactor truck.
However, labor is required at the composting site to remove the yard waste from the bags,
and there may be a need to dispose of the bags afterward. Unbagged yard waste can be
collected with a vacuum truck or a front loader. This process is more time-consuming and
the amount of extraneous material is likely to be higher than when yard waste is bagged. A
vacuum recovery works well on dry yard waste; the front loader is more efficient for wet
and frozen yard waste material.
Woody materials such as trimmings and branches need to be separated from leaves
and grass for size reduction shredding prior to being added to the compost pile. The pres-
ence of large chips in compost may limit its potential end use. Therefore, screening is
necessary.
A section of the composting site should be set aside for garbage to be placed in a
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roll-off box to be hauled to the landfill.
In designing a collection system, the following should be considered:
1. Capital, operating and maintenance costs of equipment2. Availability and cost of labor3. Convenience for residents and businesses4. Cost of bags5. Existing equipment6. Effectiveness in excluding extraneous material7. Susceptibility to adverse weather8. Hazards associated with placing yard waste at curb or in street9. Potential noise and dust from collection equipment10. Training of workers - worker safety
3.2 Drop-off Sites
Drop-off sites will be used to a greater extent if they are well-advertised. Leaflets or
newspaper ads with a map and the hours the site is open will enhance public awareness of
the new program. Residents of small communities may also be encouraged to empty their
own yard waste, saving the bags for reuse.
3.3 Collection Schedules
New collection methods and schedules will run more smoothly if residents are well-
informed and schedules are uniformly adhered to. Newspaper articles, television and radio
spots, and neighborhood promotion prior to collection days will increase the level of com-
pliance. If special bags must be purchased for yard wastes, this fact should be advertised
along with the purchase locations.
SECTION 4 COMPOST METHODS
4.1 Composting as a Waste Management Alternative
Composting has been used as a means of converting organic wastes into a useful
material for thousands of years. Composting was originally done to generate a beneficial
soil amendment without an emphasis on waste management. However, during the last
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thirty years it has been recognized that composting can serve as a means of recycling
many types of wastes.
The initial emphasis on the use of composting technologies as a waste management
alternative was focused primarily on sewage sludge. During the 1960’s and 1970’s, a great
deal of research was conducted on technologies applied to yard waste composting.
Since the early sludge composting research, almost all types of organic waste have
been evaluated for their suitability for composting. Animal, food processing, pharmaceuti-
cal, petroleum, pulping, textile and other wastes have all been composted with some de-
gree of success. In addition, efforts have been made to compost organic portions of mu-
nicipal solid waste. Although, some MSW composting facilities are operational, the inability
to remove glass, plastic and some metal has limited the applicability of this technology.
Compost produced from MSW often contains small pieces of glass and metal that prevent
it from being distributed and used. It appears that improved segregation of MSW before
collection or at a centralized post collection site will be necessary before MSW composting
can become a standard practice.
Some yard waste composting has occurred for many years. However, the current
focus began in the mid 1980’s with work conducted by Strom and Finstein (1986) at
Rutgers University. During the last six years, efforts have been made to adapt composting
technologies to best handle yard waste. This work will be discussed in more detail later in
this program.
4.2 The Composting Process
Composting is an oxygen demanding process of controlled decomposition of organic
materials. The controlled process is very similar to natural leaf decomposition but occurs at
an accelerated rate. When leaves first fall, they remain on the surface for extended periods
but slowly begin to decompost due to fungal and bacterial activity. Because the tempera-
tures of natural leaf decomposition aren’t high, some of the survivors are harmful plant
pathogens. Controlled composting produces temperatures that kill and pasteurize, thus
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removing over-wintering harmful fungi and bacteria. The technologies used to control the
environmental factors will be discussed in more detail later.
4.3 Backyard Composting
Backyard composting is the first logical step in reducing the amount of organic
wastes going into our landfills. Processing yard wastes at the point of generation not only
has a positive environmental impact, but the costs of collecting, transporting, processing
and marketing by the municipality can all be reduced if home composting is encouraged.
Many people, especially organic gardeners, have been engaged in composting for
many years as a way to improve their soil. The addition of organic matter rich compost has
many beneficial effects for the soil, including:
1. increasing the water-holding capacity and reducing the chance of erosion
2. improving soil tilth, making it easier to cultivate3. preventing soil crusting and aiding in seeding emergence4. providing a food source for desirable soil micro-organisms and earthworms
from the added organic matter5. increasing the fertilizer-holding ability of the soil by increasing the cation
exchange capacity (CEC)6. providing some nutrients for plant growth
Overall, compost improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils.
Compost is not considered a primary fertilizer source because it is low in nutrient content,
but it is an excellent soil conditioner.
Municipalities should encourage backyard composting as a part of their overall yard
waste management program. Participation in backyard composting will depend in part on
the public’s understanding of the cost and problems associated with landfilling or otherwise
disposing of yard wastes. Seattle, Washington, for example, has a program where they
train “master composters” who in turn give demonstrations and advice on backyard
composting to other people.
There may be local ordinances is some areas that discourage or prohibit backyard
composting. While it is true that not all backyard composting operations are an asset to the
neighborhood or the environment, if properly constructed and maintained, a compost bin
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need not produce objectionable odors or attract unwanted animals.
Efforts should be made to increase backyard composting. Not only are savings
made in landfill space but the cost of collecting and transporting the materials is reduced.
The potential savings are so great that even modest increases in backyard composting
would justify a substantial public education effort. Individuals interested in backyard
composting need to contact their local county extension agents, since the cooperative
extension service has composting manuals and trained personnel.
Recently more manufacturers of yard equipment have begun to market “mulching”
mowers. These mowers allow grass clippings to return to the soil of the owner’s yard. The
price of these mowers is relatively higher when compared to traditional mowers; but as
more competition develops, the price should begin to drop. One can also retrofit mulching
blades on old mowers.
In West Virginia’s rural areas, yard waste is less likely to be sent to a landfill when
compared with more urban areas of West Virginia. Municipalities in West Virginia that are
mandated to develop recycling plans could have the handling of yard waste as part of their
plan.
As more landfills close in West Virginia due to legislative changes, regulations, liner
requirements, and overall costs, these sites may be developed into composting facilities.
These closed landfills may have some of the facilities already in place that could be used in
a composting operation.
4.4 Yard Waste Composting Technologies
For any compostable material, there are several technologies available for
composting. The most appropriate technology depends upon a combination of the follow-
ing factors: the material, available land area, nuisance potential, equipment availability,
available resources, potential environmental harm and regulatory requirements. Strom and
Finstein (1986), researchers on the use of composting, classified yard waste composting
procedures into four levels of technology based on equipment and resource requirements,
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composting time, land area requirement and quality of the finished product. Municipalities
and/or SWAs could cost-share and cooperatively use equipment supported by funded
proposals to the SWMB or other sources. These four levels are discussed below.
4.4.1 Minimal Technology
Generally, minimal technology is best suited to a locality with a large site, isolated
from heavily populated areas. At least one acre of storage/process space is recommended
for every 5,000 cubic yards of yard waste (Strom and Finstein, 1986). This does not
include any buffer zone, the size of which will vary for each site dependent upon location,
terrain and regulatory requirements. The yard waste brought to the site is immediately
formed into large windrows, (e.g. 12 ft. by 24 ft. wide) using a front-end loader. Though it is
not essential, the yard waste may be wetted while the windrows are formed. Wetting may
be necessary only in dry seasons, since the large piles will conserve moisture and will be
exposed to precipitation. If formed, the piles are turned only once a year for reforming and
mixing. It takes 3 years or more to get a finished product.
A serious limitation for this system is that the pile interior becomes anaerobic in a
short period of time and will only receive a new supply of oxygen each time the pile is
turned. Meanwhile, the pile exterior may dry and become moldy. The center of the pile
may also reach high temperatures (>140 F, 60 C) especially during the first year. Also,
unpleasant odors will be produced in this anaerobic environment, and will be released into
the air even without turning the pile. At one apparently isolated site in New Jersey, ten
odor complaints were filed during the first eight months of 1989. A quarter of a mile or
more between composting windrows and neighboring residential uses is recommended as
a minimum buffer zone. Besides the odor problem, the surface mold flora may contain
aspergillus fungi that can cause human pneumonitis.
The main advantage to this system is that it is relatively inexpensive, requiring little
equipment and labor. A front-end loader is only needed to form the initial windrows and to
do the yearly turning. Screening and grinding of the finished product is required if the
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compost is to be sold or given to the public. If, however, it were to be incorporated into
farm land, screening would be optional to remove large pieces of trash and plastic bags.
The major disadvantages are the odors produced, the length of time required to get
a final product, the large land area required, the low quality of the finished product and,
last but not least, a worker health problem. Minimal technology is only appropriate for
small volume facilities with large land areas where end product use is not a major concern.
Minimal technology facilities are not likely to be acceptable for use by many West Virginia
localities.
4.4.2 Low-Level Technology
The low-level technology system, in which moisture content, oxygenation, and
temperature are all monitored and controlled, will increase composting rate with minimal
additional capital investment and generate a more usable end product.
To obtain the 50% moisture content necessary for optimum decomposition, the yard
waste may need to be sprayed with water prior to or as the windrows are being formed.
Spraying the piles after formation leads to the water running off with little penetrating to the
inside of the pile. A rule of thumb for checking for proper moisture level is that it should be
possible to squeeze a few drops of water out of a handful of yard waste. About fifty gallons
of water will need to be added per cubic yard of dry collected leaves with that amount
reduced as the amount of grass clippings added increases.
The size of the windrows has a direct effect on the amount of oxygen that gets into
the windrows, which in turn affects the temperature and the microbial activity inside the
piles. The windrows should be large enough to conserve heat and moisture and minimize
area requirements but not so large as to create anaerobic conditions or increase the tem-
perature above the optimum for microbial growth. No single size pile can meet these
seemingly conflicting demands. One possible solution is to start with two moderately sized
piles, stacked close to each other, and combine them after one month. Researchers in
New Jersey recommend the piles be 6 feet high by 12 to 14 feet wide, but this size may
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need to be increased in colder areas of the state to maintain internal temperatures. This
will allow the first burst of microbial activity to occur heating up the piles and significantly
decreasing their size. The act of combining the windrows will then re-aerate the piles and
maintain adequate pile size to keep temperatures optimum allowing microbial activity to
continue.
The windrows may be left as is over the winter; but as early as possible in the
spring, they should be turned. Again, as with the minimal-level technology, this may be
done with a front-end loader. Efforts should be made to turn the piles “inside-out”, thor-
oughly mixing them, which will re-oxygenate the interior, and expose the cooler outer
edges to the warmer internal temperatures. At this turning, odors may be detected be-
cause the pile has been anaerobic for an extended period. Care must be taken to turn the
pile at a time of day when odor complaints are least likely. Also, wind direction must be
considered. If the piles are dry, water should be added at this time to maintain the 50%
optimal level. Additional turnings during the summer are useful to increase the decomposi-
tion rate; but with this level of technology, they are optional. Unless the piles are turned
once per month or more frequently, the compost will not be stabilized by the time the next
leaf season begins, (a finished product can be expected in 16-18 months) and room will
need to be made for the incoming leaves.
The best managed low technology sites use temperature probes and turn the piles
whenever internal temperatures exceed about 140 F. This may result in weekly turning
during the first several weeks particularly if the piles contain a mixture of leaves and grass
clippings. However, if the piles are turned more frequently based on internal temperature,
composting time can be reduced to six to twelve months and the end product is usually
higher quality.
After composting, the material may be moved to a curing area around the perimeter
of the site where it will continue to slowly decompose. This curing pile may be as large as
needed to conserve space. At this point, the material’s oxygen demands are low and
production of odors is unlikely. Again, grinding and screening of the finished material is
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optional, but is recommended to improve the appearance of the product. Screening can
also help to break up large pieces and remove any unwanted materials such as branches,
rocks, plastic, cans, etc. This step is fairly labor intensive and requires the purchase of
additional equipment. One way to reduce costs is to share a shredder/screener between
neighboring operations.
Low level technology requires less total land area and produces finished compost in
a shorter time than minimal technology. The finished compost is of moderately high quality
for use after grinding and shredding. The primary disadvantages are increased labor and
equipment use and the fact that more than one year may be required to complete
composting. Low level technology in which the materials are monitored and frequently
turned so as to achieve composting in less than one year, may provide the most appropri-
ate technology for many small and medium size composting facilities. These size facilities
would be needed in West Virginia.
4.4.3 Intermediate-Level Technology
This next level of technology requires the purchase of specialized equipment but can
produce a finished compost in less than 6 months. For this technology, a mechanical
windrower is used to turn the piles. The size of the windrows is restricted by the height and
width of the windrow-turning machines which is usually not greater than 8 feet high by 12 to
18 feet wide. There are several types of windrowers available: some straddle the windrow,
while others turn half of the windrow during each pass. (These will be discussed in more
detail in the appendix on equipment). These machines vary widely in their cost, capabilities
and flexibilities. Some can be attached to the PTO of a farm tractor or a front-end loader
while others are self powered units.
The use of these machines offers several advantages. The time required to produce
a finished product is greatly reduced. The machine mixes, aerates and grinds the yard
waste all in one step which can eliminate the need to grind or shred the compost as a final
step.
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the composting process.
This technology offers several advantages. The total area required is less than with
the previous technologies. The windrows can be formed close together because the
This technology offers several advantages. The total area required is less than with
the previous technologies. The windrows can be formed close together because the
windrower actually requires less turnaround space than a front-end loader. Also, as stated
above, the machine will mix, aerate and grind the leaves as it moves along the piles elimi-
nating any additional grinding. Screening the finished compost is still necessary. The
finished product is a very high quality material that is ready for use or marketing after cur-
ing.
This technology is the best available for composting leaves, leaf/grass, or leaf/
manure mixes. Due to the cost of mechanical windrowers, it is probably only practical for
medium to large compost facilities. Because of the shorter composting period, the allevia-
tion of grinding and the high quality end product, it may be desirable for several localities to
share a windrower or for a private sector firm to provide windrowing service to multiple
localities. The disadvantage is the cost of the windrower. However, the savings in time,
land area required, and the elimination of the grinding step will help offset this cost. This is
probably the most appropriate technology for medium and large facilities.
As the yard waste is brought to the composting area, it is wetted if necessary and
turned and mixed while being formed into windrows by the machine. Additional high
nitrogen wastes can be added during the windrow formation to increase the rate of
composting (if leaves only are being composted.) During the first few weeks, the windrows
may be turned several times a week, then once per week, or once every two weeks. The
need for turning should be monitored either by measurement of temperature (or oxygen
concentration) within the pile. As the temperature reaches 140-150 degrees F, the pile in
15
4.4.4 High-Level Technology
This last level of technology is probably not practical for most communities. It was
originally used in composting sewage sludge but has been adapted for yard wastes.
This method consists of using a system of pipes under the piles to run forced air
through the piles with a blower controlled by a temperature feedback system. When the
temperature inside the pile reaches a preset level, the blower automatically comes on to
cool the pile and assure aerated conditions. During the initial start-up period, the blowers
would come on frequently under control of a thermocouple. After 2 to 10 weeks, the aera-
tion system would be removed and the piles turned periodically.
Obviously, this type of system is much more expensive to operate, but its advan-
tages include the formation of large windrows to save space and the most rapid
composting rate. Anaerobic conditions do not develop in these large piles due to the
forced air. Composting can be completed within several months due to the rapid initial
decomposition. Additional high nitrogen wastes, such as manures, could be added to the
piles easily at this level of technology to speed up decomposition and raise the nitrogen
content of the finished product.
4.5 Personnel
4.5.1 Requirements
The number of personnel needed for a compost operation depends upon the
method of collection. In curbside collection, the frequency of pickup and total curb miles
will determine personnel requirements. At the composting facility, personnel are needed
to: monitor yard waste deliveries; supervise the compost operation; run the composting
operation; maintain records; and transport finished compost. During the fall leaf collection
period, continuous staffing is usually necessary. However, full time monitoring is not re-
quired in other seasons at sites which only compost leaves.
Additional personnel will be needed for some types of operations. If there is a public
drop-off site, more employees will be needed to run the facility on a busy spring or autumn
16
weekend than on a quiet weekday. If nondegradable plastic bags are used, they must be
opened soon after delivery. Manual debagging requires considerable labor (typically over
an hour for each ton of leaves). During fall leaf collection, seasonal labor may be needed
to assist in raking leaves and loading trucks, and a mechanic should be dedicated to ve-
hicle maintenance to ensure that vehicles are operating at all times. It may be possible to
borrow personnel from other local and/or county departments such as public works, high-
way maintenance or parks and recreation to assist with these labor intensive activities.
4.5.2 Development of Operator Training Certification Program
In order to properly, safely and efficiently compost yard waste, it will be necessary to
provide a training program for operators of such facilities. This training program should
consist of but not be limited to:
1. A classroom training program of equipment operation and maintenance2. Composting science3. Completion of a facility design project4. Composting quality control5. Record keeping/business math6. Worker safety
The classroom training program should include technical and detailed instruction on
composting technology, site planning, operations planning and identification of factors
required to successfully establish a yard waste composting business.
SECTION 5 CHOOSING A SITE
Each solid waste authority (SWA) siting plan defines which areas are authorized for
composting facilities. Proper siting is a prerequisite to the establishment of a safe and
effective yard waste composting facility. Design requirements, and to some extent opera-
tions, are influenced by site conditions. A suitable site controls design and construction
costs and operational problems over the life of the facility.
The three primary considerations for site selection:
1. Area - The site must be large enough to contain a composting facility withthe capacity to easily process projected volumes of yard waste, and to
17
provide room for storage of the finished compost.
2. Protection of surface and groundwater - Site should be evaluated for itspotential impact on waters of the state. Of primary concern are proximityto wetlands, floodplains and surface waters and the depth of groundwater.
3. Relationship between site and surrounding land uses - Site should beadequately buffered from sensitive adjacent land uses such as residences,schools, and parks.
5.1 Site Area Requirement
The required space needed for the active composting site depends on the degree of
technology used to compost. Basically, the lower the level of technology, the lower the
cost. A minimum of one acre of land for every 5,000 cubic yards of yard waste should be
used for planning for facilities which compost only yard waste. The amount of land needed
for land application of yard waste varies according to the amount of material applied.
5.1.1 Location
Attention should be given to the impact of traffic on neighborhoods along the major
delivery routes and just how centrally located the site is. Distance traveled to the site by
residents and/or haulers may affect the cost or the participation rate. A site which requires
delivery routes through densely populated areas would receive the lowest rating. A site
which is centrally located in a sparsely populated area would rate high.
5.1.2 Zoning
The compost operation should be in compliance with local zoning laws and compat-
ible with adjacent land use such as commercial, industrial or agricultural sections. If local
zoning ordinances do not allow composting in a proposed location, the alternative is to ask
for a variance or find a new location.
5.1.3 Topography
The site selected should be somewhat flat with a one to three percent slope( an
18
open field with a wooded buffer would be ideal) and remote from residential areas. The
site should not be located on wetland or flood plains or on land with a high water table.
5.1.4 Buffer Zone
A buffer zone between the site activities and neighboring areas will minimize pos-
sible odor, noise, dust and visual impacts. At least 100 feet should be provided between
the yard waste composting operation and any existing habitable buildings.
5.1.5 Water Source
Yard waste composting projects normally require only natural rainfall to support the
degradation process. Drainage can become a problem if precipitation is excessive. For
large operations, on-site water is a necessity. Approximately 20 gallons of water are re-
quired for each cubic yard of very dry yard waste. Experience has shown that watering
yard waste before windrow formation or during a turning event will be more efficient. There-
fore less water will be required because recently windrowed yard taste tends to shed water
applied from above. Water is needed when moisture content within the pile falls below 40
percent (by weight). Water can be applied manually through a hose or from a water truck,
or by a sprinkler or seep watering system, which could operate without the need of an on-
site attendant. Facilities also need a source of water for fire protection which could include
water trucks, fire hydrants and fire ponds.
5.1.6 Groundwater/Bedrock
The distance to groundwater and/or bedrock is important. Enough soil should exist
between the surface and subsurface waters or bedrock to insure runoff is adequately
diverted and mitigated during heavy precipitation rather than becoming an environmental
concern. In order to prevent soaking the compost piles, the situation of a high water table
or shallow depth to bedrock must be avoided as this can increase the likelihood of standing
surface water during heavy precipitation. General draining information can be obtained
19
from U.S. Geological Survey topographical maps, and soil water table information is avail-
able from the County Soil Conservation District.
5.1.7 Wetland and Stream Encroachment
A composting facility can not be established in a flood plain as the windrows may
impede water flow and/or waters could wash into the stream during times of high water.
Flooding of the site could pose serious operational difficulties with equipment access and
operation. Flooding of the windrows could lead to extensive anaerobic conditions which
would cause odor and slowed decomposition rate. To allow runoff to move between, rather
than through, windrows, they should run up and down rather than across slopes.
5.1.8 Soil Considerations
Moderate soil percolation is needed for an ideal composting site so that ponding will
not be a problem. Although an impervious surface such as a paved site offers advantages
in terms of vehicle access, equipment operation, and groundwater protection, these advan-
tages must be weighted against the loss of direct contact between composting materials
and soil microorganisms, as well as the difficulties in managing runoff.
5.1.9 Ownership
Composting facilities can be placed on land currently owned by a unit of government
or private leasing parties. If the land is leased with a private landowner, the lease should
clearly specify operations intended to occur on the property. It is also possible to have a
private group operate a composting facility on government owned property. In such cases,
cover the operation with an umbrella insurance policy or be certain the private individual
operating the facility has proper liability insurance protecting the individual and the unit of
government in the event of a liability claim.
20
SECTION 6 QUALITY AND SITE CONTROLS
Quality control is necessary to avoid negative impacts on the environment. Quality
control reduces the likelihood for nuisance conditions that may adversely affect residents of
the community.
Proper public education is the first consideration of a quality control program. By
informing citizens of what type of organic waste will be accepted at the composting site, as
well as how the materials should be separated and collected, a minimal amount of
noncompostable materials will be incorporated into the windrows. Regardless of the
public’s efforts to minimize noncompostables in the collection system, all incoming wastes
should be carefully monitored to control the dumping of inappropriate waste.
Those noncompostables that do enter the composting piles tend to “float” to the top
of the pile as the volume of organic matter decreases due to the decomposition process.
These noncompostables can be removed during the turning and curing of pile formations.
Finally, a screening step can be employed to remove objects missed from previous proce-
dures. Quality control monitoring should continue throughout the entire composting pro-
cess.
6.1 Green Wastes6.1 Green Wastes6.1 Green Wastes6.1 Green Wastes6.1 Green Wastes
To avoid odors, green wastes such as grass and garden wastes should not be
composted alone nor stored for long periods of time before incorporation into existing
windrows. Because grass clippings are high in nitrogen and moisture, when added to an
existing pile, these green wastes enhance the composting conditions and increase the
rate of degradation. Grass clippings (and yard waste) arriving in degradable bags may
be left in the bags; however, the degradable bags should be opened by some means
before composting.
6.2 Quality of the End Product6.2 Quality of the End Product6.2 Quality of the End Product6.2 Quality of the End Product6.2 Quality of the End Product
Contaminants are not likely to be present in yard waste composts. An analysis of
the total concentration of heavy metals in the overall solid waste compost should be
21
required.
6.3 Site Control6.3 Site Control6.3 Site Control6.3 Site Control6.3 Site Control
Safety precautions standard to any operation using heavy machinery should be
exercised. Heavy equipment can crush fellow workers, shredders can send rocks flying,
broken bottles can cut hands, belts or chains can catch loose clothing, inhaled dust can
cause breathing disorders, and a simple injury may be fatal if an operator is working
alone. Simple precautions including hard hats, steel-toed shoes, gloves, OSHA approved
goggles and dust masks will prevent health hazards from becoming worker safety
problems.
Also, access control should be designed with safety in mind. Public access should
be restricted (if a drop-off site is provided, make certain the area is secure) and adequate
liability insurance should be maintained.
6.4 Record Keeping6.4 Record Keeping6.4 Record Keeping6.4 Record Keeping6.4 Record Keeping
The importance of keeping records cannot be over-emphasized. Operators should
keep a log to track the volume, weight and origin of incoming yard waste. This data will
be useful for:
• developing estimates on the amount of compost that will be produced• determining the adequacy of the site for handling projected levels of yard waste• isolating the origin of contamination problems, and• developing a cost/benefit analysis.
In addition, records of any problems and the steps taken to mitigate the problems
may be valuable in resolving negative public relations.
Further record keeping includes temperature monitoring and ambient weather
conditions. The purpose of this monitoring indicates the composting methods change of
temperature over time, as well as provides an indication when turning the pile will be
needed. Graphic representations of internal pile conditions to external conditions will also
demonstrate how effective operating procedures maintain optimum biological activity.
Records of analysis of the quality of finished solid waste compost should be developed
and made available to prospective end-use markets.
22
SECTION 7 ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN YARD WASTE COMPOSTING
As landfill costs rise all over the country, municipalities in search of ways of reducing
waste management costs are looking towards composting yard waste. To date, several
states, including West Virginia as of June 1, 1994, have banned leaves and/or grass clip-
pings from going to landfills. As the movement toward utilization of yard waste grows, the
management methods are also changing. While some municipalities have the land, equip-
ment and expertise to convert to a composting system, many do not. Increasingly, the
private sector is seeing an opportunity to provide municipalities with yard waste processing
services. Nursery and landscape businesses are a natural market for compost as much of
the finished product could be used “in house” for potting soil mixes, field nursery crops,
mulches and soil amendments for bedding plants and lawn establishment/renovation.
Others in the private sector who may be interested in managing compost operations would
be farmers, who probably already have the land available and some type of equipment.
Farmers are accepting land clearing debris to be composted, and the finished product
utilized on the farm for a soil additive.
Waste management companies are another area of the private sector who are
becoming involved in yard waste composting. Solid waste collectors view yard waste
processing as a means of reducing their tipping fees or as a way of expanding their ser-
vices. Private companies that provide management services to municipalities with yard
6.5 Contingency Plan6.5 Contingency Plan6.5 Contingency Plan6.5 Contingency Plan6.5 Contingency Plan
Operators must develop alternate plans for managing yard waste and municipal solid
waste (MSW) composting operations, in the event that the compost operation is disrupted
by natural disaster, fiscal problems, staffing shortages or equipment failure. A permitted
solid waste processing or disposal facility should be available as a backup measure. If
the composting facility is inoperable for a longer period than the site storage capacity will
allow, no additional yard or municipal solid wastes should be accepted.
23
waste composting facilities are becoming more popular.
SECTION 8 MARKETS AND USES FOR YARD WASTE
One of the first considerations in planning a compost program is to determine local
end uses for the compost. Adequate information on the potential users’ requirements for
quality and quantity is a mandatory prerequisite for defining the composting method, equip-
ment and operations necessary to produce a compost meeting the user’s demands.
8.1 User Types
There are four categories of compost users: commercial, residential, public agen-
cies and land reclamation.
SWMB Table 2: Compost Users
Commercial Public AgenciesLandscape Contractors Park MaintenanceNurseries Decorative PaintingGreenhouse Curb RepairTurf Farms BackfillingTopsoil Suppliers Community GardensSoil BlendersGolf Courses
Residential Land ReclamationGarden, Lawn and Flower Revegetation Landfill Cover
Mined & Derelict Land
A number of organic matter sources currently in use could be replaced by yard
waste compost. In most cases, compost could be substituted for commercial potting soil
mixes, and it could be substituted for peat moss. If all of the peat and one-half of the
potting soil mix could be replaced by compost, a potential market for several thousand
cubic yards of compost per year would result. Nursery operators and extension agents feel
the compost material would be more suitable for use in lawn establishment/renovation and
24
home garden soil improvement.
In addition to replacing potting soil mixes and peat moss, yard waste compost is an
excellent soil conditioner. Incorporation of compost into areas for flower beds or field-
grown nursery crops also represents a substantial potential market use for compost.
It is also likely that state and local government agencies could make use of large
quantities of the material. In Minnesota, the Governor has issued an executive order re-
quiring the use of composted yard waste when available. Given the need to increase use
of compost in West Virginia, the state should require and/or encourage use of yard waste
compost by state and local governments. It is also apparent that the public, including state
and local agency personnel, are unaware of the potential uses of yard waste compost. A
public education program on the use of compost could result in substantial increases in the
use volume.
Potential use and sales by nursery operators could account for about 50% of the
composted yard waste material. Increased use by state and local government will account
for a substantial amount of the remaining compost. A public education program will result
in substantial increases in the homeowner use. It is estimated that with the programs
recommended to increase compost use and to reduce collection of grass clippings, the
total volume of yard waste generated in West Virginia can be recycled and utilized. Care
must be taken to minimize market competition among localities in the major metropolitan
areas. However adequate use/market appears to exist with reasonable distances to
handle the yard waste compost supply.
8.2 Transportation
Compost can be transported cost-effectively within a certain radius because of its
relatively low value. It is important to reconcile potential revenue or avoid soil purchase
costs against the cost to transport compost to users. Distributing primarily through a pick
up program and charging a fee for delivery that covers costs are the most economical
programs.
25
8.3 User Resistance to Change
Unless there is a significant price difference, there is little incentive for potential
users to change if they are already satisfied with existing materials. Offering compost for
free can make potential users suspect that there must be something wrong with it since it is
being given away. Resistance must be overcome by providing accurate product informa-
tion, user trials, cooperative extension and university testing programs, extensive public
education and possibly demonstration plots in visible areas.
8.4 Demand
The following information must be gathered from potential users in order to deter-
mine the potential demand for compost:
1. Specifications for organic materials2. Capacity to use compost (both seasonal and annual)3. Shipping and handling requirements4. Potential revenue from sales of compost5. Price of competing materials such as topsoil, peat moss or other compost
products
Maintaining an adequate, stable demand for compost will be greatly dependent on
having adequate supplies of a high quality compost at competitive prices. The spring and
early summer months are the highest demand times for compost. Public education will
help increase product demand by informing potential markets of the values and benefits of
compost and stressing the value of adding organic matter as well as nutrients to the soil.
Also contributing to a steady demand is the fact that the compost is a locally produced
resource.
8.5 Distribution and Marketing Options
There are four potential market distribution options.
1. Local public agencies and divisions can obtain compost free
26
of charge utilizing their own equipment to load and transportcompost off-site to various job sites or storage areas.
2. Private operations can be charged on a volume or vehicle basisfor bulk material picked up at the compost site or delivered foran additional charge.
3. Residents can be encouraged to pick up compost at no charge or fora minimal fee. This provides an excellent opportunity to publicizethe advantages of composting and resource recycling in general.It increases public awareness and participation in the collectionprogram and instills a greater sense of community identity and pride.
4. Compost can be sold at wholesale to soil blenders, topsoil suppliersand other large-scale suppliers of organic materials. Although thisoption does not provide maximum revenue or publicity, it requires theleast effort on the community’s part to assure that all the compostis distributed for productive use.
27
SWMB TABLE 3: POTENTIAL MARKETS AND COMPOST CHARACTERISTICS
resUlaitnetoP deriseD-desUwoHscitsiretcarahC
dnasnrecnoCsnoitatimiL
stnemmoC
srenwoemoH hclum,tnemdnemalioS scitehtseAselbadargedoibnoN
repeeksdnuorG hclum,tnemdnemalioS ,scitehtseAgnildnaH
elbadargedoibnoN
sesruoCfloG tnemdnemalioS scitehtseA tahwemosAtekramtnatculer
seiresruN)aidem(
scinagrohgiH HPstlaselbuloS
+4HN
hgihyllaitnetoPtekramgniyap
tnegnirtstubsceps
seiresruN tnemdnemalioS seicepshtiwseiraV sselstnemeriuqeRaidemrofnahtcificeps
skraP tnemdnemalioSrednetxelioS
acitehtseAgnildnaH
epacsdnaLrotcartnoC
tnemdnemalioSrednetxeiloS
gnildnaH
erutlucirgA ecruostneirtuNgninilelbissoP
tnetnoCtneirtuNytilibaliavA
gnildnaH
Source: Compost Operations Manual, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Groundwaterand Solid Waste Division, St. Paul, MN: May 1989
SECTION 9 REGULATORY APPROVALS AND PERMITS
Those facilities composting yard waste may not need a solid waste facility permit;
however, the facility, management and operations must comply with the attendant regula-
28
tions pursuant to W.Va. Code § 20-11-8. Land application of yard waste should be done
in compliance with these same regulations.
A solid waste facility permit would be required to construct and operate a solid waste
composting facility that would compost all other items and must comply with all state and
federal regulations. For further information regarding permit requirements contact: WV
Division of Environmental Protection.
SECTION 10 PUBLIC EDUCATION
Any community composting program will be more successful if it is accompanied by
a well-organized and vigorous public information campaign. Because citizens are the
generators of a significant portion of the yard waste to be treated, their cooperation is
essential. If citizens understand why the community is composting yard wastes, how the
system is organized, and what the participant’s role is in the program, participation will
likely occur.
Begin planning public awareness and participation well in advance: two months
should be considered a minimum when developing a timeline and plan. Contacting the
public can be a formidable task. In preparing information to be released to both print media
and nonprint media sources, work with the following considerations:
• Who is the audience?
• What is the goal?• Keep the message simple• Avoid times when other media publicity is heavy (election time, holidays)
The extent of publicity will depend upon financial resources. A limited budget is not
a hinderance to good publicity; there are many inexpensive ways to publicize.
The following table lists several vehicles of communication, divided into three cost
categories. Low cost activities require only photocopying and mailing expenses. Medium
cost vehicles may require the work of a graphic artist or printer, or may involve duplicating
several thousand copies. High cost activities will require a large expenditure, up to several
29
30
SWMB Table 4: METHODS OF PUBLICITY
tsoCwoL muideM tsoChgiH
sesaelersweN sreylF oidaR,VT,slaicremmoC
seirosivdasweN sretsoP sdraoblliB
ecivreScilbuPstnemecnuonnA
steehStcaF stnevEaideM
radnelaCytinummoCstnemecnuonnA
srepapgnifeirB sradnelaC
rotidEehtotsretteL stnevEaideM stnemesitrevdA
selcitrasweN wohsedilS mriFsnoitaleRcilbuP
selcitrarettelsweN
sehceepS
,oidaRnostopstseuGVT
10.1 Using the News Media
News Releases are used to inform the media about a project. A news release
should concisely answer the who, what, when, where, why and how of the item. News
advisories alert the press to an upcoming event. A news advisory is not a news release, but
gives details about the event, which is where the news will be. Advisories should be sent
out at least one week prior to the event. As in a news release, the advisory should be
dated and contact names, addresses and telephone numbers should be included.
thousand dollars.
Public service announcements are written statements sent to radio stations. The an-
nouncements will be aired at the station’s convenience. To be most efficient, prepare 10-,
20-, or 30 second PSAs. Many radio stations have community calendars, which air an-
nouncements about special events, such as start ups of community programs.
There are other ways to contact the media, although the methods listed above are
the most popular and effective. These include news conferences; news events; letters to
the editor; broadcast news releases (for television); and appearing on talk shows.
A news event or conference attracts attention to a program. A news event is an
informal conference designed to provide the visual media, particularly television, with news
material. Such events have a variety of formats.
10.2 Publicity Without the News Media
In addition to the news media there are other ways to communicate and encourage
participation in a community’s composting program. Examples of publicity without the
news media include: 1) flyers; 2) posters; 3) fact sheets; 4) briefing papers; 5) letters to the
editor; 6) newsletters and 7) other procedures; such as billboards, advertisements and
calendars.
SECTION 11 EVALUATING THE COST OF YARD WASTE COMPOSTING OPTIONS
The economic benefits of composting will assist a community in justifying the re-
newed costs on the following year’s budget. Benefits may be expressed in the form of
avoided “tipping fee,” the volume of landfill space conserved, avoided transportation costs,
money saved by not purchasing soil or any actual revenues received if the compost is sold.
Land conservation and revitalization of soils are other benefits of composting which may
not be quantifiable.
Any composting operation is likely to require some capitol cost and will have operat-
ing expenses. However, comoposting offers the following advantages: extends the life of
31
landfills, avoids expensive landfilling fees and produces a useful organic material in an
environmentally acceptable manner. Thus, composting appears to be the most efficient
means of yard waste management.
CONCLUSION - COMPOSTABLE YARD WASTE
Using the program elements described in this document, it should be feasible to
eliminate landfill disposal of yard waste. Implementation of a “Don’t Bag It” program would
be the easiest way to keep grass clippings out of landfills. Another alternative to landfilling
yard waste is composting at centralized facilities operated either by the public or private
sector. The major obstacles that must be overcome to successfully implement a statewide
program include: lack of public and governmental awareness, inadequate demand to meet
supply, inadequate understanding of composting technologies by local and state officials,
complex regulatory requirements or lack of regulations, and cost of establishing facilities. If
the recommended programs and actions are followed, these obstacles can be overcome,
and a successful program implemented.
ACTION AGENDA FOR YARD WASTE MANAGEMENT• The Solid Waste Management Board will establish a public information program
telling people that yard waste will no longer be accepted at landfills after June 1, 1994.
• The Solid Waste Management Board and the WV Cooperative Extension Serviceshould encourage localities to restrict collection of grass clippings either bagged or bulk.Promotion of a “Don’t Bag It” program is important.
• The Solid Waste Management Board will provide technical assistance to localitiesin the establishment of composting operations.
• The Solid Waste Management Board will develop a list of nurseries and farmsthat would serve as a market for compost.
• The Solid Waste Management Board will develop a list of firms having experiencein composting operations.
• The State of West Virginia pursuant to W.Va. Code § 20-11-7 should require stateand encourage local government to use yard waste compost in their landscaping andgrounds maintenance operations.
32
• The Division of Environmental Protection pursuant to W.Va. Code § 20-11-8 haswritten rules for the establishment of commercial yard waste composting operations utiliz-ing minimal, low, intermediate, and high technology to be used in appropriate rural or urbancounties, Title 47, Series 38E.
• The Division of Environmental Protection has minimized regulatory requirementsfor farmers and nursery operators managing compost facilities accepting less than 5000cubic yards of yard waste per year and using all the finished compost in their own farmingor nursery operation.
• The Division of Environmental Protection has established clear and simple regula-tory procedures for compost facilities accepting yard waste only or yard waste mixed withsolid animal wastes.
• The Division of Environmental Protection will develop a training and certificationprogram for composting facility operators.
33
34
APPENDIX 1 COMPOSING EQUIPMENT
APPENDIX 1 COMPOSTING EQUIPMENT
Equipment requirements for composting vary substantially with the type and size of
operation. This section briefly discusses the major types of composting equipment avail-
able and provides preliminary cost estimates. Any mention of brand names of equipment
does not constitute endorsement of that equipment. (This information in this section is
based primarily on “Municipal Yard waste Composting, A Handbook for Wisconsin Commu-
nities”, Dane County Dept. of Public Works, July, 1988.)
1. Front-end Loaders
Both track loaders and wheel loaders may be used in composting operations. The
track loader operates better in loose or muddy soil but is not easily transported if the equip-
ment needs to be moved to another site. The wheel loader is more versatile, more easily
maneuvered, and causes less damage to road and ground surfaces.
Both types of loaders come in a variety of sizes with a variety of standard and op-
tional accessories. They are usually equipped with diesel engines, but models using gaso-
line and other fuels are available. Bucket sizes range from 3/4 to 4 cu. yd. Other attach-
ments such as a “claw” and a windrow-turning machine are optional. A front-end loader is
the one essential piece of equipment for all yard waste composting operations and is the
only equipment used by many.
Prices for a new front-end loader range from about $50,000 to $150,000 depending
on size and accessories.
2. Vacuum Leaf Collectors
Vacuum leaf collectors are designed to collect leaves that have been raked into the
35
street or along the curb. Tag-along units are towed behind a truck into which the leaves
are blown. Self-powered units are also available some with compaction capacity up to 32
cubic yards per load. Most have manually operated intake hoses ranging from 7 to 18
inches in diameter. Some models include an internal shredding system. This equipment
works best with fairly dry leaves and cannot be used for collection of grass clippings.
Trailer vacuum units cost from $15,000 to $20,000. Self-contained units cost from
$50,000 to $110,000.
3. Grinders
Tub grinders are characterized by a rotating tub-type intake system. The material is
loaded with a front-end loader into the tub and moved across a fixed floor containing
hammermills that shear the material. As the material is reduced in size, it is forced through
a screen and onto an elevator belt that discharges the material into standing piles or onto a
transfer vehicle.
Tub grinders are available in different models, which have significantly different
capabilities. Forage grinders are lighter-duty machines designed for grinding crop wastes
such as straw, corn stalks, etc. These may be suitable if grinding only yard wastes. Larger
heavy-duty grinders are made for grinding large amounts of dry wood and brush. These
machines are capable of handling from 10 to 20 tons per hour depending on factors such
as type of plant waste, screen size used, and waste moisture content. Although the larger
units are capable of grinding pieces of wood up to four inches in diameter, the machine will
occasionally jam. Proper mixing of wastes and use of varying screen sizes will reduce
jamming and increase efficiency.
Tub grinders cost from about $60,000 to $140,000 delivered and require regular
maintenance, including rotation and replacement of the hammers. A new set of hammers
costs approximately $900 to $1400. Downtime to replace hammers is several hours.
Hammers need to be rotated after about 50 hours of use and replaced after 140-240 hours
of use.
36
4. Chippers
Chipping machines are designed to chip brush, limbs and other woody debris. Chip-
pers are typically hand-fed and have blades that range in size from 12 to 16 inches but will
only handle material up to 6 inches in diameter. Some models are equipped with heavy-
duty blades that can handle an occasional can or rock without damage to the machine.
Chippers produce large chips, suitable for mulch. Chippers are powered with gasoline or
diesel engines or from a power takeoff shaft.
Chippers cost from $10,000 to $40,000. Replacement blades cost from $70 to $200
and may last up to a year.
5. Shredders and Screeners - Finishing Equipment
Shredders and screening devices are frequently used to refine or finish the compost.
After the material is loaded into a receiving hopper, it is carried to the top of a conveyor.
The conveyor drops the material onto a belt; and by a system of adjustable, variable sweep
fingers, the material undergoes a continuous raking action to shred and aerate the load.
Oversized pieces are forced back for further shredding while items such as sticks, stones,
metal and glass are rejected and discharged through a trash chute. Shredders can pro-
cess from 25 to 250 cu. yd. per hour and cost from $30,000 to $95,000 depending on size
and options selected.
There are a variety of screening devices that can be used in compost operations
including grizzly screens (scalper), trommels (rotating screens), and shaking/vibrating
screens. Grizzly screens are used primarily for crude screening at 2 inches or more,
trommels and shaking screens for separations above 1/2 inch. Vibrating screens can be
used for coarse or fine screening depending on the configuration of the screen.
Vibrating screens and trommels come in a wide range of models, sizes, and prices.
Units capable of processing from 25 to 50 cu. yd. per hour range in price from $35,000 to
37
$170,000 including screens, feed hoppers, and conveyors.
6. Compost Turners
Compost turners are designed especially for windrow turning and aeration. The
large models are self-propelled and straddle the windrow. Middlebush Compost in New
Jersey uses a Scarab model 18 to turn windrow at a 200,000+ cubic yard per year facility.
This machine has metal teeth on a rotating drum and as it moves over the windrows, the
teeth shred, break up, and aerate the compost. A skirt or fender reforms the windrows into
a pyramidal shape.
Smaller units that are side mounted on front-end loaders or tractors are available.
This type is driven down one side of the windrow then up the other requiring two passes for
each pile. These also come in a variety of sizes and are well suited for small and medium
operations. A windrow turner is a necessary piece of equipment for a compost operation to
rapidly produce a high quality product.
The large self-contained units can also process from 2,000 to 4,000 cu. yd. per hour
and cost from $100,000 to $185,000 delivered. The loader/tractor mounted units are de-
signed to turn smaller windrows and cost from $10,000 to $60,000. The major mainte-
nance requirement of turners is regular replacement of the flails or teeth that cost from
$375 to $500 per set.
7. Monitoring Equipment
Thermometers may be the only instruments needed to monitor the composting
operations. Other testing equipment such as Ph meters, colorimeter tests, moisture moni-
tors, etc. are optional.
There are two types of thermometers that are useful for composting: the long-
stemmed dial type and the infrared scanner. The long-stemmed type should be 2 to 4 feet
long so it can be inserted into the middle of the windrow. Several should be inserted into
each windrow for daily readings and removed when the windrows are turned. These cost
38
about $50 each. They are also available in a digital readout model that cost about $500
each.
The infrared scanner contains a sensor module that converts radiant energy to an
electric signal. They are hand-held and can be used to measure the temperature of all
sections of a windrow at a distance. Infrared thermometers cost about $1,200 including the
basic accessories.
39
GLOSSARYGLOSSARYGLOSSARYGLOSSARYGLOSSARY
AerationAerationAerationAerationAeration - The process of exposing bulk material, such as compost, to air. Forced aerationrefers to the use of blowers in compost piles.
AerobicAerobicAerobicAerobicAerobic - Oxygen present or oxygen demanding. Aerobic composting is desirable due to thefact that it is a rapid decomposition that minimizes odors.
AnaerobicAnaerobicAnaerobicAnaerobicAnaerobic - Oxygen absent. Anaerobic composting can lead to production of undesirableproducts such as methane and ammonia, leading to odor problems.
Buffer ZoneBuffer ZoneBuffer ZoneBuffer ZoneBuffer Zone - The area between the composting operation and neighboring land uses.
CompostCompostCompostCompostCompost - The end-product of the composting process that is thoroughly decomposed, curedand ready for application to the soil.
CompostingCompostingCompostingCompostingComposting - The manipulation or control by humans of the natural aerobic process ofbiological decomposition of organic materials under proper moisture conditions. This processis carried out by successive microbial populations which function at increasing temperaturesto break down the organic materials into carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilized organicmatter. The final product (compost) is sufficiently stable for storage or application to the soil.
Cubic yardCubic yardCubic yardCubic yardCubic yard - A standard measure of volume containing 27 cubic feet. One ton of incomingyardwaste contains 4 to 5 cubic yards of material. Due to the volume reduction during thecomposting process, one ton of finished compost contains approximately 2 cubic yards.
Curbside CollectionCurbside CollectionCurbside CollectionCurbside CollectionCurbside Collection - Programs where recyclable materials are collected at the curb, oftenfrom special containers, to be brought to various processing facilities.
Decomposition Decomposition Decomposition Decomposition Decomposition - The biological degradation or breaking down of organic materials, such asleaves, by microorganisms. Different from composting in that it is not controlled and does notresult in thermophilic temperatures.
Drop-off CenterDrop-off CenterDrop-off CenterDrop-off CenterDrop-off Center - A method of collecting recyclable or compostable materials in which thematerials are taken by individuals to collection sites and deposited into designated containers.
Heavy MetalsHeavy MetalsHeavy MetalsHeavy MetalsHeavy Metals - Metallic elements with high molecular weights and a specific gravity of five ormore. Some of these elements can be poisonous to humans, animals and/or can adverselyaffect plant growth.
LandfillLandfillLandfillLandfillLandfill - A facility or part of one at which solid waste, or its residue after treatment, isintentionally placed in or on land, and at which solid waste will remain after closure. The term“landfill” does not include a land application unit, surface impoundment, solid waste disposalsurface impoundment or injection well.
Microorganisms Microorganisms Microorganisms Microorganisms Microorganisms - Microscopically small living organisms that digest decomposable materialsthrough metabolic activity. Microorganisms are active in the composting process.
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) - Garbage, refuse, trash and other solid waste fromresidential, commercial, and community activities.
PathogensPathogensPathogensPathogensPathogens - Organisms capable of producing infections or disease, often found in wastematerials. The high temperatures in a compost pile kills many pathogens.
pH pH pH pH pH - A measurement of acidity/alkalinity that is measured on a scale from 1 to 14,with 7 beingneutral. Values below 7 represent acid conditions, above 7 are alkaline.
RunoffRunoffRunoffRunoffRunoff - Flowing water and associated contaminants originating from any part of the compostfacility that drains over the land. Windrows should run up and down the slope so that runoffdoes not collect between the windrows.
ScreeningScreeningScreeningScreeningScreening - A process in which the finished compost is run through a series of screens, eachwith different size openings, to remove trash such as plastic, metal and glass. This canimprove the quality of the end product and increase marketability.
ShredderShredderShredderShredderShredder - A mechanical device used to break up waste materials into smaller pieces toincrease the surface area. Can be used on woody waste to produce mulch. Not always anecessary piece of equipment for all types of yard waste. Types of shredders includehammermills, shears, tub grinders and rasp mills.
Soil Amendment/Soil Conditioner Soil Amendment/Soil Conditioner Soil Amendment/Soil Conditioner Soil Amendment/Soil Conditioner Soil Amendment/Soil Conditioner - An organic matter source that when added to the soilimproves the general physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, but doesn’tnecessarily add nutrients.
WindrowWindrowWindrowWindrowWindrow - An elongated pile in which the yard wastes are placed. The piles are typically 8 feethigh by 12-18 feet wide and as long as needed to accommodate the yard waste.
Yard wasteYard wasteYard wasteYard wasteYard waste -Material such as leaves, grass clippings and brush and tree prunings. Thismaterial may all be recycled either by composting or chipping to make mulch.
BIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHYBIBLIOGRAPHY
Decision-Makers Guide to Solid Waste Management, EPA/530-5W-89-072
Derr, D.A. 1985. Economics of Leaf Composting. Biocycle. Vol 2610/85 pp 36-38
Derr, D.A. 1989. Minimizing the Cost of Leaf Composting. Biocycle. Vol. 304/89 pp 45-48
Derr, J., 1989. Composting Economics, John Wiley & sons, New York
Diener, R.G. 1991. Guidelines for Compost Facilities. Draft submitted to the WV Divisionof Natural Resources, September 11. Available from the author.
Diener, R.G. and J.H. Martin, 1990. Observations and Solutions to the Solid WasteDilemma. Unpublished monograph available from authors. West Virginia University,Morgantown, WV 26506.
Diener, R.G. and J. H. Martin, 1991. Effective Solid Waste Management. UnpublishedMonograph. West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506
Glenn, J. 1988. Encouraging Yard Waste Utilization. Biocycle. Vol 29 8/88 pp 49-52
Glenn, J. 1989. Private Management of Yard Waste. Biocycle. Vol 30 1/89 pp 26-28
Interviews with Paul Benedum and Charles Capet, Division of Environmental Protection
Municipal Yard Waste Composting: A Handbook for Wisconsin Communities, DaneCounty Department of Public Works, July 1988
Preston, C.M. 1990. Composting in the Northwest, Canada Journal of Soil Science90:187-198
Simpson, T.W. and J.H. May 1990. The Feasibility of a Statewide Yardwaste CompostingProgram for Virginia. House Document No.34, Virginia General Assembly,Commonwealth of Virginia, Richmond, V A
Strom and Finstein, Composting, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1986
Taylor, A.C. and R.M. Kashmanian 1988. Study and Assessment of Eight YardwasteComposting Programs Across the United States. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,Washington, DC 20460
The Minnesota Project, 2222 Elm Street, Minneapolis, MN 55414, Phone: (612) 378-2142
West Virginia University Extension Service, Cooperative Extension Service, ManagingSolid Waste, MSW5, January 1992
William F. Cosulich Associates, L TD., 1991. Preliminary Feasibility Study of AlternativeProject Concepts for Processing and Materials Recovery of Solid Wastes GeneratedWithin Waste Shed “H”
Wilson, Larry J., Director Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Local GovernmentComposting Guide for Iowa Communities, May 1991
Zucconi, F., 1989. Evaluating Composting, Biocycle 22:54-57
