PROFESSIONALHELICOPTER

PILOT GUIDE

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

Technology &DevelopmentProgram

5100—Fire5700—AviationFebruary 19969657 1201—SDTDC

PROFESSIONALHELICOPTER

PILOT GUIDE

February 1996

Prepared by:

San Dimas Technology & Development Center

In cooperation with:

Helicopter Operation SpecialistsHelicopter Pilot Inspectors

and Bureau of Land Management

Information contained in this document has been developed for theguidance of employees of the Forest Service, USDA, its contractors,and its cooperating Federal and State agencies. The Department ofAgriculture assumes no responsibility for the interpretation or use ofthis information by other than its own employees. The use of trade,firm, or corporation names is for the information and convenience ofthe reader. Such use does not constitute an official evaluation,conclusion, recommendation, endorsement, or approval of anyproduct or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibitsdiscrimination in its programs on the basis of race, color, nationalorigin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital orfamilial status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)Persons with disabilities who require alternative means forcommunication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape,etc.) should contact the USDA Office of Communications at 202-720-2791.

To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250 or call 202-720-7327 (voice)or 202-720-1127 (TDD). USDA is an equal employment opportunityemployer.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The development of this guide is the culmination of the efforts ofmany people. In particular, we wish to thank the following people fortheir contributions.

Jerri Sebastian USDA Forest ServiceJulie Stewart USDI Bureau of Land ManagementJames Beekman USDA Forest ServiceVikki Hughes USDA Forest ServiceDave Custer USDA Forest ServiceKevin Hamilton USDI Bureau of Land ManagementLloyd Duncan USDA Forest Service, Retired

Additionally, we wish to provide special recognition and thanks toMr. Chris Hice, Helitack Manager, USDI, Bureau of Land Management;for without his vision and drive this guide would not have beenpossible.

Finally, we are grateful to Mr. Allan P. MacLeod for authorizing the re-publication of his article, Helicopter Firefighting and Safety. Mr.MacLeod is a retired Senior Helicopter Pilot from the Los AngelesCounty Fire Department-Air Operations. His article first appeared inthe Helicopter Association International Safety Manual, January 1990revision. The article contains much the same information provided inthis guide, but is written from a pilot’s perspective.

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INTRODUCTION

The Professional Helicopter Pilot Guide is organized into a topic format style. Eachchapter provides a complete discussion of the topic. As such, there exists someduplicate discussion or description of material from chapter to chapter. This was donesuch that as a reference source, the reader can consult any given topic and receive all ofthe pertinent information, rather than be referred back and forth to other chapters forneeded information to fully understand the topic in question.

This document is an introduction to the arena of wildland firefighting, as it applies to thehelicopter pilot. For the helicopter to be a fully effective tool in fire suppression it isessential that pilots work closely with the individuals involved in management and useof helicopters. These people are primarily the helicopter manager and the crew, but mayinclude any member of the firefighting team.

A helicopter is a valuable and efficient fire fighting resource available to the wildlandfire service. To attain the highest efficiency, close cooperation must take place betweenthe pilot and incident management personnel.

Many responsibilities for helicopter operations are assumed or shared by the helitackorganization. However, it is clearly recognized that the pilot is a “professional” aviatorand that final responsibility and authority for safe operation of the helicopter rests there.Items of pilot responsibility include, but are not limited to:

1. Safety of aircraft, occupants and cargo.

2. Ensuring that crew members and passengers understand proper use of restraint devicesincluding seat belts and shoulder harnesses.

3. Briefing passengers on emergency crash landing and exit procedures.

4. Postponing, changing or canceling flights when he/she believes existing or impendingconditions make them unsafe.

5. Complying with orders of authorized officials when in the pilot’s judgment compliancewill not violate any safe practices or endanger the aircraft, occupants, or cargo.

6. Familiarization with operating area and special hazards.

7. Reviewing the plan of operation with air and ground personnel.

8. Proper loading of aircraft.

The purpose of this guide is to increase the mutual understanding between pilot andincident helicopter managers.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1—ATTITUDE—AN OUTLINE FOR SAFETY ............................. 1INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 3HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES VS CURATIVE ANTIDOTES .................................................................... 4HUMAN FACTORS ............................................................................................................................ 5CHARACTERISTICS OF A “LEADER” AS RELATED TO SAFETY ......................................................... 6

Motivation .................................................................................................................................. 6Reinforcement ............................................................................................................................ 6Example ...................................................................................................................................... 6Communication .......................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 2—CONTRACT INTERPRETATIONAND ADMINISTRATION ..................................................................................................... 7INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 9TYPES OF CONTRACTS ..................................................................................................................... 9

Exclusive Use ............................................................................................................................... 9Call-When-Needed ...................................................................................................................... 9Basic Ordering Agreement (BOA) ............................................................................................... 10On-Call ...................................................................................................................................... 10

DAILY AVAILABILITY VS. HOURLY GUARANTEE ........................................................................... 10Daily Availability ........................................................................................................................ 10Hourly Guarantee....................................................................................................................... 10

EXCLUSIVE USE CONTRACT(EXAMPLE) ...................................................................................... 11Format ........................................................................................................................................ 11Bid Items .................................................................................................................................... 11Flight and Duty Limitations......................................................................................................... 11Equipment and Avionics Requirements ....................................................................................... 11Maintenance .............................................................................................................................. 11Fuel and Servicing ...................................................................................................................... 11Designated Base ......................................................................................................................... 11Exclusive Use Period .................................................................................................................. 11Availability ................................................................................................................................. 11One Hour Call-Back or Return-to Standby Status ........................................................................ 12Unavailability ............................................................................................................................. 12Measurement and Payment ........................................................................................................ 12Security of the Aircraft ................................................................................................................ 12Accidents/Incidents/Hazards....................................................................................................... 12Suspension of Personnel ............................................................................................................. 12Relief Personnel.......................................................................................................................... 12

HELPFUL HINTS .............................................................................................................................. 13FUEL TENDER AND DRIVER PROCEDURES AND SAFETY ............................................................. 14

Introduction................................................................................................................................ 14Fuel Tender Requirements .......................................................................................................... 14

Inspections............................................................................................................................ 14Requirements ........................................................................................................................ 14Other Requirements .............................................................................................................. 14Driver Requirements ............................................................................................................ 14Duty Limitations ................................................................................................................... 14

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Readiness.............................................................................................................................. 14Communications................................................................................................................... 15Logistics ................................................................................................................................ 15Fueling Procedures ............................................................................................................... 15Record Keeping .................................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 3 —FLIGHT FOLLOWING ...................................................................... 17INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 19PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................................. 19NO CONTACT MADE ..................................................................................................................... 20PRIORITIES ...................................................................................................................................... 20OTHER HELPFUL HINTS ................................................................................................................. 20

CHAPTER 4—COMMUNICATIONS ........................................................................... 21INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 23PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES ............................................................................................................... 23HELICOPTER MANAGER RESPONSIBILITIES .................................................................................. 23FREQUENCIES ................................................................................................................................. 23

Air Guard ................................................................................................................................... 23Tactical ....................................................................................................................................... 23Air-to-Ground ............................................................................................................................. 23

INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS) TERMINOLOGY ................................................................. 24Air Tactical Group Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 24Air Operations Director .............................................................................................................. 24Air Support Group Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 24Deck Manager ............................................................................................................................ 24Division...................................................................................................................................... 24Helibase ..................................................................................................................................... 24Helispot...................................................................................................................................... 24Helicopter Coordinator............................................................................................................... 24Radio Operator ........................................................................................................................... 24Take-off and Landing Coordinator .............................................................................................. 25

CHAPTER 5 —FIRE ORGANIZATION ...................................................................... 27LOCAL LEVEL ORGANIZATION ..................................................................................................... 29

Fire Management Officer (FMO) ................................................................................................. 29Fire Control Officer (FCO) .......................................................................................................... 29Dispatcher .................................................................................................................................. 29Guard Stations/Work Centers ...................................................................................................... 29Helpful Hints .............................................................................................................................. 29

FIRE LINE PERSONNEL .................................................................................................................... 30Incident Commander (IC) ........................................................................................................... 30Division Supervisor (DIVS) ......................................................................................................... 30Crew Boss .................................................................................................................................. 30Squad Boss ................................................................................................................................. 30Strike Team Leader ..................................................................................................................... 30Engine Operator ......................................................................................................................... 30Safety Officer, Paramedic’s, EMT’s .............................................................................................. 30Incident Medical Plan................................................................................................................. 30Helpful Hints .............................................................................................................................. 30

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LARGE INCIDENT ORGANIZATIONS ............................................................................................. 31Air Operations Branch Director .................................................................................................. 31Air Support Group Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 31Helibase Manager ...................................................................................................................... 31Helispot Manager ....................................................................................................................... 31Deck Coordinator ....................................................................................................................... 31Loadmaster (Personnel/Cargo) .................................................................................................... 31Mixmaster .................................................................................................................................. 31Takeoff and Landing Controller ................................................................................................... 31Aircraft Base Radio Operator ...................................................................................................... 31Aircraft Timekeeper .................................................................................................................... 31Parking Tender............................................................................................................................ 31Air Tactical Group Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 32Air Tanker Coordinator ............................................................................................................... 32Helicopter Coordinator............................................................................................................... 32

HELITACK CREWS ........................................................................................................................... 32History ....................................................................................................................................... 32Positions ..................................................................................................................................... 32

Crewperson .......................................................................................................................... 32Lead Crewperson .................................................................................................................. 32Assistant Foreman ................................................................................................................. 32Foreman (Manager) ............................................................................................................... 32Call When Needed Crews.................................................................................................... 33

More Helpful Information ........................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 6—AIR OPERATIONS ................................................................................. 35INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 37

Safety Inspections ....................................................................................................................... 37GENERAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................ 37SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 7—HELICOPTER LANDING AREAS .................................................. 39INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 41TERMINOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 41

Helispot...................................................................................................................................... 41Helibase ..................................................................................................................................... 41Temporary Helibase.................................................................................................................... 41Permanent Helibase ................................................................................................................... 41

INITIAL ATTACK LANDING AREAS ................................................................................................ 41Criteria and Considerations ........................................................................................................ 41

LANDING AREAS USED AFTER INITIAL LANDING ....................................................................... 42Location in Relation to the Fire ................................................................................................... 42Location in Relation to Incident Base/Fire Camp......................................................................... 42

SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 8—TACTICAL USE OF HELICOPTERS ............................................ 43INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 45INITIAL ATTACK .............................................................................................................................. 45

History ....................................................................................................................................... 45Purpose ...................................................................................................................................... 45

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Pilots Responsibilities ................................................................................................................ 45Readiness............................................................................................................................. 45Load calculations ................................................................................................................. 45Fuel ..................................................................................................................................... 45Pre-flight .............................................................................................................................. 45

The Helitack Crew..................................................................................................................... 46Fire Size-up ............................................................................................................................... 46Checklist ................................................................................................................................... 46

Legal description.................................................................................................................. 46Fuels .................................................................................................................................... 46Direction of spread .............................................................................................................. 46Rate of spread ...................................................................................................................... 46Terrain ................................................................................................................................. 46Slope ................................................................................................................................... 46Aspect.................................................................................................................................. 46Resources threatened ........................................................................................................... 46Firefighting resources required ............................................................................................. 46Water sources ...................................................................................................................... 46Fuel tender relocation .......................................................................................................... 46

AERIAL LOOKOUT ......................................................................................................................... 47RETARDANT/WATER DROPPING .................................................................................................. 47

Retardant ................................................................................................................................... 47Methods of Attack for Ground Forces ........................................................................................ 48

Direct .................................................................................................................................. 48Indirect attack ...................................................................................................................... 48Topography attack ............................................................................................................... 48

SUCCESSFUL RETARDANT/WATER DROPS ................................................................................... 49SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... 49

CHAPTER 9—LOGISTICAL USE OF HELICOPTERS ................................. 51INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 53TRANSPORTATION OF PERSONNEL ............................................................................................. 53

Crews ........................................................................................................................................ 53Reconnaissance Flights .............................................................................................................. 53

TRANSPORTATION OF FREIGHT .................................................................................................. 54Internal Freight .......................................................................................................................... 54External Freight .......................................................................................................................... 54

SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER 10—BASIC FIRE SUPPRESSION ......................................................... 55INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 57SIZE-UP AND FIRST ATTACK ......................................................................................................... 57

Factors to Consider .................................................................................................................... 57Topography.......................................................................................................................... 57Fuels .................................................................................................................................... 57Weather ............................................................................................................................... 57Safety ................................................................................................................................... 57Resources ............................................................................................................................ 57

Decide Where Fire Will Spread. ................................................................................................ 57

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Universal Rules ......................................................................................................................... 57Good practices .......................................................................................................................... 57

ATTACK METHODS ........................................................................................................................ 58Direct attack .............................................................................................................................. 58Indirect attack............................................................................................................................ 58Guidelines ................................................................................................................................. 58

CONTROL ...................................................................................................................................... 58Preventing Spread...................................................................................................................... 58Mop-Up .................................................................................................................................... 58Patrol And Inspection ................................................................................................................ 59

Line Patrol and Inspection.................................................................................................... 59Lookout Patrol and Inspection.............................................................................................. 59

SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER 11—FIRE BEHAVIOR AND FIRE WEATHER ........................... 61INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 63COMBUSTION ............................................................................................................................... 63

Fire Triangle............................................................................................................................... 63Ignition Temperatures ................................................................................................................ 63Ignition Sources ......................................................................................................................... 63How Fires Spread ...................................................................................................................... 63

FUELS ............................................................................................................................................. 63Types ......................................................................................................................................... 63Quantity .................................................................................................................................... 63Characteristics ........................................................................................................................... 63

TOPOGRAPHIC FACTORS ............................................................................................................. 64Aspect ....................................................................................................................................... 64Elevation ................................................................................................................................... 64Position of fire on slope. ............................................................................................................ 64Steepness of slope ..................................................................................................................... 64Shape of country. ....................................................................................................................... 64

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER ............................................................................................................... 64Temperature .............................................................................................................................. 64Humidity ................................................................................................................................... 64Wind ......................................................................................................................................... 64

WARNING SIGNS .......................................................................................................................... 64Fuels .......................................................................................................................................... 64Fuel Dryness.............................................................................................................................. 64Topography ............................................................................................................................... 64Early Spotting ............................................................................................................................ 64Convection Column .................................................................................................................. 64Color changes ........................................................................................................................... 64Motion ...................................................................................................................................... 64

FIRE SITUATIONS THAT SHOUT “WATCH OUT” ......................................................................... 65Downhill fireline ....................................................................................................................... 65Hillside Firefighting ................................................................................................................... 65Away from Burned Areas ........................................................................................................... 65In Heavy Cover ......................................................................................................................... 65Spot Fires................................................................................................................................... 65Cannot See Main Fire ................................................................................................................ 65

SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... 65

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CHAPTER 12—SMOKEJUMPER AIRCRAFT ........................................................ 67INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 69AIRCRAFT TYPES ............................................................................................................................. 69EQUIPMENT AND PARACARGO .................................................................................................... 69

Jump Equipment ......................................................................................................................... 69Parachute System ....................................................................................................................... 69Paracargo ................................................................................................................................... 69

SMOKEJUMPER MISSIONS ............................................................................................................. 70JUMP SPOTS ................................................................................................................................... 70AIR SPACE REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................ 70TIME FRAMES .................................................................................................................................. 70SHARED INCIDENT AIR SPACE AND LANDING SITES .................................................................. 70

CHAPTER 13—AIRSPACE ....................................................................................................... 71INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 73SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE .................................................................................................................. 74

Prohibited Areas ......................................................................................................................... 74Restricted Areas .......................................................................................................................... 74Military Operations Areas ........................................................................................................... 74Alert Areas .................................................................................................................................. 74Warning Areas ............................................................................................................................ 74Controlled Firing Areas ............................................................................................................... 74

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES ...................................................................................................... 75Pilot ............................................................................................................................................ 75On Scene Personnel ................................................................................................................... 75

CHAPTER 14—GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................................... 77

EXHIBIT 1—HELICOPTER FIRE FIGHTING AND SAFETY ........................ 85TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... 86PREFACE .......................................................................................................................................... 87INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 88FIREFIGHTING USES ....................................................................................................................... 89

General Uses .............................................................................................................................. 89Special Uses ............................................................................................................................... 89

Water or fire retardant dropping ............................................................................................ 89Aerial Ignition Systems ............................................................................................................... 89

SAFETY AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .................................................................................... 89Flight Safety ................................................................................................................................ 89

Air to Air Communications ................................................................................................... 89Wires .................................................................................................................................... 89Other Aircraft ........................................................................................................................ 89Smoke................................................................................................................................... 89Landing in the Burn .............................................................................................................. 89Escape Routes ....................................................................................................................... 90Pull-ups, etc. ......................................................................................................................... 90Pilot Fatigue .......................................................................................................................... 90

Ground Safety on the Fireline — The Helicopter Pilot’s Concern ................................................ 90Air to Ground Communication ............................................................................................. 90

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Drop Hazards to Ground Personnel ...................................................................................... 90Rotor Downwash Effects on the Fire...................................................................................... 90Fire Situations That Shout “Watch Out!” ............................................................................... 91

AIR OPERATIONS ORGANIZATION—AIRBORNE ......................................................................... 91Air Tactical Group Supervisor ..................................................................................................... 91Air Tanker Coordinator (Lead Plane) ........................................................................................... 91Helicopter Coordinator............................................................................................................... 92

HELIBASE (OR HELISPOT) ORGANIZATION AND SAFETY ............................................................ 92Helibase (or Helispot) Manager .................................................................................................. 92Takeoff and Landing Controller (TOLC.) ...................................................................................... 92Ground Safety at the Helibase .................................................................................................... 92

FIREFIGHTING TACTICS ................................................................................................................. 94The Fire Triangle ......................................................................................................................... 94Initial Attack Crew Placement ..................................................................................................... 94Water and Retardant Dropping Tactics ....................................................................................... 94

Water Dropping Tactics ........................................................................................................ 94Retardant Dropping Tactics ................................................................................................... 94Spot Fires .............................................................................................................................. 95Selecting the Attack .............................................................................................................. 95Fire Ground Orientation ....................................................................................................... 95Upslope Fire ......................................................................................................................... 95Slop-overs ............................................................................................................................. 95Hot Spots .............................................................................................................................. 95Backfiring ............................................................................................................................. 95Firing-out .............................................................................................................................. 96

Drop Concentration vs. Fuel Loading ......................................................................................... 96Means of Drop Control By the Pilot ............................................................................................ 96

Airspeed and Direction ......................................................................................................... 96Altitude ................................................................................................................................. 96

Drop Techniques ........................................................................................................................ 96Hover Drops ......................................................................................................................... 96Cross-slope Drops ................................................................................................................. 97Downslope Drops ................................................................................................................. 97Upslope Drops...................................................................................................................... 97Smoke................................................................................................................................... 97

Water Bucket Operations............................................................................................................ 98Bucket Systems Preflight Checks ........................................................................................... 98Precautions ........................................................................................................................... 98Typical Water Bucket Operation ........................................................................................... 99

Fixed Drop Tank Operations ....................................................................................................... 99Single door drops ................................................................................................................ 100Salvo (double door drop) .................................................................................................... 100Trail Drop ........................................................................................................................... 100Tank Systems Preflight Checks ............................................................................................ 100Operational and Inflight Checks.......................................................................................... 100

FIXED TANK VS. WATER BUCKET COMPARISON CHART ........................................................... 101AERIAL IGNITION SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................... 102

Helitorch .................................................................................................................................. 102“Ping-Pong Ball Machine” ........................................................................................................ 103

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 103APPENDIX I ................................................................................................................................... 104APPENDIX II .................................................................................................................................. 105

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EXHIBIT 2—INCIDENT AVIATION COMMUNICATIONS,FUNCTIONS, AND FREQUENCIES ....................................................................... 107TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 108

Communication Functions....................................................................................................... 109Radio Discipline ...................................................................................................................... 110VHF-AM, VHF-FM, and UHF-FM ............................................................................................ 110AM Frequencies ....................................................................................................................... 111FM Frequencies ....................................................................................................................... 112National Support Cache FM Frequencies ................................................................................. 113Airports ................................................................................................................................... 114Flight Following....................................................................................................................... 115Five Minutes Out ..................................................................................................................... 116Arrival In Incident Airspace ..................................................................................................... 117Prioritizing Requests ................................................................................................................ 118Requesting Aircraft .................................................................................................................. 119Arriving Aircraft ....................................................................................................................... 120Air Tanker Tactics .................................................................................................................... 121Helicopter Tactics .................................................................................................................... 122Tactics Follow-up .................................................................................................................... 123Air-to-Air on Complex Incidents .............................................................................................. 124FM Briefing Frequency ............................................................................................................ 125Helibase TOLC and Deck ........................................................................................................ 126Flight Following on Incidents................................................................................................... 127Helispot Communications ....................................................................................................... 128

NON-RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................................. 129Helibase Telephone ................................................................................................................. 129Fixed-wing Base Telephone ..................................................................................................... 129Computers ............................................................................................................................... 129Fax Machines .......................................................................................................................... 129

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C H A P T E R 1C H A P T E R 1C H A P T E R 1ATTITUDE—

AN OUTLINE FOR SAFETY

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION

The thoughts outlined in this document are not original but extracted from some of the bestknown aviation writers and psychologists in the industry. Their thoughts and findings havebeen combined in a format that will be useful to the casual user of aviation resources, as

well as the professional pilot who daily must make decisions regarding safety in the demandingand complex operations we call resource aviation. Some of the sources of these combinedthoughts will be listed at the end of this commentary.

In today’s modern vocabulary the word “Attitude” usually strikes a negative cord. When youhear: “He has an attitude” it is assumed to be negative. Webster defines attitude as: the mannerof acting, feeling, or thinking that shows one’s disposition, opinion, etc.; as a threateningattitude, an attitude of entreaty. Today’s connotation of attitude is suffering a modern maladyknown as ‘bad press’!

Personality traits and attitudes have a fundamental influence on the way our lives are conductedat home and at work. They determine the way we are judged by others and we often becomeidentified by them. Personality traits are acquired very early in life. They are deep-seatedcharacteristics which are stable and very resistant to change. They may be reflected inaggression, ambition, dominance or creativity and are often situation related. These traits shouldnot be confused with attitudes. The selection of a profession is usually driven by personalitytraits. How one adapts to that selection is highly influenced by attitudes which are developedand changed through life experiences.

Attitudes describe likes and dislikes. An attitude can be seen as a learned tendency to respondfavorably or unfavorably to people, decisions and situations. It is a predisposition to respond in acertain way. An opinion is a verbal expression of an attitude or belief, and is one means by whichothers may become aware of your “attitude”.

It has been established that those involved in most accidents attributable to inadequate humanperformance probably, at the time of the accident, had the capacity to have performedeffectively, yet did not do so. Their personal performance was influenced by factors other thanthe possession of technical skills. It could have been that the person involved, felt so confidentthat they could short-cut a standard procedure or avoid consistent use of a checklist—or thattheir interpretation of leadership was dominance—or that in difficult situations they shouldassume most of the tasks themselves—or that the urgency of the mission justified by-passingestablished procedures. The pilot and the users of Resource Aviation must combine their skills,knowledge, and experiences to form a positive working machine with a combined anddemonstrated attitude of safety.

Hazardous Attitudes (example of bad press) and corresponding Antidotes are outlined on thefollowing page.

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So much for negative attitudes, let’s focuson how to embrace positive attitudes. While

both positive and negative attitudes are considered“highly contagious” we are far more receptiveto good vibes than to those that afford usdiscomfort. We are in a highly specialized,one of a kind environment. Our daily survivaldepends upon how we respond to situationsthat are constantly changing. We live on theedge of the next challenge, and our lives arefilled with anxieties. We are an entire organizationof mission driven personalities complexlyinterwoven and inter-dependent upon eachother for our survival. The decisions we make,and the way in which we make them, have atrickle down effect on everyone assigned tothe mission. One of the basic human needs wehave is the need to be accepted by our peers.Each of you is important beyond measure.Each is an integral part of the mission and assuch, each has a responsibility toward thesuccess and safety of that mission. We mustabide by the rules laid down through experienceand probability. We must follow procedureswhich are sometimes boring and repetitiveand, if we are to achieve success, we must do itthrough an attitude and demonstration of safety.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES vs CURATIVE ANTIDOTES

ATTITUDE ANTIDOTE

ANTI-AUTHORITY“Regulations are for someone else.” “Follow the rules. They are usually right”

IMPULSIVELY “I must act now, there’s no time!” “Not so fast. Think first.”

INVULNERABLIITY“It won’t happen to me. ”It could happen to me.”

MACHO“I’ll show you. I can do it.” “Taking chances is foolish.”

RESIGNATION“What’s the use?” “I’m not helpless, I can make a difference.”

Equal to, if not above the “Book Rules”, are therules by which we conduct our daily activitieswith each other. This daily association whentempered with a positive attitude can producemore pro-active aviation safety results thanany other effort.

A trendy little book authored by Robert Fulghumis titled: All I Really Need to Know, I Learned inKindergarten. He simplifies our daily effortswith such statements as “Don’t throw sand.—share your toys, play fair, say your sorry whenyou hurt somebody, eat your vegetables, getyour rest, enjoy your friends—enjoy your solitude—laugh a lot—continue to listen—continue tolearn—” All simple little one liners that outlinea positive attitude. It is highly infectious, veryeffective and most refreshing reading. Fulghumtells us that all the important things in life areattainable, and the first step towards acquiringthem is to maintain a positive attitude. It hasbeen proven that this positive attitude reflectsitself vividly in the safety records of organizationsthat promote individual responsibility knit tightlywith group concern. All members function asa team, and each assumes personal responsibilityfor their own performance. In a helicopter

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operation, the pilot and the Helitack personnelfunction as a single unit. Through Communication,Motivation, Reinforcement and Example, eachbecomes part of the whole and the mission iscompleted successfully and safely.

Thoughts to consider in any aviation operation:

1. You are now in charge of a sacred trust, thesafety of human lives.

2. You must not let undue pressure (expressedor implied) influence your judgment during theperformance of this sacred trust.

3. You must be able to develop a team in whichmembers must participate and contribute to thesafety of the operation.

4. You must delete “false pride, calculated risk,real world, and good enough for Governmentwork” from your professional vocabulary.

5. You will not be criticized or stigmatized forany decision you make which will ensureadded safety to an operation.

6. You must not let your actions instill theattitude of competition between co-workers.This attitude may hinder performance and maycompromise the safety of the mission.

If you can view this very serious business towhich you are currently dedicating your livesas though each person within the organizationis dependent upon the decision you make,then you will become the corner stone of theAviation Safety Program. This is, without question,the greatest contribution you can make towardsevoking an attitude of safety!

HUMAN FACTORS

Human Factors is about people. It is aboutpeople in their working and living

environments. It is about their relationshipwith machines, equipment, procedures,standardization, and the environment in whichwe live in. Human Factors is also the “bottomlesspit” into which 80% of aviation accidents fall.Human Factors is about our lives and how wechoose to live them. The concern of this documentis to identify, in terms of safety, how this mostimportant condition can be made to work toour benefit. In doing so, we will also be madeaware of its snares and warning signals.

There are many factors which may influence aperson’s overall attitude to the job. These include,amongst others, financial rewards, work colleagues,working environment,and the nature of thetask itself. The extent to which these factorsapply an influence depend on each person’sown preference and values.

Studies done in recent years placed JOBSATISFACTION second only to family. TheForest Service has always viewed its membersas family. Further, each discipline within theForest Service is somewhat clannish and protectiveof its extended family. Those of us who havechosen to be part of Fire and Aviation live in a“perceived” very small world. We are the onlyones there! This is the choice we have made,and once made, we rarely challenge our decision.This is most important work, every aspect,every detail, every decision. There is no marginfor error, yet error does happen. It is a fact oflife.

For the purpose of this document and its messageof Aviation Safety, each reader is to be considereda leader. Everyone must assume leadership inmatters of safety.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A “LEADER”AS RELATED TO SAFETY

There are four important characteristics whicha leader appears to possess: motivation,

reinforcement, example, and communication.

MotivationOne of the primary tasks is motivating themembers of the group. This can be done byemphasizing the objectives of the operation oractivity and clarifying the targets or goals whichshould be achieved. For instance, a helicoptermanager, in briefing passengers prior to a flightcan make this routine and often rote requirementcome alive by pointing out the rewards versesthe consequences. Whoever is doing that briefingis at that time, a leader! The passengers can bemotivated to want to hear the entire briefingand to abide by the checklist items to the letter.

ReinforcementA second way leadership can be applied is bymodifying habits and behavior by reinforcement.This same crewmember could apply positivereinforcement by making a favorable commentabout the passengers conduct at the end of theflight.

ExampleThe third principle which the leader shouldapply is the demonstration of the desired goalsand behaviors by example. Each day those ofus in aviation interface with people who arenot experienced at being in and around ourenvironment. A good leader should be able todemonstrate by example the optimum behaviorand precautions necessary to outsiders andthose unfamiliar with aircraft operations. Acommon aspect of behavior in which influenceby example of a leader is effective, is in connectionwith uniform or clothing standards and demeanor.If someone on the flight crew is without theproper clothing, it must be expected that otherswill follow the demonstrated behavior if theproblem is not corrected at once.

CommunicationThe fourth and probably the most importantquality is communication. One must be willingand able to communicate and do it at alllevels.

While safety is everyone’s business and assuch, becomes everyone’s responsibility, thepoint of emphasizing these four principles toyou is that pilots are placed in a natural leadershiprole as aircraft commanders. Understandingthis, you are in a unique position to influencethe behavior of others. Finally, human factorsare as varied as the individuals being affectedby them, we try to minimize the effects byestablishing guidelines compatible with themission. The goal of all Aviation AccidentPrevention Programs is an axiom.

Goal:To reduce Aviation Accident occurrences.

Purpose: To preserve human and material resourcesthrough identification and prevention of hazards.Hazards are defined as the causes of damageand injury.

Objective:To minimize human exposure tohazards and implement effective managementtechniques.

7

C H A P T E R 2C H A P T E R 2C H A P T E R 2CONTRACT INTERPRETATION

AND ADMINISTRATION

NOTES

9

INTRODUCTION

All the fun and excitement associated withfighting fires with helicopters comes with

a price. That price can often be measured inthe additional effort it takes to do that jobwhile operating within the confines of a contract.Aircraft, pilot, fuel tender and driver servicesare contracted by the government to accomplishfire fighting and other missions. The governmentand the helicopter company are bound in awritten document to meet specific performanceand fiscal obligations. In field operations thepilot represents the helicopter company andan agency employee (usually the Helitack Foreman)represents the government. Success in fulfillingthe contract provisions and completing requiredpaperwork is dependent upon the joint effortsof these two people. This task, though timeconsuming and a source of avoidable friction,is so important that the following informationis devoted to it.

TYPES OF CONTRACTS

Each contract is unique. Forest Service andDepartment of the Interior aviation contracts

are generally similar, but differ in format andthe way they are administered. Helicopter contractswithin the same agency can differ dramaticallywhen it comes to specifics. Even a three yearcontract may be modified so that provisionsand specifications will change from year toyear. The pilot and manager must discuss theirspecific contract thoroughly prior tocommencement and then refer to it many timesduring the contract period.

Exclusive UseThis is by far the most common type of contractfor fire suppression. The aircraft is contractedfor the exclusive use of the government, for aspecific activity (fire suppression), and for aspecified time period (usually 90 - 120 days).During the contract period the aircraft must beavailable and at the government’s disposal 24hours a day. The vendor is guaranteed a certainnumber of flight hours or is paid for beingavailable each day. These contracts are usuallyawarded to a company for three years. This is abinding agreement for both parties; the companyis obligated to provide the service and thegovernment is obligated to pay them. Afterthree years a new contract is drawn up and putout for competitive bid. This method is used toprocure recurrent services at a location whereorganized Helitack or Rappel crews are stationed.

Call-When-NeededThe Call-When-Needed (CWN) program is usedto procure aircraft for short periods of timeduring heavy initial attack activity, projectfires or for short term resource projects whenexclusive use contract helicopter are all committedor otherwise unavailable. Companies with light,medium, and/or heavy helicopters enter intowritten agreements with the government on anannual basis to provide aviation services at setrates. As the need arises, agencies call vendorsand activate this pre-arranged short term contract.The aircraft are usually managed by minimallytrained helicopter “modules”. These contractsare not binding. The vendor is under no obligationto provide services at the time of order. Thevendor receives a daily guarantee.

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Basic Ordering Agreement (BOA)The BOA (or Rental Agreement) is very similarto the CWN contract. Vendors place their aircrafton a list at set rates and then agencies can“rent” them for short duration projects. Non-binding agreements.

On-CallThis contract is actually a cross between theexclusive use and CWN. During a specifiedtime period (e.g. 60 days) the government mayrequest a helicopter from the contracted vendor.The vendor must have the aircraft at the desiredlocation within a short time (e.g. 2-4 hrs). Afterusing the aircraft for a time the governmentmay release it back to the home base. Thisscenario may repeat itself several times duringthe contract period. In this way the agency getsa helicopter when it needs one and the vendormay use the aircraft for other purposes whenthe government is not using it. This agreementis binding and the vendor is guaranteed a setnumber of flight hours each year.

DAILY AVAILABILITY vs. HOURLYGUARANTEE

When vendors secure exclusive use contractsthey must have some assurance that

they can pay their operating expenses even ifthe aircraft sits all summer without turning arotor. This is accomplished via the contract inone of two ways: Daily Availability or HourlyGuarantee. Each contract uses one or the otherof these methods.

Daily AvailabilityThe vendor receives a substantial amount foreach day that the aircraft is available for serviceduring the contract period (e.g. $700 for 100days). In addition, the vendor receives a setrate for each hour that the helicopter flies (e.g$200/hr), but is not guaranteed any flight hours.If the aircraft is unavailable for all or part of theday, then the daily availability rate is adjustedaccordingly.

Hourly GuaranteeThe vendor is guaranteed to be compensatedfor a set number of flight hours, at a set rate,during the contract period (e.g. 200 flight hrs@ $500/hr, 100 day period). If, at the end of thecontract period, the aircraft has only flown150 hrs, the company still gets paid for 200hrs. If the aircraft is unavailable for all or partof a day, then either the contract period isextended one day or the guarantee is reducedby two hours.

The whole idea of having exclusive use contractsis to have a helicopter available for the government’suse each day. It is in the best interest of bothparties for this to happen. When an aircraftbecomes unavailable (or it is uncertain if it isavailable or not) conflict and disputes occur.The dialogue in the contract concerning availabilityis subject to interpretation and often a thirdparty (the Contracting Officer) must make thefinal interpretation.

11

EXCLUSIVE USE CONTRACT (Example) Format

All federal government contracts follow thesame general format. The format and language

will vary from agency to agency.

Bid ItemsMost contracts are intended to secure severalaircraft at the same time for use in differentgeographical areas but perform similar services(example: a contract to secure rappel helicoptersfor the Siskiyou and Malheur National Forests).Each location requiring services is listed in thecontract as a separate Bid Item. Aviation companiesmay bid on any or all of the bid items. Eachlocation may have slightly different requirementsand therefore each bid item may have uniqueor additional specifications. Also, each biditem awarded may have different paymentrates. It is important to only refer to the informationregarding the bid item that your helicopter andcompany are fulfilling.

Flight and Duty LimitationsThe limitations for pilot, driver and mechanicare different. These limitations can only beexceeded in emergency life threateningcircumstances. Some contracts allow the pilotto function as mechanic if they are qualified.When doing so, the time counts toward dutytime and any mechanic work in excess of aspecified amount (usually two hours) will applyto flight limitations for the day.

Equipment and Avionics RequirementsAll avionics and equipment requirements arespecified in the contract. The contractor is innon-compliance if any one of these requirementsis not met at any time. Malfunctions of equipment,especially radios, may render the aircraftunavailable, depending on contract requirements.

MaintenanceInspections at industry intervals are required(50 or 100 hr). The government must be informedwhen and where the inspections or maintenanceoccurs. Logbooks or records may be requestedby the Contracting Officer. Maintenance testflights may be required, at the contractor’s

expense, following any replacement or overhaulof the engine, power train, rotor system orflight control component. The pilot is responsiblefor conducting and documenting periodic turbinepower checks and updating/analyzing turbinepower trend charts.

Fuel and ServicingGenerally, contractors provide all fuel in thelower 48 states. Approved types and grades offuel as outlined in the contract must be used.All fueling operations will conform to governmentregulations or handbooks. The fuel tender mustmeet contract requirements at all times. Theimportance of the fuel tender and its operatormust never be overlooked regarding both contractcompliance and successful helicopter operations.

Designated BaseThe designated base is specified in the contractand is normally the Helitack or Rappel base ofoperations. Any overnight operations awayfrom the designated base may generate paymentrates such as per diem (overnight allowance)and transportation cost for relief personnel.

Exclusive Use PeriodThis period (60-120 days) is identified in thecontract with start dates and ending dates.During this period the aircraft will be madeavailable to the government for 24 hours/day,seven days a week. The exclusive use periodmay be extended at the mutual consent ofcontractor and government.

AvailabilityThe minimum number of hours each day thatthe helicopter is required is usually 8, 9, or 10hours. The government may request dailyavailability up to 14 hours and will specify thestart and stop of the period on a daily basis. Inmany contracts, the aircraft and pilot are requiredto be in “one hour call back” status for 14hours each day. This greatly influences theirpersonal activities before and after the minimumdaily availability period.

Any time over the specified minimum requiresthe government to pay extended availability.Lunch breaks are usually absorbed by the

12

contractor. The daily availability period is asource of misinterpretation as it relates to dutytime and extended availability. Be sure todiscuss how this will be handled at the pre-work conference or before commencing activities.

During the availability period, the aircraft isrequired to be airborne within a specified timeafter dispatch orders are given (usually 10 or15 minutes). Sometimes the government, becauseof poor weather or no planned flights, mayauthorize the pilot and fuel tender attendant toleave the standby area for maintenance orother reasons. If the aircraft is suddenly neededduring this absence the contractor has 60 minutesfrom the time of contact to be airborne-ready.At the government’s option, the contractormay be granted permission to perform scheduledor unscheduled maintenance during the dailyavailability period. If the aircraft is needed,the contractor has 60 minutes to become airborne-ready. If this maintenance is pre-approved, theaircraft will remain in available status.

One Hour Call-Back or Return-to-StandbyStatusAt the end of a daily availability period thepilot and attendant may be released from thebase of operation and placed on One HourCall-back status if the likelihood of additionalservices is great. They would have 60 minutesfrom time of contact to be airborne-ready. Ifthe pilot and attendant are released, and notplaced in this status, they are not required torespond. Also, if they are kept at the base ofoperation beyond the daily minimum periodthey must be paid extended standby. The initiationand management of Return-to-Standby statusmust be made clear to all parties involved.

UnavailabilityThe aircraft is unavailable whenever the aircraftor personnel are not in a condition to performor fail to perform within the requirements ofthe contract. Unavailability will continue untilthe failure is corrected and the pilot has informedthe government that it is available again. Amultitude of situations can render the aircraftunavailable, including mechanical problems

and accessory failures to absent pilots andincapacitated fuel tenders. Unavailability canbe controversial as the contractor may loserevenue and the government may lose theaviation services (depending on the contractrequirements).

Measurement and PaymentHow availability, hourly guarantee, extendedavailability, per diem, mileage, etc., are measuredand paid differs from one contract to another.Know your contract.

The pilot and foreman must both keep accuraterecords. Close communication is essential tomaintaining a working relationship and avoidingunpleasant discrepancies. The completion ofthe agency flight invoice is a joint effort whererecords are compared and entries are agreedupon. (see OAS 23 and USFS 122 exhibits).

Security of the AircraftSecurity is the responsibility of the contractor.However, the government may assist the contractorin reducing security risks when the assistancewill benefit the government. This is especiallytrue when operating away from the designatedbase (field situation).

Accidents/Incidents/HazardsIt is the pilot’s responsibility to notify thegovernment representative immediately of anyaviation hazards, mechanical problems, incidents,or accidents. Appropriate documentation,discussions and/or actions will then take place.

Suspension of PersonnelThe pilot or other contractor personnel may besuspended for unsatisfactory performance orconduct detrimental to the purpose contracted.Actual suspension can be ordered only by theContracting Officer. Also, operations may betemporarily shut down for safety reasons.

Relief PersonnelProviding relief pilots and drivers to the designatedbase or field site is the contractor’s responsibility.Relief personnel often rotate from one contractsite to another and are on a tight schedule. The

13

transition to and from relief personnel oftencauses disputes about duty time, one hour callback and the daily availability period. Eachpilot and driver must be treated separately.Each day, the government must have the helicopteravailable for 14 hours. During personnel transition,either the regular pilot and driver must remainavailable until released, or the relief pilot anddriver must continue duty or otherwise beavailable. There must never be a time duringdaylight hours when no pilots or drivers areavailable, otherwise the aircraft is consideredunavailable. Tracking relief personnel flightand duty time can be challenging, but is anecessity.

HELPFUL HINTS

1 The pilot and manager are thecontractual representatives at the

operational level. The pilot is working for thecompany, and the Helicopter Manager isworking for a Fire Management Officer (FMO)and the Contracting Officer. Don’t ruin therelationship over a contract dispute. If problemscan’t be resolved at the field level, let thecompany’s designated representative and theContracting Officer settle the issue while thetasks at hand continue.

2.Get things straight at the Pre-workConference. Often the chief pilot or companyrepresentative, FMO, Helicopter Manager,Contracting Officer, Contracting Officer’sRepresentative (COR), and other technicalspecialists are all present at this meeting. Talkspecifically about how certain situations willbe handled.

3.Later, the pilot and helicopter manager shoulddiscuss the contract page by page.

4.Keep a copy of the contract in the aircraft orfuel tender at all times. (Contract Requirement)

5.Document daily activities completely andaccurately (Hobbs hour meter readings eachflight, exact time of mechanical problems orincidents, duty time, type of activities,discussion, actions, people involved, etc.). Themanager will be keeping their records, also.

6.Be totally honest and up front with theHelitack Foreman or Helicopter Manager.Communicate!

7.Take an active role in all required paperwork:load calculations, turbine power checks, flightinvoices, etc. Don’t get behind in paperwork.

8.The Helicopter Manager/Helitack Foremansupervises the crew and directs the use of thehelicopter. Suggestions are O.K.; it is a teameffort. But don’t undermine the manager’s/foreman’s authority.

14

FUEL TENDER AND DRIVERPROCEDURES AND SAFETYIntroduction

The fuel tender driver works for the pilot.The fueling operation is ultimately the

pilots responsibility. The fuel tender and attendantare obviously a very important part of anyhelicopter operation. There is nothing morefrustrating and embarrassing than having anair worthy helicopter, willing and capable pilot,motivated fire fighters available and haveeverything held up because fuel is not available.It can happen. The success of any fuelingoperation is dependent upon many factors thatare discussed below. Never take the fuel tenderor driver for granted.

Fuel Tender RequirementsInspectionsAll fuel tenders on contract must be inspectedby a government representative in the samemanner that the aircraft is inspected. If thetruck meets all contract requirements, an approvalcard is issued and must be carried in thevehicle at all times. Fuel cannot be dispenseduntil the tender is approved and if, for anyreason during the contract period the fueltender fails to meet specifications, the aircraftmay be placed in unavailable status.

RequirementsFuel tender requirements are specified in thecontract. These differ slightly from agency toagency. All aviation fuels carried and dispensedmust be of the type and grade recommendedby the manufacturer of the specific aircraft.Fuel dispensed into the aircraft must first passthrough an approved filtering system and nozzlescreen. The service tender will be conspicuouslymarked identifying the type of fuel carried,and NO SMOKING signs will be displayed.Portable fire extinguishers will be mounted tobe readily visible and accessible; their capacitywill be commensurate with the fuel tank capacity.The tender will have a reel mounted groundingcable with clip and a nozzle grounding cable.The fuel tank capacity will be sufficient tosustain the contract helicopter for eight flighthours. The tank and dispensing system will be

clean, tight and operable at all times. A 10-gallon per minute fuel dispensing pump is theminimum required. The tender itself must beproperly maintained, clean and reliable.

Other RequirementsEach base of operation may have additionalrequirements written into the contract. Vendorsupplied FM mobile radios may also be specified.FM radios are mandatory in the fuel tender,whether supplied by the vendor or the government.Programmable radios are optimal.

Local frequencies and assignments will beposted in the vehicle at all times. In somestates the service vehicle may need specialpermits for transporting hazardous materials.This is a vendor responsibility.

Driver RequirementsDuty LimitationsDuty limitations are described in the contract.These limitations receive the same scrutiny aspilot duty and flight limitations. When the fueltender is driven long distances, limitations(especially the driving limitation) come intoplay. Drivers may be required to stop andremain overnight when traveling cross countryto avoid exceeding the limitations. Also, dutytime must be monitored closely as it affectsextended availability for the tender. This extendedavailability may differ from pilot extendedavailability from day to day.

ReadinessThe driver must remain at the base of operationsor with the fuel tender during duty periods justlike everyone else. They must be ready forimmediate dispatch including having the fueltender in a clean/organized/ reliable condition,keeping a personal gear bag for long off-districtdispatches, maintaining adequate fuel quantities,storing supplies of filters, parts, tools, cleaningmaterials, etc. The driver is also usually responsiblefor keeping food, water, and creature comfortsfor himself and the pilot.

15

CommunicationsCommunication with the fuel tender is essential.The driver must thoroughly understand theoperation of the radio. They must also understandthe local frequencies and repeater systems. Ashort training and orientation session is appropriatehere; basic radio procedures and etiquetteshould be covered too. The frequency/assignmentlist should be conspicuously posted in thevehicle. When dispatched, the driver will begiven travel and radio instructions. The drivershould check-in with the pilot when they reachthe assigned destination or at set intervalsduring long trips. Radio traffic gets very congestedduring fire operations. Drivers should makeonly necessary transmissions, and they shouldbe brief and concise.

LogisticsFuel tenders assigned on fire contracts arefrequently dispatched to remote sites. Often,the service truck will accompany the Helitacksupport vehicle. However, there are instanceswhere the fuel tender must reach a destinationon its own. Therefore, a complete map kit ofthe District, Forest and adjacent areas is essential.The driver should be given an orientation tothe area showing major mountains, rivers, lakes,roads, etc., and then spend some time studyingmaps and asking questions.

The driver needs to know where appropriatefuel is available in the local area (for both thehelicopter and the fuel tender). Some fuelvendors in sparsely populated areas operateon a limited basis or during specific/limitedtimes.

Fueling ProceduresAll fueling will be accomplished as outlined inthe contract and government aviation manualsand handbooks. Generally, the following apply:only the pilot or qualified fueler will dispensefuel into the aircraft; helicopter engines androtors will come to a complete stop prior to thefuel tender approaching; the cabin of the aircraftwill be empty of all passengers, and non-essential personnel should remain 100' awayduring fueling operations; the fuel tender will

be grounded and the aircraft and tender will bebonded during fueling. Fuel spills will be reportedto the pilot and Helicopter Manager. At thebase of operations or at project helibases therewill be guidelines for fuel tenders: where topark; access to ramps and landing areas; trafficpatterns; etc.

Refueling the aircraft is potentially dangerous.A good fueler takes pride in these high pointsof their day while following efficient, safeprocedures. Fuel tender drivers need exact,clear instructions on how much fuel to put inthe aircraft and this amount depends on thehelicopter’s next mission.

Record KeepingAny fuel tender mileage incurred while operatingaway from the designated base will be paid asspecified in the contract (this does not includemiscellaneous trips for the benefit of the pilotor company). The driver should keep a logbookand record dates, times, beginning and endingmileage, departure points and destinations,etc. The pilot or helicopter manager will beasking for this information almost daily. Arecord of aircraft fuel purchases, price paid,and amounts dispensed from the fuel tender isalso encouraged.

The driver needs to keep a record of the dutyand driving time. Their duty time is frequentlydifferent than the pilot’s.

NOTES

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C H A P T E R 3C H A P T E R 3C H A P T E R 3FLIGHT FOLLOWING

NOTES

19

INTRODUCTION“Flight following” procedures are designed forthe safety of pilot, passengers and aircraft.Flight following is a proven method of trackingaircraft location, making aircraft easier to locateif forced to land or an incident occurs. Thisgives emergency forces a position to start fromand reduces search time looking for a downedaircraft to a minimum.

PROCEDURES

Ten to fifteen minute check-ins are fairlystandard throughout most agencies. Deviation

from these standards require prior approvaland all concerned parties will be informed ofthe situation.

The most desirable method of check-in is toprovide your Lat/Long and direction of travel.Common geographical landmarks along withtownship/range/sections and direction of travelare other ways to determine position. Remember,if geographical names are to be used they areoften duplicated in any given area or may notbe on the map.

The helitack manager/observer on board theaircraft is responsible for flight following andassuring check-ins are made at the requiredtime intervals. The pilot will assure that check-ins are adhered to in the absence of helitack/observers being on board.

When working an active fire situation or largeproject, ground personnel may be establishedas the flight following contact point. This procedureworks only as long as flight following is adheredto and communications are still maintainedwith dispatch by the ground contact.

Frequency management is established in advanceof the flight.

20

NO CONTACT MADE

Communication will be made with the dispatchcenter immediately after take-off. If contact

is not made within a reasonable amount oftime the mission will be aborted and the aircraftwill return to the base of operations. At thispoint communications will be re-establishedwith the dispatcher.

If communications are lost during a flight, themission will be called off. All attempts will bemade by helitack/observer and pilot to re-establish communications. Alternate frequencieswith other agencies, Federal Aviation Administration(FAA) or any other methods will be employedto re-establish communications as quickly aspossible—even so far as to land the aircraftand call on a telephone.

Aircraft will be considered “overdue” when itis has not completed a required check-in within the time frames established. Search andrescue operations will then be implementedaccording to agency guidelines. Agency guidelinesspell out that this will begin 30 minutes afterlast contact was made.

PRIORITIES

Remember, dispatchers may have a numberof activities or distractions going on at the

same time. Flight following remains the #1priority in the overall scheme of events! If forany reason communications are compromisedwith you, you will be the primary focus untilthe situation is resolved.

Flight following is not taken lightly, it is animportant part of everyone’s responsibility.

OTHER HELPFUL HINTS

Military Training Route (MTR) informationcan change. Keep heads up as usual.

Once military pilots have entered the flightroute radio contact is broken off with them.

Pass on any other aircraft sightings to dispatchso they may notify others.

Changing priorities may pre-empt your currentassignment.

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C H A P T E R 4C H A P T E R 4C H A P T E R 4COMMUNICATIONS

NOTES

23

INTRODUCTION

Good communications are essential to safeand efficient mission accomplishment.

As a helicopter pilot new to firefighting, youwill need to become familiar with proceduresand terminology associated with firecommunications. The following information isintended to be used as an introduction to firecommunications.

PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES

Helicopters contracted by USDA Forest Serviceand Department of Interior agencies are

required to have a 9600 channel VHF-FMradio with air guard frequency, a tone encoder,and a VHF-AM radio. Become familiar withthe operation and programming features of theradio equipment installed in the aircraft, includingthe tone encoder.

When dispatched to a fire, the requesting agencywill provide a radio frequency (usually FM) forthe dispatching office of the agency responsiblefor the fire or project. The dispatching agencywill ask for a flight plan including EDT, timeenroute, fuel stops, and ETA.

The dispatchers take their “flight following”very seriously. It is required to call in with aposition report every ten to fifteen minutes. Ifthe assignment is to a fire at a distant location,ask for frequencies of other dispatch officesalong the route for flight following, or file aVFR flight plan with the FAA. If a flight plan isfiled with the FAA, still contact the destinationdispatch office upon arrival.

The dispatcher at the destination agency willprovide instructions regarding the landing area.This may be the local airport or the fire helibase.If instructed to proceed to the fire helibase, thefrequencies for the traffic over the fire and forthe helibase will be provided. Work closelywith the helicopter manager, this person willbe a valuable source of help and information.

HELICOPTER MANAGERRESPONSIBILITIES

The helicopter manager will:1. Provide the pilot with all necessaryinformation such as radio frequencies, contacts,maps, and other information necessary for thepilot to communicate on the fire.

2. Assist the new pilot in learning unfamiliarterminology and procedures.

3. Keep the pilot informed on changingpriorities and additional information.

FREQUENCIESAir Guard

The national air guard frequency is 168.625.The use of this frequency is limited to the

following (listed in priority order):1. Air to air initial contract—non-emergency.

2. Ground to air/air to ground—emergencyonly.

3. Flight re-direction by a dispatching office.

It is important to note that presently there is norequirement for ground stations to monitor airguard on a priority channel basis, althoughmost dispatch offices do monitor air guard.

TacticalAir tactical frequencies are assigned by thecommunications unit on the air operationssection of the incident.

Air-to-GroundAir to ground frequencies are used by groundpeople to direct water drops, placement ofexternal loads, and for helicopter to helibase/helispot communications. An air to groundfrequency will be assigned to the air operationssection by the communications unit.

24

INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS)TERMINOLOGY

All radio communications in federal firefightingagencies are in clear text. There will be

terms that are unfamiliar. The following aresome terms that are not included in this guide’sglossary. Please see the description of ICSpositions included in the appendix of thisguide for more detailed information.

Air Tactical Group SupervisorThis person will be in a fixed wing or a helicopterover the fire and directs retardant drops fromair tankers and bucket drops from helicopters.The air tactical group supervisor is partiallyresponsible for aircraft separation and it isimperative that communication with this personbe constantly maintained while working in thevicinity of air tactical activities. The radio callsign is ‘Air Tactics.’

Air Operations DirectorThis person is in charge of the entire air operationssection of the fire and works for the operationssections chief. They travel between fire camp(incident base), helibase, and tanker base.

Air Support Group SupervisorThis person oversees the air support functionson the fire. This includes cargo delivery, personneltransportation, recon flights for overhead, andsupervises the helibase manager.

Deck ManagerThis person works for the helibase managerand coordinates activities on the ‘deck.’ Thedeck manager oversees the cargo area, personneltransportation area, fuel tender parking, markingof landing pads, etc. The call sign is ‘deck.’

DivisionLarge fires are divided into divisions, eachwith a division supervisor. Division breaks aremarked on the map that is included in theincident action plan, and are designated ‘A’,‘B’, ‘C’, and so on. You will be communicatingwith division supervisors as you provide waterdrops and other support on a division of thefire. The call sign for the division supervisor onDivision A would be ‘Division A.’

HelibaseHelicopters and helicopter crews assigned tothe fire work from the helibase. On large firesthe helibase can be a very complex organization.Each helibase has a helibase manager, andaccording to its complexity may also have adeck manager, radio desk, pilot and crew restarea, fuel tender parking area, etc. The callsign for the helibase on the ‘Cold Creek Fire’would be ‘Cold Creek Helibase.’

HelispotHelispots are temporary landing areas in closeproximity to the fire and are used for personneltransport and cargo delivery/pick-up. Helispotsusually have no vehicle access and can varygreatly in size and ease of take-off and landing.Helispots are numbered according to theirgeographic location on the fire (North to South,and East to West). Each active helispot willhave a helispot manager assigned. Good radiocommunications are essential when workingin and out of helispots. The call sign would be‘Helispot 1’, etc.

Helicopter CoordinatorSometimes on a large, complex fire there willbe a helicopter coordinator. This person willbe in a helicopter over the fire, above the otherhelicopters, and will manage the airspace thehelicopters are working in. This person can bea great help in coordinating activities over thefire. The call sign for the helicopter coordinatoris usually the tail number of the helicopterutilized.

Radio OperatorEach helibase has a radio operator. This is aperson to contact for departure, flight following,mission instructions, and landing. The radiooperator will provide a helibase advisory whenready for take-off and when inbound for landing.The radio operator is not an air traffic controllerand cannot ‘clear’ for take-off or landing, butwill provide information and record your activitieson a helibase radio log. The radio operator willflight follow you for most missions (an exceptionwould be if you are working for air tactics, inwhich case you are in communications withsomeone that has visual contact with you.) Thecall sign for the radio operator is the same asthe helibase.

25

Take-off and LandingCoordinatorThis position may be activated whena helibase operation becomes verycomplex. This person is moreexperienced than a radio operatorand will take over communicationwith incoming and outgoing aircraft,and provide landing instructions.The call sign is the same as thehelibase.

Figure 1 provides a sample incidentcommunications plan. It is thestandard form used by thecommunications unit to list radiofrequencies for the command section,division/ground units, and the airoperations. Always be sure to programin the Command Frequency. If you

are assigned to respond to a medicalevacuation this is the frequencyyou will normally use. TheCommunications Unit will clearthe Command frequency of all othertraffic for the medivac operation.Hospital frequencies are listed inthe emergency plan that is postedon the helibase bulletin board. TheMedical Unit will be on the Commandchannel to provide all other necessaryinformation for the medivac operation.

Exhibit 2 provides important additionalinformation regarding incidentaviation communications, functions,and frequencies.

Figure 1.Incident Radio

CommunicationsPlan.

NOTES

27

C H A P T E R 5C H A P T E R 5C H A P T E R 5FIRE ORGANIZATION

NOTES

29

LOCAL LEVEL ORGANIZATION

The helitack crew is but one entity in theoverall picture—engines, hotshot crews,

smokejumpers, etc., all play an important rolein the effort to fight wildland fires. Dispatchers,incident management, and various supportroles are essential to orchestrating and planningfire suppression efforts. At the local level, firemanagement officers and fire control officersare the key players in overall fire managementdirectives. Let us look at various positions,their roles, and how they affect you as a pilot:

Fire Management Officer (FMO)The FMO is typically the helitack manager’ssupervisor. Establishes type of aircraft used inthe local area, dictates size of helitack crew,location of helitack base, funding of helitackcrew and helicopter. Establishes standards ofoperations, responsible for overall fire operationswithin the local district or forest.

Fire Control Officer (FCO)The FCO can also act as the helitack manager’ssupervisor and plays an active role in the field.You will be working for this individual attimes. The FCO is in charge of the operationalaspects of local fire-fighting activities.

DispatcherThis is your local “Control Tower”. Dispatchprovides flight following services, establishespriorities on various fires, redirects your activitiesaccording to priorities, and consolidates informationgathered from field units such as yourself.Dispatchers are under a lot of stress duringhigh fire activity. Multiple agencies operatingout of small inadequate facilities compoundcommunication problems. New inexperienceddispatchers are routinely used during fire seasons.If you do not receive the response you areanticipating, give some thought to the abovementioned limiting factors. Most dispatch centersprovide an excellent service and are improvingevery year. The shear volume of informationgiven to them via various telephones, radios,computers during high fire activity is considerable.The contacts which must be made with variousmilitary organizations, state, federal and local

agencies is at times overwhelming. The volumeof paperwork, and tracking various resourcesis staggering. The bottom line is a dispatcherslife is extremely hectic, and they are doing acommendable job. They are also the first linkin dispatching “your aircraft”. Treat them well!Dispatch is required to flight follow all aircraftoperating within their jurisdiction. Dispatch isyour life-link should you be forced to landprior to your destination. You will be conversingvia the FM radio on a regular basis. Make it apoint to meet the dispatcher, in person, andestablish a good rapport.

Guard Stations/Work CentersMost forests and districts have designated basesin outlying areas. Due to the distances involved,it would not be feasible for an Initial Attackforce to be based in one central location.Guard stations/work centers are temporary livingquarters for fire crews and fire engine modules.These bases remain in operation for the durationof the fire season.

You may be dispatched to a guard station forstandby during high fire danger (lightning storms).A few items to keep in mind:

1. The living area’s provided by the governmentare basically the designated crews home forthe summer. Treat it as you would if you wereto visit someone’s home.

2. Bring your own food (lunch).

3. Most guard stations have a basic heliport.They may not have water or electricityavailable.

Helpful Hints1. Ask for an organization chart of the localunit.

2. Ask for a telephone list.

3. Ask for maps of the district/assigned area.

4. Get to know everyone you will be workingin the field with.

5. Visit dispatch, orient yourself.

30

FIRE LINE PERSONNEL

As a pilot, you need to be familiar with thebasic job titles, their function and authority.

Incident Commander (IC)Responsible for all fire activities. On smallfires this individual determines where variousforces will work on the fire, as the fire expandsthis individual can be replaced with a moreexperienced IC.

Division Supervisor (DIVS)As a fire expands into a large incident, theperimeter is divided into divisions. Each divisionis controlled by a division supervisor. Thisindividual may be in charge of hand crews,engines, and coordinating or requesting airsupport. You may be directed or given anassignment by the Division Supervisor; howeverthese requests must be cleared through the AirOperations Branch Director or the helibaseprior to redirection. This is an essential step sothat priorities are maintained and also to eliminatevarious line positions from redirecting youractivity whenever they decide to. This appliesto all positions except air tactical supervisor orwhen you are initially assigned to a particularindividual.

Crew BossIn charge of a hand crew of 20. Can be a Type 1crew (Hotshot) or a Type 2 crew (NativeAmerican or Project Crew). You will be com-municating with this individual concerningwater drops, fire behavior, routes into the inci-dent, weather, safety zones, air operations.

Squad BossA leader within the ranks of a hand crew. TheSquad Boss usually has at least one year fireexperience and is familiar with basic air operations.You may be communicating with this individualregarding water dropping, fire behavior, routesinto the incident, weather, safety zones, airoperations, etc.

Strike Team LeaderA person in charge of a specified combinationof the same kind and type of resources withcommon communications. (Can be a crew of36 firefighters, 5 engines, etc.)

Engine OperatorYou may be communicating with this individualregarding water drops, fire behavior, routesinto the incident, weather, safety zones, airoperations, etc.

Safety Officer, Paramedic’s, EMT’sIf requested to assist in the transportation of aninjured firefighter, you may need to communicatewith any of these individuals.

Incident Medical PlanAn ICS form which is part of the IncidentAction Plan and provides useful informationfor medical emergencies.

Helpful HintsWild fire is not an emergency! Not everyoneworking in fire has figured that one out. About95% of the firefighters you will deal with arevery capable and knowledgeable. The remaining5% are easy to deal with. You are in control ofthe aircraft and should not feel pressured to doanything that makes you feel uncomfortable.At times, especially if structures are threatened,the need to expedite suppression efforts willincrease pressure on everyone involved, includingyou. Your expertise, skills and knowledge arerelied upon, and if the situation regardingaircraft needs to change for whatever reason,inform the individual you are working for ofthe changes needed so that you can continuethe suppression of the fire at a level you arecomfortable with. Approach the situation in apositive manner and you should receive anappropriate response. Remember, the view fromthe air and the view from the ground are twoentirely different scenes. An individual on theground breathing smoke and straining to operatea piece of equipment has a limited view, limitedobjective and a limited amount of informationavailable. If you can’t get an immediate,knowledgeable answer, keep these factors inmind (including noise at ground level). Youhave a SPH-4 helmet to facilitate audio reception.However, if the person you are conversingwith has a chainsaw or pump operating closeby, they may not hear their hand-held radio.

This is information to help you understand theother side of the picture. Firefighter’s are beingtrained to be aware of factor’s which effect youin an adverse way also. If all parties are awareof each other’s “problems”, we can work towardsa common goal in an effective manner.

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LARGE INCIDENT ORGANIZATIONSAir Operations Branch Director

The Air Operations Branch Director, who isground based, is primarily responsible for

preparing the air operations portion of theIncident Action Plan. The plan reflects agencyrestrictions that have an impact on the operationalcapability and utilization of resources ( e.g.,hours per pilot). After the plan is approved, theAir Operations Branch Director is responsiblefor implementing its strategic aspects - thosethat relate to the overall incident strategy asopposed to those that pertain to tactical operations(specific target selection). Additionally, the AirOperations Branch Manager is responsible forproviding logistical support to aircraft operationon the incident. Specific tactical activities (targetselection, suggested modifications to specifictactical actions in the Incident Action Plan) arenormally performed by the Air Attack GroupSupervisor working with ground and air resources.

Air Support Group SupervisorThe Air Support Group Supervisor is primarilyresponsible for supporting and managing helibaseand helispot operations and maintaining liaisonwith fixed-wing bases. This includes providing:1) fuel and other supplies, 2) maintenance andrepair of aircraft, 3) retardant mixing and loading,4) maintaining records of helicopter and fixed-wing activity, and 5) providing enforcement ofsafety regulations. These major functions areperformed by the Air Support Group’s Helibaseor Helispot Managers. The Air Support GroupSupervisor reports to the Air Operations BranchDirector.

Helibase ManagerThe Helibase Manager’s primary function is tocoordinate the support of fire suppression activitiesusing helicopters as a tool to accomplish transportof troops, supplies, support, and/or reconnaissance.

Helispot ManagerThe Helispot Manager is responsible for thesafe and efficient operation of a helispot. As apilot you will be dealing with this individualfrequently.

Deck CoordinatorThe Deck Coordinator is responsible for providingcoordination at an aircraft landing area forpersonnel and cargo movement. The DeckCoordinator reports to the Helibase or Fixed-Wing Base Manager.

Loadmaster (Personnel/Cargo)The Loadmaster is responsible for the safeoperation of loading and unloading of cargoand personnel. The Loadmaster reports to theDeck Coordinator.

MixmasterThe Mixmaster is responsible for providing fireretardant to helicopters and air tankers at therate specified and for the expected duration ofjob. The Mixmaster reports to the HelibaseManager or Fixed-Wing Base Manager.

Takeoff and Landing ControllerThe Takeoff and Landing Controller is responsiblefor providing coordination of arriving and departinghelicopters at a helibase and all helicoptermovement on and around the helibase. TheTakeoff and Landing Controller reports to theHelibase Manager.

Aircraft Base Radio OperatorThe Aircraft Base Radio Operator is responsiblefor establishing communication between incidentassigned aircraft and airbases, Air Tactical GroupSupervisor, Air Operations Branch Directorand Takeoff and Landing Controller. The AircraftBase Manager reports to the Helibase or Fixed-Wing Base Manager.

Aircraft TimekeeperThe Aircraft Timekeeper is responsible for keepingtime on all aircraft assigned. Timekeeper reportsto the Base Manager.

Parking TenderThe Parking Tender is responsible for parkingaircraft and reports to the Deck Coordinator.

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Air Tactical Group SupervisorThe Air Tactical Group Supervisor reports tothe Air Operations Branch Director and isresponsible for the coordination of fixed and/or rotary-wing aircraft operations over an incident.

Air Tanker/Fixed Wing Coordinator(ATCO)The ATCO reports to the Air Tactical GroupSupervisor and is responsible for coordinatingassigned air tanker operations at the incident.The Air Tanker Coordinator is always airborne.

Helicopter CoordinatorThe Helicopter Coordinator reports to the AirTactical Group Supervisor and is responsiblefor coordinating tactical or logistical helicoptermission(s) at the incident.

HELITACK CREWSHistory

The first helitack crew was activated in1957 on the Angeles National Forest. Helitack

crews were developed out of the need to havefirefighters trained in the use of helicopters inthe initial attack phase of wildland fires. Thesecrews were also trained in aircraft use to supportan on-going fire, in areas such as personneltransport, cargo hauling, medivac services,etc. The original concepts which lead to thedevelopment of helitack crews are still in placeand are still the driving forces.

As a pilot, you need to understand the hierarchyof helitack crews. Each individual has a roleand none are more important than the other.For a helitack crew to function on a day in dayout basis, for days, weeks or months on end, agood working relationship must be establishedbetween the helitack crew and the pilot.

PositionsCrewpersonAll should have one season fire experienceand have demonstrated the ability to functionaround hazardous equipment without endangeringthemselves or others. Most are college age andworking summers. Helpful Hints: Realize theseindividuals are not the same as professional,full-time career types. They may not be completely

familiar with aviation, terminology, or aircraftperformance.

Lead CrewpersonShould have at least one season on a helitackcrew. Demonstrates basic knowledge of helicopteroperations. Helpful Hints: This position willbe more active in roles of responsibility, butrequires a supervisor present. Be aware ofinexperience in some areas.

Assistant ForemanUsually has at least two seasons on a helitackcrew. Demonstrates good leadership abilities.Has a good understanding of overall aviationoperations. Demonstrates good fire-fightingskills. Should be able to operate independentof the foreman. Understands most of the contract,but has no authority to authorize or settledisputes. Helpful Hints: This position is theturning point from a position of no authority toa position of some authority and a lot ofresponsibility. It is very stressful at times andthere is pressure to perform at an acceptablelevel. You as a pilot can help this individual inmany ways including navigation and legaldescription.

Foreman (Manager)Responsible for the overall Helicopter/Helitackoperation. Establishes flight-crew, tools on board,and decides if the bucket is appropriate to themission. Acquires fire information from dispatchand formulates the appropriate plan of action(where to send the fuel tender and helitackchase truck), informs the pilot of the basicplan, distance to incident, other aircraft inroute, known hazards, etc. Acts as the navigatoror guide. This is an area where the pilot andforeman should work together. Many timesone or the other is familiar with the area. Theuse of latitude, longitude coordinates havestandardized navigation, but this method isnot foolproof. Units break and dispatch receiveserroneous information. Good map reading skillsand flight following are essential. Helpful Hints:Most foreman are aware of the degree of stresscreated operating a helicopter in fire situations.

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Most foreman will try to make your life as easyas possible, just keep in mind that fire fightingis not a 9 to 5 job. Fire situations change at amoments notice and plans change. Most foremantry to anticipate and inform the pilot of changes,but remember, there are many players involvedin decisions made regarding aircraft usage.

Call When Needed Crews (CWN Crews)Just as the title suggests, whenever the needarises for a crew to work with a particularaircraft, a CWN crew is assembled for theduration of an incident. CWN crews werecreated when budget constraints limited thenumber of designated helitack crews. CWNcrews are not full time professional helitackcrews. As such their training, familiarity andskills may be different than others you haveworked with. As a pilot, you need to be awareof the inherent limitations of most CWN crews.

Special Considerations1.There are a few experienced helitack typesleading these crews. These crews would benefitfrom additional comprehensive training thatwould not only enhance their expertise but alsotheir value to the unit.

2. Most CWN crews have little if any requiredgear with them when they arrive at the incident.They must order equipment through the firecache system and this takes an average of threedays.

3.Very few CWN crews have a vehicle assignedto them to haul gear.

4. Most CWN crews do not possess sufficientradios. This is a major safety concern.

Helpful Hints:If you are working with a CWN crew, askquestions and provide positive feedback priorto beginning actual work. If you do not feelcomfortable with a situation, it will only compounditself in the field. If you have any concerns,with any operation, STOP!! Talk to the partiesinvolved. Most are more than willing to correctany situation once they understand the problem.There is enormous pressure to acquire aircraftand have it functioning on the fire as soon aspossible. This is understandable; but you, asthe pilot, have the right to stop and verify anyaspect of an operation which concerns youraircraft. If it takes as extra hour or two to train

the crew, establish methods of operation, whatever,DO IT! If you are not comfortable, do notproceed.

More Helpful Information1. Treat all employees with respect.

2. Realize that most crewmembers are collegeage and do not possess an aviation background.What is old hat to you, may be new andconfusing to the crew.

3.Try to function as part of the crew, not as aseparate entity.

4. Realize, that while you are eating a steak ata restaurant and sleeping on a bed in a motel,the crew may be working through the nightand into the next day. Be considerate and keepin mind the fatigue factor.

5. If you have a concern with the performanceof a member of the crew, especially in the areaof safety, speak to the individual (if appropriateat the time), or contact their supervisor. Positiveinput will prevent a problem from manifestingitself.

6. If you have a positive outlook, life will beeasy for the crew. If you are negative, the overallattitude of the crew will suffer.

7. The contract can be a source of friction andsometimes your frustration may be directed atthe crew. You will be working with theseindividuals, most if not all of the season.Everyone at one time or another, becomesfrustrated with a situation and makes commentsor in some way states their feelings. You as apilot are in a position to be heard by the wholefire organization. Be aware of the ramificationsof discussions via the radio.

8. Do not try to run a helitack operation. Flyingthe aircraft is your job. In actuality, knowledgeof fire is essential to you and aircraftperformance is essential to the helitack crew.If a mutual understanding is obtained by both,without crossing into someone’s turf, the seasonwill progress smoothly. Your input is importantto the programs and your expertise is reliedon. As the pilot, you are a key figure in theorganization.

NOTES

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C H A P T E R 6C H A P T E R 6C H A P T E R 6 AIR OPERATIONS

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION“No job is so important that it cannot be donesafely.” As a pilot you are often in the bestposition to ensure this basic policy is followed.Pilots have the authority, responsibility andthe obligation to see that helicopter operationsare operated safely and in accordance withCivil Air Regulations, Federal Aviation Regulationsand Government Policies.

Safety InspectionsGovernment policy requires that safety be integratedinto all phases of aerial support to minimize oreliminate risks and hazards. Because of thepotential hazards, there are intensive and regularinspections of air personnel, equipment andoperation. The frequency depends on the volumeof activity and changes of equipment. Thefollowing inspections are done by the pilotand contract personnel:

1. Pre/post flight inspections.

2. Weekly battery inspection done .

3. Turbine engine power checks kept by thecontractor and trend analysis kept in graphicform. Power checks shall be performed. Formsfor recording these checks will be furnishedby the administering government agency.

4. Test flights are made at contractor’s expensefollowing overhaul, repair and replacement ofany powertrain or control equipment beforethe helicopter resumes service under thecontract.

GENERAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS

1 Pilots are required to wear personalprotective clothing which includes a flight

suit, gloves, leather boots and a helmet. All ofthese items must conform to contractspecifications.

2. Flight limitations are a safety consideration. Apilot may not exceed eight hours per day.

3. Pilots are required to have 2 days off in any14 consecutive day period and may not remainon duty for more than 14 hours per day, andmust have a minimum of 10 hours off betweenduty periods. Travel to/from lodging outside theduty period will not exceed 30 minutes.

4. You are responsible for the safety of others.The “8 hours bottle to throttle” rule shall beobserved.

SUMMARY

No air operation is so important that itcannot be done safely. A pilot is responsible

for the safety of the aircraft, its occupants andcargo. The pilot shall comply with the directionsof the Government except when, in their judgment,such compliance will be a violation of regulations,contract provisions or endanger the aircraftand its contents. The pilot shall refuse anyflight or landing which is considered hazardousor unsafe.

To do the job of running a safe helicopteroperation the pilot and Government managementmust fully have a mutual understanding andcooperate with one another.

NOTES

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C H A P T E R 7C H A P T E R 7C H A P T E R 7 HELICOPTER LANDING AREAS

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION

As a professional pilot your capabilitiesand the capabilities of your helicopter are

well understood and known to you. Your judgmentin selecting landing areas is critical to successfuloperation. If at any time you feel a landing in aparticular area does not provide an acceptablemargin of safety you are obligated to refuse thelanding. Although it is unlikely, if there is aconflict between government management andthe pilot as to the acceptability of a landingsite, the most conservative opinion will prevail.

Situations can and do arise when a pilot feelsobligated to land at a spot simply becauseothers have done so or it will save a crew froma long hike. Doing something foolish becauseothers have is no justification. If warranted,crews should expect to travel on foot. Oneskid landings are against government policy!No job is so important that it cannot be donesafely!

TERMINOLOGYHelispot

A helispot is a landing area, which may nothave road access, used on a temporary

basis to deliver personnel and cargo. The helispotmay have a number designation and a windindicator in place on larger incidents.

HelibaseA helibase is a landing area that has roadaccess and is furnished with communications,fueling facilities, wind indicator and othersupport equipment.

Temporary HelibaseA temporary helibase is a helibase used as abase of operations during an incident. It islarge enough to accommodate multiple helicopters,as needed. It is also capable of handling a largenumber of crews, support equipment, and cargo.

Permanent HelibaseA permanent helibase is a helibase that isfurnished with permanent pads and facilities.A contracted helicopter is normally based atthis facility for the term of the contract.

INITIAL ATTACK LANDING AREAS

Selecting an initial landing site near a fire isa major concern of the pilot and helitack

manager. Prior to dispatch a load calculationwill be completed for the destination altitudeand temperature. Factor in fuel burnoff andassume the landing zone is hover out of groundeffect (HOGE).

When a pilot is uncertain that a landing spot issuitable because of clearances, landing surface,wind conditions, power requirements, etc.,part or all of his load should be unloaded at anintermediate spot and then make a simulatedor actual approach to the spot with sufficientpower to climb out if the spot proves unsuitable.The pilot may elect to progressively increasethe load during successive landings and takeoffsinto a spot as the spot becomes more familiar.

Criteria and Considerations1. Slope.

2. Lateral clearance on main rotors.

3. Vertical clearance on main rotors.

4. Lateral clearance on tail rotor.

5. Vertical clearance on tail rotor.

6. Suitable placement for skids.

7. Vertical clearance under body of helicopter.

8. Landing route.

9.Take off route.

10. Power required.

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LANDING AREAS USED AFTERINITIAL LANDING

Many guidelines and procedures used inan initial landing also apply to subsequent

landings. Requirements are outlined in theInteragency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG).

Traffic control both on the ground and in theair becomes an important consideration afterthe initial stages of a fire. It is a primary job ofthe helitack organization to control and coordinatethis traffic and you, as a pilot, should nothesitate to point out needed control.

Pilots have both air-to-air and air-to-groundcommunications and frequently help in trafficcoordination. If a landing area needs improvementon such things as approach and departureroutes or dust abatement make these needsknown. Landing areas should be managed bytrained personnel. A helicopter should notland where there is an uphill path under therotor blades, and untrained unsupervised personnelare in the area.

In selecting landing areas and particularly abase heliport the following items are to beconsidered.

Location in Relation to the Fire1. Not In path of fire.

2. Smoke conditions—prevailing winds.

3. Round trip flight time—efficiency, personnelexposure.

4. Flight routes away from areas of populationand hazards.

Location in Relation to Incident Base/FireCamp

1. Easy access for personnel and cargo.

2. Noise affect on incident base/fire camp.

3. Communications with fire camp—radio,phone.

4. Flight routes away from fire camp.

5. Road access for support equipment.

6. Area large enough for expansion ofoperation.

7. Availability of water.

As a pilot you should be consulted and haveinput on the selection of all landing areas.

SUMMARY

As a pilot, you have the obligation to refuseany landing that you feel does not provide

an acceptable margin of safety. Pilots shouldadvise management of any deficiencies in landingareas and request that appropriate correctionsbe made. Your advice on selection of landingareas is valuable information.

Your capabilities and the capabilities of yourhelicopter are well known to you. Simply becauseother pilots and aircraft elect to land at aparticular location you are not obligated todo likewise! If it is warranted a crew should beexpected to walk rather than fly to an area.One skid landings are against governmentpolicy! No job is so important that it cannotbe done safely!

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C H A P T E R 8C H A P T E R 8C H A P T E R 8 TACTICAL USE OF HELICOPTERS

NOTES

45

INTRODUCTION

Tactical use of rotor-wing aircraft is vital intodays fire suppression job. The helicopter

represents fast initial attack to many areas.Due to a helicopters capabilities, chances fora successful initial attack are greatly improved.Initial attack with helicopters can often beaccomplished in minutes instead of hours.

Tactical use of helicopters usually involvesfour primary functions:

1. Delivery of initial attack crews.

2. Delivery of aerial retardant or water.

3. Performing as an aerial observer.

4. Backfiring with aerial ignition devices.

During initial evaluation of the fire, the pilotand the helicopter manager need to considerthe following items:

1. Strategic plan of attack.

2. Aerial hazards. *

3. Landing areas. *

4. Water sources. *

5. People or vehicles in the area.

* Primary concerns of the pilot

In selecting an initial helispot or a water sourcethe area should be mutually agreeable to themanager and pilot. If it is not, the most conservativeopinion must prevail. A trial approach shouldbe flown to inspect the area for suitability andhazards. Minimum standards for landing areasare discussed Chapter 7.

Item 5 is also important because the helicoptermay be in a position to identify the origin ofthe fire. A description of a vehicle leaving thescene could lead to the party responsible forstarting the fire.

Once a helicopter has delivered its initialattack crew it will probably be used to transportadditional personnel/resources or begin retardant/water dropping. The helicopter may also serveas a lookout for crews committed to the fire.

INITIAL ATTACKHistory

The first initial attack on a wild fire using ahelishot crew and a helicopter occurred

on the Bryant Fire on the Angeles NationalForest. The aircraft type used was a Bell 47 andtwo firefighters accompanied the pilot. Resourcemanagement agencies have refined the use ofhelicopters over the years and the followingoutline is designed to familiarize you as thepilot with initial attack operations.

PurposeThe purpose of the initial attack is to provide arapid response team of airborne firefighters tothe scene of a wildfire. Most helitack crewsestablish flight-crews who are ready at a momentsnotice.

Pilots ResponsibilitiesReadinessThe pilot will remain at the designated base,be it the helibase or project location, to providequick response to wildfire starts. Some baseoperating locations may be in the field with noestablished facilities. Be prepared.

Load calculationsThe pilot is responsible for preparing the loadcalculation. Prior to flight, find out who is onthe flight-crew, what cargo is onboard, theirweights, the bucket, if used, etc. Work with thehelicopter manager to establish a standardfuel load for your location. Consider the missioncriteria.

FuelShould be brought back to initial attack levelwhenever a mission has been completed andyou are back at the helibase. The next initialattack flight should not be held up due to anaircraft not having fuel.

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Pre-flightThis must be completed each day, prior toflight. Most units allow 15 to 20 minutes ofestablished duty time to accomplish this task.Individuals on each crew may observe youperforming a pre-flight to learn what you inspect.Generally, the more information you are willingto share, the more you will be accepted as“part of the crew”.

The Helitack CrewCrews trained in airborne initial attack areassembled each season to suppress wildfires.Most crews consist of a Helicopter Manager,an Assistant, and several crewmembers. Thereare variations, but as a general rule, mostcrews are similar.

Fire Size-UpAs previously discussed, an essential aspect ofinitial attack is fire size-up. This may seem likea time consuming event and not as effective asgoing direct into attack on the fire, but theevents that follow are based on the initial size-up. Information such as the best access routefor ground forces is essential and can savehours of time for ground based firefightingunits. The helicopter is in an unique positionto quickly gather information as well as fightthe fire. The following is a sequence of informationthat should be gathered prior to taking actionon the incident.

ChecklistLegal descriptionTownship, Range, Section; latitude, longitude;or, location by landmark. Some lands requireimmediate action or no action.

FuelsTypes, Values; Safety of crews.

Direction of spreadWhat values are at risk in front of the fire;safety of crews; type of terrain the incident willencounter.

Rate of spreadHow will it affect tactics; time frames in regardsto objectives; safety of crews.

TerrainPlays a big part in anticipating fire behavior,i.e. mountains, valleys, canyons, rangelands,etc.; Factor in type of resource ordered and thesafety of crews when choosing method of attack.

SlopeWhat is the percent; how it effects the firebehavior (steep vs. flat); dictates the type ofequipment used.

AspectOrientation to the sun’s rays, i.e. - north,south, east, west effects fire behavior.

Resources threatenedMan-made structures; timber versus rangeland;wilderness; watershed; wildlife habitat; othersensitive areas.

Firefighting resources requiredType (people/equipment); amount; estimatedtimes of arrival.

Water sourcesBuckets or pumps.

Fuel tender relocationA consideration for continuing air operations

If the decision is to take action the process isas follows:

1. Determine an appropriate landing area thatis not in the fire’s path or downwind from thefire.

2. Determine if the landing site is hover out ofground effect (HOGE) or hover in ground effect(HIGE).

3. Determine if the aircraft load calculation iscurrent and valid for this elevation andtemperature.

4. Choose an alternate site if not appropriate.

5. Off load crew.

6. Off load tools.

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7. Hook up bucket if directed.

8. Formulate plan with helicopter manager onmethod of attack. Establish radio frequenciesand contacts. Act as a communications linkwith dispatchers, if necessary.

9. Begin firefighting efforts.

If the fire progresses into extended attack, thepilot’s role will change. You may become anaerial observation post for an I.C. or you couldstart transporting personnel and cargo. Thehelitack crew’s role will change from I.A. tosupport and organizing helicopter operations.As a pilot your role can change at any time.Firefighting can be taxing to the pilot and crewbecause of the stressful conditions. The key isto be flexible and realize the firefighting effortsare dictated by the fire, which can be unpredictableand varied in behavior.

AERIAL LOOKOUT

Remember that ground forces often do nothave a clear picture of what a fire is doing.

For this reason you must have an understandingof fire behavior and be able to recognize criticalsituations. If the helicopter is specifically assignedas a lookout the manager will normally occupythe observer’s seat. If the helicopter is used fortransporting personnel you will usually beassisted by helitack personnel. On a retardant/water dropping mission or with external cargoyou will fly alone. Even if the primary missionis other than that of a lookout, you will oftenbe in a position to serve as one.

RETARDANT/WATER DROPPING

T he helicopter logs much of its flight timein this capacity. During this operation a

pilot must be knowledgeable of fire tactics.There are several methods and tactics involvedin retardant/water dropping. An understandingof what constitutes effective drops is a topicthat we will deal with in depth. Pilot techniqueis an individual characteristic and the purposeof this lesson is not to teach a professionalpilot how to fly.

Agency policy prohibits personnel from ridingwith external loads unless it is essential for thesafety of the mission and then only on theinitial trip. Often drops you make must bebased on your knowledge. If you are droppingin close support of ground forces you may bereceiving directions from the line. Occasionally,you are in a position to have a clearer perspective,enabling you to better select the target. However,the pilot should, if possible do the job asrequested by the line. An on-the-ground firefighter’sneeds can often be immediate and localized.Pilots should advise people requesting dropsof things that might change target priorities,such as undetected spot fires, but pilots shouldnot change priorities on their own.

For a ground crew to work safely and effectively,aerial support is a very beneficial asset. It iseasy to underestimate a fire from the air. Agood rule to consider is that ground crewsworking alone can usually only deal with flamesno higher than two feet and be successful.

At times, usually on large fires, retardant/waterdropping is directed from an aircraft designatedfor this purpose, the Air Tactical Supervisor.The fire organization and the air operationsorganization are discussed in Chapters 5 and6. It is important that pilots understand fromwhom they take direction and not be divertedfrom a list of established priorities. For example,a Division Supervisor does not have authorityto directly request a helicopter from the Helibase.The request must go through the proper channels.

RetardantAs the name implies, retardant slows the rateof spread of a fire by reducing the combustionprocess. Retardants do not put the fire out.They buy time for the ground forces to constructor strengthen control lines. Water, as a retardant,is much less effective than if mixed with achemical because chemicals continue to retarda fire after the fuels have dried. These chemicalsare basically fertilizers. Retardants can be usedeffectively in the following ways:

1. Initial attack (first suppression action).

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2. Close support of ground forces (direct andindirect attack).

3. Fireline construction.

4. Delaying or holding action.

5. Spot fire control.

6. Direct suppression of flames.

7. Mop up.

The expense of the retardant and the cost ofdelivery necessitates the wise and judicioususe of this firefighting tool.

Factors to be Considered in Retardant Dropping1. Type of fuel; grass, brush or tall timber.

2. Wind conditions—not over 30 mph.

3. Terrain—can the aircraft be maneuvered tomake an effective drop.

4. Visibility—can the pilot see target.

5. Will drop contribute to control.

6. Safety of ground personnel.

7. Resource value—cost/benefit.

Methods of Attack for Ground ForcesDirectRetardant dropped directly on the fire or burningmaterial in close support of ground forces. Theusual method is half in half out. Half the dropis on the fire itself and half is outside coolingand pretreating at the same time. Direct attackis utilized in the following situations:

Flank AttackMust have an anchor point to prevent fire fromout-flanking the line being built.

Frontal (Head) Attack.Used when the fire is not burning with greatintensity. Caution and judgment is neededwith a frontal attack. Remember, if a fire is

advancing with any degree of speed, the chancesof being effective are slim. It is also possible tosplit the head of a fire with retardant drops andthus compound control problems.

Spot firesHold spots ahead of the fire in check untilground forces arrive.

Flare-upsCool flare-ups along the line to lessen intensity.

Indirect attackDropping retardant on unburned fuel ahead ofthe fire. This would apply mainly to droppingchemical retardant as a fire break to strengthenan existing break. This is primarily the job offixed wing aircraft or air tankers, but many ofthe principles and considerations apply tohelitankers. Line construction and locationconsideration involves the following factors todecide when, where, and how to build a retardantline.

Topography attackRidgetops are usually more accessible to aircraftand generally more open. Natural barriers canserve as anchor points and can be utilized aspart of the line. It is very important for a pilotworking on their own to recognize and usebreaks in topography and fuel. This greatlyincreases the chances of success. Simply becausea fire is active at a particular point doesn’tmean that a drop is called for. Consider topographyand fuels so you can identify times and locationswhen you will be the most effective and notexpend efforts uselessly.

Rate of spread of the fire. Weather, primarilythe wind, is a major concern. Take advantageof open areas, shorter canopies, or lighterareas of fuel concentration. Even species offuel will cause a change in rate of spread.

Progress of ground crews compared to firespread.

Retardant delivery rate. Turn around time is aprimary concern. To be effective, you must beable to maintain an effective delivery rate.Pilots must fully recognize capabilities andlimitations.

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SUCCESSFUL RETARDANT/WATERDROPSFactors That Determine Effective Retardant/Water UseThe following factors help determine dropeffectiveness:

1. Effect on the rate of spread of the fire.

2. Penetration of the forest canopy.

3. Drop height too high (retardant/waterdissipates before getting to the ground).

a. Terrain

b. Fire intensity

c. Winds

c. Poor visibility

e. Aircraft too high (pilot oriented)

4. Drop height too low (rotor down washspreads fire).

5. Inappropriate drop speed: too fast = too littlecoverage

6. Accuracy of the drop.

7. Turn around time for aircraft (allowscontinuous dropping without long delayscausing loss of line).

8. Ground forces available to take advantageof drops.

SUMMARY

Helicopters serve four basic tactical functions:

• Initial attack crew transport.

• Air tanker.

• Aerial observer or Air Tactical Supervisorplatform.

• Backfiring with aerial ignition devices.

These jobs require a pilot to be a knowledgeablefire-person as well as an aviator. You will oftenbe guided or directed in these jobs from theground or air, but situations will arise whensuppression decisions based on fire knowledgeare the pilot’s alone. A pilot must be able torecognize what action will be effective andrespond accordingly. When working as thewater or retardant aircraft, the pilot needs torecognize capabilities and select targets andtactics that afford the best chance of success.

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C H A P T E R 9C H A P T E R 9C H A P T E R 9 LOGISTICAL USE OF HELICOPTERS

NOTES

53

INTRODUCTION

Logistical use of helicopters in firefighting issimply using the aircraft in a support or

service capacity. Objectives of natural resourceair operations center around safe, efficient andeffective use. Logistics are primarily concernedwith two operations, transportation of personneland transportation of freight/cargo.

TRANSPORTATION OF PERSONNELCrews

When crews are transported to and from alocation the pilot will be assisted by the

helitack organization. There should be helitackpersonnel at both departure and destinationpoints. These people are responsible for landingarea security, safety during loading/unloadingpassengers, and assisting the pilot in loadingthe aircraft. Large numbers of personnel aretransported; some may be highly trained inhelicopter operations and some may neverhave been exposed to a helicopter. Trainedpersonnel who can ensure safety rules arefollowed must be part of the crew on largerhelicopters and/or be in charge at each landingsite. Some of the policies and procedures to befollowed are:

1. Only one person will be in charge of helispotoperations (Helispot Manager), providestandard visual hand signals, and operate theradio.

2.The person in charge of the Helibase(Helibase Manager) will coordinate with thepilots to establish traffic patterns and thegeneral flow of traffic to and from the fire andthe Helibase.

3. All persons must keep clear of the helicopterby at least 100'. Only people with specificassignments will be an exception.

4. Personnel working at landing areas mustwear eye protection.

5. Helmets secured with a chin strap will beworn when working near helicopters.

6. Personnel will not approach any helicopterunless signaled by the pilot or parking tender.

7. All personnel will approach the helicopterfrom the front in full view of the pilot.

8. If personnel must walk around the helicopter,they must go around the front only, not aroundthe tail, and only upon command of the pilotor qualified assigned helibase/helispotmanager.

9. Helicopters with external loads will berouted away from ground personnel andstructures to avoid flight directly over them.

10. Air Traffic control will be regulated withhand signals (parking tender) and radios (Take-off and Landing Control).

11. Load calculations will be completed foreach flight destination, temperature, andelevation.

12. Flight following procedures will beestablished. Every 15 minutes each helicopterwill check in with the helibase/dispatch givingits location and heading. When possible all thehelicopters should advise other air traffic oftheir activities.

13. Flight routes will be selected so a safe auto-rotation is possible in the event of engine failureor any other emergency.

Reconnaissance FlightsOften a helicopter is used for reconnaissancemissions. This allows those responsible to betterformulate plans for control or to grasp thescope of a particular assignment. In most casesa reconnaissance helicopter should be a TypeIII (light) helicopter such as a Bell 206. It isvery important to remember that no passengerwill be carried unless there is a legitimateneed.

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TRANSPORTATION OF FREIGHT

Transportation of freight is governed by manyof the same regulations that are used for

transporting personnel. The pilot is responsiblefor supervising the loading and being aware ofall items put on the aircraft. They are alsoresponsible for assuring that a load calculationis completed and approved.

Internal FreightInternal freight transport is governed by FAAregulations, common sense, and standard policy.

External FreightWhen possible, large quantities of freight willbe transported by sling load. This is often themost efficient and economical method. Equipmentused must be approved by the assigned agenciesand most is furnished by the Government. Anapproved cargo hook (both electrical and manual)should be checked prior to beginning the slingoperations. When possible, loads will beprepackaged and delays will be avoided.Helicopters transport a variety of items and if apilot has any doubts concerning a load, or itspreparation, it should be checked personally.

Preparation of sling loads will be accomplishedby trained helitack personnel.

When flying with a sling load avoid areas ofpopulation or flight routes over ground forces.In the event a malfunction, or a situation thatcalls for the jettisoning of a load, it must not bea hazard to personnel on the ground.

When it is warranted (a judgment of management)hover hookups may be done. This will only bedone by trained personnel using a prearrangedand rehearsed system.

Mixed loads, personnel and sling, will not beallowed. The only exception to this is if it isdeemed necessary to the safety of the mission;then a member of the crew will be allowed togo along on the initial flight.

If cargo is carried externally in racks, pilotswill make sure that all items are secured.

SUMMARY

Logistical use of helicopters involves usingthe aircraft as a tool for support or service

missions. Helicopters are largely used for logisticson large incidents. The primary logistical usesinclude transportation of personnel, either bytroop movement or reconnaissance; andtransportation of freight, both internally andexternally.

A well organized helicopter unit should furnishlogistical support with a smooth, efficient operation.Thorough training and mutual understandingof the jobs to be done help ensure the rotor-wing aircraft will be invaluable as a logisticaltool.

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C H A P T E R 1 0C H A P T E R 1 0C H A P T E R 1 0BASIC FIRE SUPPRESSION

NOTES

57

INTRODUCTION

Fire can not exist in the absence of heat,fuel, and oxygen. We must decide how

these can be removed or their effects reducedin the quickest and most effective manner.After this decision is made, it is necessary todetermine what tools and methods should beused and how they should be applied. Thesedecisions are part of the plan of attack. Thestages of fire suppression are:

Containment and Control—stopping the spreadof fire; Mop up—Extinguishing the fire; andPatrol and Inspect—looking for and extinguishingall danger spots during and after mop up.

These three steps should closely follow eachother. The first objective is to stop the spread;however on a fire mopping up and patrol andinspection may be taking place in one sectionwhile control work is just beginning in another.

SIZE-UP AND FIRST ATTACKFactors to ConsiderTopography

Consider the percent or steepness of slope;the position of fire on the slope; and the

direction the slope faces (aspect).

FuelsWhat is the current character of fire (i.e. smoldering,creeping, running, crowning, spotting, erraticfire behavior, etc.); the main fuel type currentlyburning (timber, brush, grass, etc.); the mainfuel types adjacent to and ahead of the fire; theflame lengths at head of fire; and the naturalbreaks in fuels (rock slides, cliffs, etc.).

WeatherWhat is the wind direction (N, E, SW, etc.);estimated wind speed; topographic wind direction(upslope, down canyon, etc.); general conditionsin area (thunder storms, lightning, virga, heavyrain, snow, etc.); and percent of cloud cover

SafetyOf people; of animals; of improvements; etc.

ResourcesOn scene or required.

Decide Where Fire Will Spread.Heavy fuels or steep slope are things that willresult in increases of heat and rapid spread.Also, keep the standards of survival F-I-R-EO-R-D-E-R-S, and “WATCH OUT” situations.Consider buildings, power and telephone lines,bridges, grain fields and other improvementsin the probable path of the fire.

Universal Rules1. Take prompt action on vital points.

2. Stay with the fire.

3. Take most effective action with availableforces.

4. Inform dispatcher of situation by radio.

5. Continue work day or night if work can bedone safely.

Good practices1. Use water or dirt for cooling andextinguishing hot spots.

2. Follow up temporary checking effort bycompleting in a permanent clean fire line tomineral soil.

3. Anchor initial point of line to a road ornatural barrier to minimize chances of beingflanked by fire.

4. Cut fire off from most dangerous fuels at firsteffort and prevent fire from becomingestablished in explosive types of fuel.

5. Confine fire to one major area rather thenlet it develop into two heads.

6. Locate and construct control lines somaterials cannot roll across, (logs, pine cones,yucca).

7. Utilize existing barriers to full extent.

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ATTACK METHODSDirect attack

Any treatment of burning fuel, e.g., by wettingsmothering, or chemically quenching the

fire or by physically separating the burningfrom unburned fuel.

Indirect attackThe fire line is built away from the edge of thefire. The line is constructed using favorablebreaks in the topography and all natural fuelbreaks. The area between the fire and thecontrol line is backfired or burned out whenconditions are favorable and all assignedsuppression personnel are notified. Many timesit is impossible to make a direct attack on a firewhen it is burning rapidly, crowning in heavyfuels, burning on very steep slopes or whererolling materials sometimes make control difficult.

GuidelinesUse direct methods immediately and completelyaround small or slow burning fires.

Start at the rear of fast moving fires with adirect attack and continue the action on theflanks until the opportunity arises to cut acrossthe head of the fire safely and effectively.

Use direct attack where natural breaks can beutilized to good advantage.

Use indirect attack with a back fire only whenguided by experienced and expert leadership.

CONTROLPreventing Spread

Mop up has been considered one of thedirtiest jobs of fire suppression. Still it is

the most important part of fire suppression.Until a fire is dead out the potential or threatfor the fire to escape and become anothermajor fire still exists.

Mop-UpMopping up consists of making a fire safe byextinguishing or removing burning and hazardousmaterial including snags along or near the fireline.

The tasks used to accomplish the mop-up stageare:

1. Extinguish all smoldering material along thefire edge after the spread of the fire has beenstopped.

2. Put all rolling fuel into such a position (ortrench below it), that it cannot roll across theline.

3. Spread out rather than bury smoldering fuelthat cannot be extinguished.

4. Bury burning fuels only when it is the fastestway of stopping the spread of the fire or thereis a possibility of sparks being blown acrossthe line. Make sure the fuels are uncovered andthere are no hot spots left in them before leavingthe fire.

5. Allow fuel to burn completely to a whiteash if it will do so promptly and safely. If nottake steps to either extinguish or remove it.

6. Eliminate both inside and outside the lineall special threats such as snags, rotten logs,stumps, singed brush, and low hanging treelimbs.

7. Look for and remove all burning roots nearthe line.

8. Search for smoldering spot fires across theline.

9. Mop-up enough of the material adjacent tothe line on large fires to be certain the firecannot blow-up, spot or escape the fire line.

10. Mop-up small fires completely.

11. Chop fire out of heavy fuels and eitherscatter the small burning fragments orextinguish them with water or dirt.

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Patrol And InspectionPatrol and inspection is necessary on all firesuntil the last spark is dead out. It is usuallyperformed in two ways:

Line Patrol and InspectionLine patrol and inspection is the act of workingback and forth over a length of control lineduring and after line construction. The crewsare equipped with the proper tools to preventbreaks, discover and control spot fires andmop-up when necessary.

Lookout Patrol and InspectionLookout patrol and inspection consists of continuousmonitoring of burned and unburned areas froma vantage point to detect and report hazardousflare-ups and spot fires.

SUMMARY

Fire suppression is composed of several elements.1. Size-up. Formulate a plan of attack that willallow for safe effective fire fighting. Slope, fuels,potential for spread, weather and safety areprimary considerations.

2. Attack. Basically two types of attack areused. Direct which is immediately next to thefire’s edge and indirect which is action removedfrom the fire’s edge.

3. Control. There are three stages of control:preventing spread, mopping up and patrolling.

NOTES

C H A P T E R 1 1C H A P T E R 1 1C H A P T E R 1 1FIRE BEHAVIOR

AND FIRE WEATHER

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION

To be fully effective with a helicopter usedfor firefighting, a pilot must also be firefighter

oriented. The materials presented in this chapterare intended to acquaint you with basic firebehavior and enable you, as a pilot, to do amore effective fire support job. The majorfactors that determine fire behavior are combustion,fuels, topography (slope), and weather. Eachof these factors are discussed below, includinghow they serve as indicators of critical situationsand extreme fire behavior.

COMBUSTION

Combustion is defined as rapid chemicalprocess involving fuel, heat and oxygen.

Fire TriangleHeat, oxygen, and fuel are the fire triangle. Allthree parts of the triangle are required to supporta fire. Remove any leg of the triangle and thefire goes out. Break the triangle (remove a leg)in the following ways:

Smothering—dirt (not a primary tactic).Cooling—Water or dirt (this allows us to containthe fire and work in close which is most effective).Remove fuel—fire line (this is the primarymethod of controlling a wildland fire).

Ignition Temperatures. Obviously some fuelsignite more readily than others, but the followinginformation is generally valid. For rapid ignitionfuels must be 500-600 degrees Fahrenheit. If alonger period of time is permitted for heating,450 degrees Fahrenheit will cause ignition.Factors causing variation in ignition:

1. Size of fuel (fine fuels ignite more readily).

2. Shape and arrangements of fuel ( e.g., textureand arrangement).

3. Density of fuel.

4. Moisture content of fuel.

5. Oxygen available.

6. Solar exposure—a firefighter needs torecognize that fuels exposed to direct sunlightcan be as much as 100 degrees hotter than fuelsthat are shaded. The position of the sun is animportant factor in fire behavior and ignition.

Ignition SourcesThe following are the most common ignitionsources: chemical (matches); electrical (powerlines,lightning); mechanical (friction, exhaust); radiant(magnifying glass).

How Fires SpreadFires spread by convection (heat rises vertically);conduction (direct transfer of heat throughmaterial); and radiation (heat from the fire).

FUELSTypes

Fuels are broken down into groups in thefireline handbook.

QuantityContinuity and arrangement are the majorconsideration. Continuity deals with horizontaluniformity, while arrangement deals with verticalplacement of fuels. With continuity one considersconcentrations or breaks in fuels. With arrangementconsiderations include fuels that furnish a fireladder and allow a fire to travel above ground.This would contribute high potential for acrown fire.

CharacteristicsSize (diameter) and moisture content are thetwo characteristics of fuels. The following arefuelbed characteristics: Fuel arrangement—horizontal and vertical; Composition: Largerocks—fuels heat up faster due to reflection ofsun’s heat; Exposed ground—heat of sun reflectsoff bare earth and into fuel, thus heating faster.Topographic aspects of fuels. South aspect—facing sun; drier. North aspect—shadier; driesslowly.

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TOPOGRAPHIC FACTORSAspect

The direction in which a slope faces effectsthe amount of sunshine received; fire

occurrence is greater on south and southwestslopes; and higher rate of spread is on southand southwest slopes.

ElevationFactors that are altered by elevation increasesare: temperature (cooler); precipitation (more);snow melting (slower); time of vegetation curing(later); and types of fuels.

Position of fire on slopeFire on bottom of slope spreads easier uphill;and fire on upper slope is influenced by gradientwinds.

Steepness of slopeFire spreads easier and faster up-slope due tomore radiant heat transfer and convection heattransfer.

Shape of countryFires spot easily across narrow canyons causedby erratic winds and radiant heat transfer. Boxcanyons produce a chimney effect and maycause combustible gases to be trapped. Thismay create extremely dangerous conditionswhen “flash-overs” occur. Side canyons causeerratic fire behavior and tend to produce additionalfire heads. Fires burning along lateral ridgesmay travel with whirling motion and changedirection as they reach the high point on thecanyon rim.

ELEMENTS OF WEATHERTemperature

The sun heats the ground, the heat from theground in turn heats the air.

HumidityMoisture in the air determines the amount ofmoisture in the fuel.

WindLocal winds are primarily created by topographyor thunderstorms. Wind currents are comparableto a flow of water. Eddies are created by obstaclessuch as ridges and deep canyons.

WARNING SIGNSFuels

Heavy volumes of fine fuel means a hot,fast moving fire. Mixed fuels have the

ability of kindling fuels and vertical arrangementsconducive to crowning. Fuels alone can generatea high intensity fire under moderate or evenlow fire danger conditions.

Fuel DrynessFuel dryness determines ease of ignition and isespecially critical when the humidity reaches20% or lower.

TopographySteep slopes greatly speed up the burning rateand the rate of spread of a small fire. Moisturecontent of fuels on steep north and east slopesare higher than on south and west slopes.Turbulence of the air flow through ridge saddlesat forks in canyons with corresponding erraticfire behavior are also to be expected.

Early SpottingIf the fire is spotting considerable distances atthe early stages the fire is capable of developingextreme fire behavior. A pilot can see this best.

Convection ColumnBy the time you see the convection column theblow up condition has probably already occuredor it is well under way, but some observationscan be made from a safety standpoint.

Color changesDarker smoke with a dense, solid appearanceindicates an increased burning rate and a resultantdrop in combustion efficiency.

MotionMotion or pronounced movement of the convectioncolumn gases is an immediate indicator ofhigh fire intensity.

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FIRE SITUATIONS THAT SHOUT“WATCH OUT”

The following are only a few of the dangersignals which are instilled in the firefighter.

These were selected because they are particularlyobvious from the air and are therefore situationsthe pilot should keep close watch on so theymay warn those concerned to take immediateappropriate action.

Downhill FirelineBuilding a fireline downhill toward a fire. Afireline should never be constructed downhill.This is a very hazardous because of the dangerof the fire crossing the slope below a crew andsweeping uphill to trap them.

Hillside FirefightingFighting fire on a hillside where rolling materialcan ignite fuel below you.

Away from Burned AreasAway from burned areas where terrain and/orcover makes travel difficult and slow.

In Heavy CoverOn a line in heavy cover with unburned fuelbetween you and the fire.

Spot FiresThere are frequent spot fires or slop-oversacross your line.

Cannot See Main FireThe main fire cannot be seen, and there is nocommunication with anyone who can.

SUMMARY

Often a pilot is the only individual on a firethat has a comprehensive view of the

fire’s behavior. You can identify spot fires andthe development of critical situations longbefore they are known to ground forces. A pilotis in a position to give needed information thatground personnel are unable to see. With anunderstanding of fire behavior, its componentsand their interrelationships, a pilot should beable to relay this information. A warning toground personnel of critical developments couldsave lives. With a basic understanding of firebehavior a pilot is in a much better position toprovide effective support. For example, if yourecognize that dropping water on a rapidlymoving front is futile and you drop on an areathat can be controlled you are doing the jobthat needs to be done along with saving valuabletime and resources.

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C H A P T E R 1 2C H A P T E R 1 2C H A P T E R 1 2 SMOKEJUMPER AIRCRAFT

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION

Smokejumpers are firefighters delivered tofires by fixed wing aircraft and parachutes.

Primary use is initial attack and reinforcementof fires in remote areas. Smokejumpers areused in non-wilderness situations when rapiddelivery is a consideration or other resourcesare unavailable.

Logistical use of smokejumpers is limited toparacargo resupply, medivacs and helispotconstruction. Paracargo resupply is more commonin Alaska than in the lower forty-eight states.

AIRCRAFT TYPES

A number of different aircraft have beenused to deliver smokejumpers and paracargo.

The most common aircraft currently in use arethe C23-A (Sherpa), the De Havilland TwinOtter, the Casa 212 and the Turbine DC-3(TDC-3).

1. C23-A—Seven C23-A’s are in use assmokejumper platforms and crew haulers.These were acquired from the Air Force andhave been modified and painted to the pointwhere they look more like the civilian versionof the C23-A, the Sherpa. The aircraft cruisesat 180 kts. and payloads 4800 pounds or 12jumpers. All are agency owned.

2. Twin Otter—Otters have long been commonin the smokejumper fleet. Cruise is 140 kts. andpayload is 2800 pounds or 8-10 jumpers. Ottersare STOL capable and are agency owned orcontracted.

3. Casa 212—The Casa 212 is used primarilyin Alaska. It cruises at 170 kts. and carries 8jumpers. These aircraft are agency contracted.

4. TDC-3—The USFS owns two DC-3’s thathave been extensively rebuilt and modified.Modifications include turbine engines. Cruiseis 195 kts. Standard payload is 12 jumpershowever the load can be reconfigured to allow16 jumpers. The TDC-3 is approved for dirtstrips.

Aircraft in jumper configuration carry a minimumof two hours fuel.

EQUIPMENT AND PARACARGOJump Equipment

Smokejumpers wear protective suits consistingof a jacket and pants made from kevlar

fabric extensively padded with a high densityfoam. Motorcycle type helmets modified withthe addition of a face screen provide protectionto the jumper during takeoffs, landings andjumps. A personal gear bag is attached to thejumper’s harness below the reserve and convertsto a line pack.

Parachute SystemA parachute system consists of a harness, actuationdevice, container, deployment bag, risers, canopy,pilot chute (on some systems) and reserveparachute. Two systems are currently in use.

1. FS-12—Forest Service jumpers use a staticline actuated 32 ft. diameter round maincanopy matched to a 24 ft. round reserve. Themain canopy has a forward speed of 10 m.p.h.and a 10 m.p.h. rate of descent yielding a glideangle of 1:1. The reserve is manually activatedand pilot chute deployed.

2. Ram Air—Bureau of Land Managementjumpers use a ram air type parachute that ismanually actuated, pilot chute deployed andmatched to a similar reserve. The main andreserve both can reach speeds of 20 m.p.h.depending on jumper weight. Glide angle is2.5:1.

ParacargoSmokejumper initial attack paracargo consistsof fire fighting equipment and first aid materials.Paracargo generally is made up in cardboardboxes with a packed weight of less than 100pounds. Some items may be free fall (i.e., treeclimbers). On logistical missions paracargocan reach greater sizes. In Alaska fuel bladderscontaining several hundred gallons of fuel canbe dropped. Except for freefall items, paracargois dropped under static line actuated canopies.

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SMOKEJUMPER MISSIONS

Smokejumper missions are staffed by pilots,jumpers and spotters. The spotters function

as mission coordinators and cargo kickers.They also select the jump spot and releasepoint for the jumpers. On arrival at the fire ajump spot is selected. The spotter then releasesdrift streamers 1500 ft. above the jump spot.Most wind conditions require a second set ofstreamers. This is the check set and it is releasedup wind of the spot. This second set confirmsthe release point for the jumpers. Jumpers arenext. When the jump runs are complete, paracargois dropped from a lower elevation.

JUMP SPOTS

Several criteria are used to select jump spots.1. Proximity to the fire is the first selectioncriteria.

2. Observed fire behavior may influence theselection of a jump spot.

3. Weather may cause a delay in droppingjumpers. Lee sides of hills are seldom used forjump spots because of turbulence.

4. Cover type—Open timber and small timbermay be used as jump spots. Open meadowsare preferred. Rocky areas are avoided.

5. Terrain may limit safe access by the aircrafton jumper and cargo runs.

It is not unusual for an alternate jump spot tobe selected for safety reasons that is furtherfrom the fire.

AIRSPACE REQUIREMENTS

Drift streamers and Forest Service jumpersare dropped at 1500 ft. above the release

point. Note that the release point may be at ahigher altitude than where the initial streamerswere dropped due to higher terrain and theneed to maintain a 1500 ft. AGL for the jump.BLM jumpers are dropped from 3000 ft. abovethe release point because the ram air parachuteis manually actuated requiring more deploymenttime (altitude). Cargo is released from much

lower elevations. Smokejumper aircraft rotatecounter clockwise if the terrain permits thispattern. Slow moving aircraft like the TwinOtter require as little as 1/2 mile diameter forjump runs. Larger aircraft like the C23-A andTDC-3 may require as much as a 2 mile radius.A single load of jumpers may contain bothround and ram air jumpers. Communicationbetween aircraft is the best way to determineair space requirements for a specific mission.

TIME FRAMES

A small fire can be staffed in as little as 10minutes of incident air space time. Twelve

jumpers and their cargo can be delivered in aslittle as 30 minutes air space time. Once therelease point has been determined the jumpersare arriving two every two minutes. This processshould not be interrupted except for emergencies.

SHARED INCIDENT AIR SPACE ANDLANDING SITES

Fires are often served by helicopter basedcrews and smokejumpers. These forces have

similar missions and backgrounds in suppression.A high percentage of jumpers are carded forlong line work and many have prior experienceon helitack crews. Many smokejumpers areE.M.T.’ s. For these reasons jumpers and helitackmay be working the same incident at the sametime. Communication between pilots is thebest safety tool. The I.C. or Air Attack maybecome involved with setting air space prioritiesfor staffing and supplying the fire. Jumpers andhelicopters cannot share the same air space atthe same time. Each mission should be completedand the air space verified as clear before anotheraircraft moves in. This verification should occurbetween pilots of all aircraft involved.

A good helispot is also a good jump spot. If thehelispot is (or becomes) a jump spot, the helicopterpilot should avoid any loose jump gear, especiallycanopies, until the gear is secured.

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C H A P T E R 1 3C H A P T E R 1 3C H A P T E R 1 3AIRSPACE

NOTES

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INTRODUCTION

As a pilot, you are aware that our nation’sairspace is a limited resource with many

diverse user groups vying for access toaccommodate their specific needs. Our nation’sairspace is the busiest and most complex in theworld with unprecedented demands on thissystem through the end of this century. Airspacehas a finite capacity. This means that airspacehas a saturation point beyond which it can notaccept any additional aircraft without sacrificingsafety.

Most natural resource lands are in fairly remoteaccess areas with complex military airspaceoverhead. Many of our aviation activities occurin Special Use Airspace, Military Training Routesor Local Flying Area’s utilized by the Departmentof Defense. A concern for safety exists whenour missions are located within the perimetersof airspace identified for military training missions.

Military and FAA reports indicate that if twoaircraft are aware of each others presence, thatit can significantly reduce the risk of a midaircollision. For instance, suppose you were involvedon a water bucket operation during initialattack at a fire. If dispatch called with theinformation that in the next 20 minutes youcould expect three flights of three F-16’s at 10minute intervals—you might change your flyingtactics! And your heightened awareness maysave your life.

Our primary focus in airspace coordination ismidair collision avoidance. We recognize thata pilot’s primary function is to see and avoid.In considering most resource agency aviationtasks, we realize that our pilots attention isdiverted out of the cockpit to the ground. Forinstance, long line operations, water bucketoperations, telemetry work, reconnaissanceflights, etc. often divert the pilot’s attention tothe ground. This can reduce our see and avoidcapability and increase our risk of a midaircollision.

It is the pilots responsibility to be acquaintedwith the airspace they fly in. However in aquick response situation (initial attack, helitack,rappelling), often the decision is made to “loadand go”. Did you have the time to ask the FSSspecialist about special-use airspace (SUA)activity along your route? Did you even noticewhether your route takes you through any SUAor across Military Training Routes (MTR)?

Sometimes the FAA has only the “scheduled”info (or worse yet, the hours of the MOA fromthe Sectional) and could be uninformed aboutwhether the area is “hot” with military traffic.When your route of traffic takes you into aMTR, your dispatch organization should beable to contact the scheduling activity andprovide you with “real time” information as toscheduled activity on the route.

There is no “one call = solves all” place to goin airspace coordination. A dispatcher mighthave numerous scheduling activities to contactwhen de-conflicting multiple MTR’s. Be advisedthat it will take time for the military to stop theflow of traffic on the route. Military aircraftalready on the route might not know of youraviation activity. It could take several hours toclear a route in use.

The Department of the Interior and the USDAForest Service have published an InteragencyAirspace Coordination Guide. This documentcovers in depth the complexities of the airspaceyou work in. It’s objective is to promote aviationsafety through an educational process that willcontribute to a clear understanding of thecomplex nature of the airspace we work in.

It is essential that all personnel involved inflight planning and operations read, understandand implement the procedures contained inthe guide. However, pilots, aircraft chief-of-parties and field aviation managers shouldremember that the final assurance of collisionavoidance rests with the pilot-in-command to“see and avoid”.

74

Through the Airspace Guide, training sessionsand safety briefings, we hope that we canavoid the terrible disaster of a midair collision.

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Special Use Airspace (SUA) was initiated inthe early 1970’s after a series of collisions

and near-collisions between military and generalaviation. There are six different kinds of SUAin the United States. Many of our land managementareas are covered by SUA and this can create areal problem.

There are six different kind of SUA’s:1. PA—Prohibited Areas2. RA— Restricted Areas3. MOA—Military Operations Areas4. AA —Alert Areas5. WA —Warning Areas6. CFA —Controlled Firing Areas

Prohibited AreasA great description of a Prohibited Area (PA) is“unless you have the President flying in theright seat with you, don’t attempt to fly througha prohibited area”. According to the Airman’sInformation Manual they are established for“security or other reasons associated with thenational welfare”. PAs keep aircraft from flyingover the White House and other parts of Washington,DC, ex-president’s homes (the Nixon’s, theCarter’s, etc.). One interesting PA is the BoundaryWaters Canoe Area in Minnesota. The reason itis “interesting” is that Theodore Roosevelt feltso strongly about protecting the environmentat Boundary Waters, that he created a prohibitedflying area to protect it.

PAs are published in the Federal Register andare depicted on aeronautical charts.

Restricted AreasA Restricted Area (RA) is designated when it isnecessary to confine or segregate activitiesconsidered hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft.They may contain hazards to flying such asartillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles.You do not want to fly in restricted areaswithout permission from the using or controllingagency. Such flying could be hazardous to you

and your aircraft’s health and well being. Ifyou find yourself requested to fly within restrictedareas, make sure you have permission andclearance prior to entry.

RAs are depicted on the En Route Chart andaeronautical charts.

Military Operations AreasMilitary Operations Areas (MOA) were establishedto contain certain military activities such as aircombat maneuvers, intercepts, acrobatics, etc.There are many MOAs over resource area’s inthe United States. It will not be uncommon tofind yourself flying within one. Civilian flightswithin MOA are not prohibited (even when thearea is “HOT” but you may encounter high-speed flight training, acrobatic or abrupt flightmaneuvers (under 250 KIA’s).

Altitudes for MOA’s will vary, but they runfrom ground surface to 18,000 feet. The statusof MOA’s can change frequently. You shouldcontact the Flight Service Station (FSS) within100 miles of the area to obtain informationconcerning the MOAs hours of operation. FSSwill only provide information on MOAs WHENSPECIFICALLY REQUESTED. Exercise extremecaution when flying within a MOA. Also, haveyour lights on for better visibility.

MOAs are depicted on Sectional, VFR Terminal,Area and Low Altitude En Route Charts.

Alert AreasAn Alert Areas (AA) may contain a high volumeof pilot training or an unusual type of aerialactivity. A high volume of activity is consideredas 250,000 operations a year (such as the GulfCoast off shore operations). It is an airspacewhere you should be particularly “alert” whenflying. All activities are conducted in accordancewith FAR’s. It might be an area for militaryactivity, aircraft manufacturers or a highconcentration of aviation activity, i.e. helicoptersoperating near oil rigs.

AAs are depicted on aeronautical charts.

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Warning AreasA Warning Area (WA) could contain the samekind of hazardous flight activity as a RA, however,they are located over international waters.This means artillery firing, aerial gunnery, orguided missiles. The reason it is called a WA(instead of a RA) is because it is located overInternational waters. Until recently, Internationalwaters started at three miles from the U.S.coastline. However, the FAA recently extendedairspace authority to 12 miles and made ALLAIRSPACE between three and 12 miles a WA.

You can fly VFR through a WA and chance it. Ifyou choose to fly IFR, ATC will not permit itunless separation is guaranteed.

WAs are depicted on aeronautical charts.

Controlled Firing AreasThe most unusual aspect of CFAs are they arenot charted anywhere! It is not on your sectional.It is an airspace that contains activities (suchas artillery firing) that, if not contained, couldbe hazardous to “non participating” aircraft.The distinguishing feature of a CFA is that itutilizes a spotter or ground lookout positionsthat indicate when an aircraft might be approachingthe area. All activities are then suspended. TheFAA does not chart the CFA’s because theydon’t require a nonparticipating aircraft tochange it’s flight path.

CFAs must have 5 miles visibility or radar. Asafety officer is in contact with an observer.Activities include EOD, artillery, small arms,static rocket tests and chemical disposals.

CFAs are the only category of SUA that isuncharted.

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIESPilot

The pilot exercises the responsibility andauthority of the Pilot In Command (PIC).1. The PIC of an aircraft is directly responsiblefor and is the final authority as to the operationof the aircraft.

2. Before commencing a flight, each PIC shouldbecome familiar with all available informationconcerning the flight, including that pertainingto the airspace involved in the area ofoperations. It is highly recommended thatagencies conduct pre-contract and pre-usebriefings concerning unit airspace proceduresand problems.

3. If the SUA Controlling or Scheduling Agencycan be contacted on VHF-AM frequency (asindicated on NOAA Aeronautical Sectional),then the pilot is responsible for making thiscontact prior to entry in order to receive real-time information on SUA activity. If directcontact cannot be achieved, the pilot mustreceive a briefing from a dispatch or otherfacility that can provide an activity briefing.

LIGHTS ON FOR SAFETY. SEE AND BE SEEN!!!!

On Scene PersonnelAerial Observers, Aircraft Managers (Chiefs-of-Party, both fire and non -fire), Project AviationManagers, Air Attack Supervisors/Air TankerCoordinators, and Initial Attack IncidentCommanders are included in this category.They are responsible for:

1. Obtaining information concerning andmaintaining awareness of the airspace in whichthey are operating.

2. Obtaining the information necessary for localdispatchers or aviation managers to institute acomprehensive Temporary Flight Restriction(TFR) that will promote the safety of agencyaviation operations.

3. After the initial restriction is placed in effect,the project aviation manager or the Incidentcommander (or designee, i.e. Air Attack) shareresponsibility for determining if the TFR needsmodification as incident or project sizechanges.

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4. Upon encountering a situation in whichairspace conflicts arise, i.e., intrusions bynonparticipating aircraft, it is the responsibilityof the individual observing the hazard to ensureoperations are temporarily suspended untilsuch time as safe separation of aircraft can beachieved.

5. Documenting all airspace conflicts, withimmediate contact to the local dispatcher and/or aviation manager if problems areencountered (i.e., intrusions, near mid-aircollision). Immediately taken by on-scenepersonnel to ensure adequate documentationand prevention of a reoccurrence of theincident.

6. Notifying the appropriate local dispatchoffice or aviation manager once the agencyflight operations have ceased. If a TemporaryFlight Restriction was in effect, the on-sceneofficial-in-charge (i.e. Incident Commander)must be consulted prior to requesting thecancellation.

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C H A P T E R 1 4C H A P T E R 1 4C H A P T E R 1 4GLOSSARY OF TERMS

NOTES

Every pilot should understand the following terms:

Anchor Point—An advantageous location or point, usually a barrier to fire spread, from which tostart constructing fireline. It is used to minimize the chance of being flanked by the fire while theline is bring constructed.

Backfiring— When attack is indirect, intentionally setting fire to fuels inside the control line tocontain a fire. Backfiring provides a wide defense perimeter. Backfiring is a tactic which makespossible a strategy of locating control lines at places advantageous to the firefighter.

Barrier—Any obstruction to the spread of fire; typically an area or strip devoid of flammablefuels.

Base (of a fire)—The part of the fire perimeter opposite the head (also, see “origin”).

Blackline Concept—Fuels that remain between the main fire and a fireline are burned out toinsure safety of control forces and security of control lines.

Blow-up—Sudden increase in fire intensity or rate of spread sufficient to preclude direct controlor to upset existing control plans. Often accompanied by violent convection and may have othercharacteristics of a firestorm.

Break/Left or Right—Means “turn” left or right. Applies to aircraft in flight, usually on the droprun and when given as a command to the pilot. Implies a prompt compliance. “Tanker 75, breakright - a small plane is crossing the target”.

Burning Out—When attack is direct, or parallel with the control line tied at points of the fire,intentionally setting fire to fuels inside the control line to strengthen the line. Burning out isalmost always done by the Crew Boss as a part of line construction; the control line is consideredincomplete unless there is no fuel between the fire and the line.

Burning Period—That part of each 24-hour period when fires will spread more rapidly. Typically,this is from about mid-morning to about sundown or late afternoon.

Canopy—The uppermost spreading, branch layer of vegetation.

Cardinal Points—The four chief points of the compass: North, South, East, West.

Clock Method—A means of establishing a target or point by reference to clock directions wherethe nose of the aircraft is 12 o’clock, moving clockwise to the tail at 6 o’clock. “The target is nowat your 9 o’clock position”.

Cold Trailing—A method of controlling a partly dead fire edge by carefully inspecting andfeeling with the hand to detect any fire, digging out every live spot, and trenching any live edge.

Configuration—How a helicopter is equipped.

Control Line—An inclusive term for all constructed or natural fire barriers and treated fire edgeused to control a fire.

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Convection—Transfer of heat by flow of liquids or gases. In meteorology, atmospheric motionsthat are predominantly vertical.

Convection Column—The thermally-produced rising column of gases, smoke and debris.

Creeping—Fire burning with a low flame and spreading slowly.

Crew Boss—An individual assigned to be in charge of a crew of firefighters and responsible fortheir safety and firefighting activities.

Crown Fire—A fire that advances from top to top of trees or shrubs more or less independently ofthe surface fire. Sometimes crown fires are classed as either running or dependent, to distinguishthe degree of independence from the surface fire.

Direct Attack—A method of suppression that treats the fire as a whole, or all its burning edge, bywetting, cooling, smothering, or chemically quenching the fire or by mechanically separatingthe fire from unburned fuel.

Dispatch Center— A facility from which resources are directly assigned to an incident.

Divert— Change in aircraft assignment from one target to another or to a new fire.

Dozer Line—Fireline constructed by a bulldozer.

Drainage— Area drained by a river or stream. Usually includes at least one main canyon andseveral side canyons.

Drop—That which is dropped in a cargo dropping or retardant dropping operation.

Drop Configuration—The type of drop selected to cover the target, based on the tanker releasestrategy described in USFS Airtanker Performance Guides. Example: “1x4”. These are generalterms that are familiar to the ground personnel and are sometimes useful in clarifying the type ofload to be dropped:

Salvo— Dropping the entire load of retardant at one time, or dropping a combination oftanks simultaneously.

Trail— To drop tanks in sequence causing a long unbroken line.

Split Load—The dropping of a partial load.

Drop Zone— The area around and immediately above the target to be dropped on.

Dry Lightning Storm—A lightning storm with negligible precipitation reaching the ground.

Early—Indicating drop was early or short of the target. “You were early on the last drop.”

Exit—A command used to indicate the direction air tactics wants the tanker pilot to fly after agiven maneuver. “Exit southbound over the lake.”

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Extend—To drop retardant in such a way that the load slightly overlaps and lengthens a previousdrop. “Extend your last drop”.

Fine Fuels—Fuels such as grass, leaves, draped pine needles, fern, tree moss, and some kinds ofslash which, when dry, ignite readily and are consumed rapidly. Also called flash fuels.

Fingers (of a fire)—The long narrow elongated portion of a fire projecting from the main body.

Firebreak—A natural or constructed barrier utilized to stop or check fires that may occur or toprovide a control line from which to work. Sometimes called a firelane.

Fireline—The part of a control line that is scraped or dug to mineral soil, sometimes called afiretrail.

Fire Perimeter—The outer edge or boundary of a fire.

Fire Retardant—Any substance that by chemical or physical action reduces the burning intensityof a fire.

Firewhirl—A spinning, moving column of ascending air rising from a vortex and carrying aloftsmoke, debris, and flames. These range from a foot or two in diameter to small tornadoes in sizeand intensity.

Flaming Front—That zone of a moving fire within which the combustion is primarily flaming.Behind this flaming zone combustion is primarily glowing. Light fuels typically have a shallowflaming front, whereas heavy fuels have a deeper front.

Flanking—Attacking a fire by working along the flanks either simultaneously or successivelyfrom a less active or anchor point and endeavoring to connect the two lines at the head.

Flanks of the Fire—The parts of a fire’s perimeter that are roughly parallel to the main direction ofspread.

Flare-up—Any sudden acceleration of fire spread or intensification of the fire. Unlike blowup, aflare-up is of relatively short duration and does not radically change existing control plans.

Fuelbreak—A wide strip or block of land on which the native vegetation has been permanentlymodified so that fires burning into it can be more readily extinguished. It may or may not havefirelines constructed in it prior to fire occurrence.

Fuel Type—An identifiable association of fuel elements of distinctive species, form, size,arrangement, or other characteristics that will cause a predictable rate of fire spread or difficultyof control under specified weather conditions.

Ground Fire—Fire that consumes the organic material beneath the surface litter of the forestfloor, such as peat fire.

Head of a Fire—The most rapidly spreading portion of a fire’s perimeter, usually to the leeward orupslope.

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Helitack—The initial attack phase of fire suppression using helicopters and trained airborneteams to achieve immediate control of wildfires.

Hotspot— A particularly active part of a fire.

Hotspotting—Checking the spread of fire at points of most rapid spread or special threat. Isusually the initial step in prompt control with emphasis on first priorities.

Humidity—The measure of water vapor content in the air.

Incident— An occurrence or event, either human-caused or natural phenomena, that requirescaution by emergency service personnel to prevent or minimize loss of life or damage to propertyand/or natural resources.

Incident Commander (IC)—The individual responsible for the management of all incidentoperations.

Indirect Attack— A method of suppression in which the control line is located along naturalfirebreaks, favorable breaks in topography, or at considerable distance from the fire and theintervening fuel is backfired or burned out.

Initial Attack—The control efforts taken by resources which are the first to arrive at an incident.

Knock Down— To reduce flame or head in a specified target. Indicates the retardant load shouldfall directly on the burning perimeter or object.

Late— Indicating drop was late or overshot the target. “You were late on the last drop.”

Long Term Retardant— A formulation that has the ability to reduce or inhibit combustion(burning) after the water it originally contained has evaporated.

Low Pass— Low altitude run over the target area. May be used by air attack to get a close look atthe target or to show a tanker pilot a target which is difficult to describe. May be used by tankerpilot to get a better look at the target or to warn ground personnel of an impending drop.

Main Ridge—Prominent ridgeline separating river or creek drainage. Usually has numeroussmaller ridges (spur ridges) extending outward from both sides.

On Target— Acknowledgment to a pilot that his/her drop was well placed.

Origin (of a fire)— Point on the ground where the fire first started (also, see “Base”).

Parts of a Fire—On typical free-burning fires the spread is uneven, with the main spread movingwith the wind or upslope. The most rapidly moving portion is designated the head of the fire, theadjoining portions of the perimeter at right angles to the head are known as the flanks, and theslowest moving portions are known as the base.

Pre-Treat— Laying a retardant line in advance of the fire where ground cover or terrain is best forfire control action or to reinforce a control line.

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Project Fire— Usually refers to a fire requiring personnel and equipment beyond the resources ofthe protection unit on which it originates.

Rate of Spread—The activity of a fire in extending its horizontal dimensions. Usually it isexpressed in chains per hour or acres per hour for a specific period in the fire’s history.

Reinforced Attack— Those resources requested in addition to the initial attack resources.

Relative Humidity— The ratio of the amount of moisture in the air to the amount which the aircould hold at the same temperature if it were saturated; usually expressed in percent.

Retardant Coverage— Area of fuel covered by a retardant. Also, degree of coverage of fuel.

Routes—The paths aircraft take from departure pattern to arrival pattern at destination.

Running—Behavior of a fire spreading rapidly with a well-defined head.

Saddle— Depression or pass in a ridgeline.

Safety Island— An area used for escape in the event the line is outflanked or in case a spot firecauses fuels outside the control line to render the line unsafe. In firing operations crews progressso as to maintain a safety island close at hand by allowing the fuels inside the control line to beconsumed before going ahead. During an emergency, tankers may be asked to construct a safetyisland using retardant drops.

Scratch Line—A preliminary control line hastily built with hand tools as an emergency measureto check the spread of a fire.

Secondary Line—A fireline built some distance away from the primary control line, used as abackup against slop overs and spot fires.

Short-term Retardant—A formulation that relies on the moisture it contains to reduce or inhibitcombustion and is ineffective after its moisture has evaporated.

Slop Over— The extension of a fire across a control line.

Smoldering— Behavior of a fire burning without flame and barely spreading.

Snag—A standing dead tree or part of a dead tree from which at least the leaves and smallerbranches have fallen.

Spot Fire— A fire caused by the transfer of burning material through the air into flammablematerial beyond the perimeter of the main fire.

Spotting— Behavior of a fire producing sparks or embers that are carried by the wind and startnew fires outside the perimeter of the main fire.

Spur Ridge—A small ridge which extends finger-like, from a main ridge.

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Strike Team—Specified combinations of the same kind and type of resources, with commoncommunications and a leader.

Surface Fire—Fire that burns surface litter. Other loose debris of the forest floor, and smallvegetation.

Target—The area or object you want a retardant drop to cover. “Your target is the right flank.”

Task Force—Any combination of resources with common communications and a leader.

Tie-In— To connect a retardant drop with a specified point (road, stream, previous drop, etc.).“Tie-in tanker 78’s drop with the road.”

Traffic Pattern—The path aircraft traffic flow takes when landing or taking off.

VHF— Very High Frequency radio. The standard aircraft radio that all civil and most militaryaircraft have to communicate with Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) facilities.

Eight VHF frequencies are assigned for fire use. This allows for common frequenciesamongst aircraft on incidents therefore bypassing some multi-agency radio compatibilityproblems.

Water Tender— Any ground vehicle capable of transporting large quantities of water. Usually1,500 to 4,000 gallons.

Wetting Agent— A formulation which, when added to plain water in proper amounts, willmaterially reduce the surface tension of the water and increase penetration and spreadingabilities.

Wildfire— (1) A fire requiring suppression action, as contrasted with a prescribed fire burningwith prepared lines enclosing a designated area, under prescribed conditions. (2) A free burningfire unaffected by fire suppression measures.

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E X H I B I T 1E X H I B I T 1E X H I B I T 1HELICOPTER FIRE FIGHTING

AND SAFETY

Copyright (C) 1988 by Allan P. MacLeod.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or byany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................ 87

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 88

FIREFIGHTING USES .................................................................................................................... 89

SAFETY AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................... 89Flight Safety ............................................................................................................................. 89Ground Safety on the Fireline—The Helicopter Pilot’s Concern ........................................... 90

AIR OPERATIONS ORGANIZATION - Airborne ........................................................................ 91Air Tactical Group Supervisor ................................................................................................. 91Air Tanker Coordinator (Lead Plane) ....................................................................................... 91Helicopter Coordinator ........................................................................................................... 92

HELIBASE ORGANIZATION AND SAFETY ................................................................................. 92Helibase Manager.................................................................................................................... 92Takeoff and Landing Controller............................................................................................... 92Ground Safety on the Helibase ............................................................................................... 92

FIREFIGHTING TACTICS ............................................................................................................. 94The Fire Triangle ...................................................................................................................... 94Initial Attack Crew Placement ................................................................................................. 94Water or Retardant Dropping Tactics...................................................................................... 94Drop Concentration vs. Fuel Loading ..................................................................................... 96Means of Drop Control by the Pilot ......................................................................................... 96Drop Techniques ..................................................................................................................... 96Water Bucket Operations ........................................................................................................ 98Fixed Drop Tank Operations ................................................................................................... 99Fixed Tank vs. Water Bucket—Comparison Chart ................................................................ 101

AERIAL IGNITION SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 102Helitorch ................................................................................................................................ 102“Ping Pong Ball Machine” ..................................................................................................... 103

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 103

APPENDIX I ................................................................................................................................. 104

APPENDIX II ............................................................................................................................... 105

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PREFACE

This paper was written primarily to provide the helicopter pilot new to firefighting with a basicintroduction to the fundamentals of a line of work which is interesting, exciting, and

gratifying, though hazardous. For the veterans in this field, perhaps it will be a beneficial reviewof the subject.

The limitations of space have allowed for only the basic elements of fire behavior, firefightingtactics and techniques to be covered. Only with experience and additional study in thesesubjects, will you be able to consider yourself an effective professional firefighting helicopterpilot.

The emphasis throughout is on safety (the real bottom line) in hopes that something you maylearn here will prevent a mistake that could cost you your life or that of those with whom you willbe working. Like firefighting itself, the key is prevention.

The character of wildland fires varies with the differences in climate, terrain, and vegetationtypes. Consequently, tactics and the general approach to fighting fire may differ with geographiclocation. This paper was written from the Southern California wildland firefighting perspective.

Some of the terminology is common to the Incident Command System (I.C.S.) which standardizesterminology and organization for the management of multi-agency emergency incidents and isbeing adopted by most fire and other emergency service agencies across the country. Only thebasics of a few key Air Operations positions are briefly discussed.

I.C.S. charts are included as appendices to provide a basic understanding of how the helicopterpilot fits into the Air Operations Branch of the Incident Command System, should he find himselfin an emergency operation where I.C.S. is being utilized.

Understand that only that level of staffing is implemented which is necessary to effect asuccessful conclusion to the incident.

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INTRODUCTION

The use of helicopters in the initial attack phase of wildland firefighting has been credited witha very significant reduction in the number of large acreage fires. It is the versatility of the

helicopter that makes it a highly effective specialized piece of fire fighting equipment. There are,however, certain essentials required to transform its potential to reality.

A. Helicopter models and accessory equipment must be carefully selected for theirsuitability to the special applications of firefighting.

B. The quality of maintenance on both the helicopters and their accessories must be of thehighest standard.

C. The best possible pilot, maintenance, and ground support personnel are required tomeet the demands of the work. All personnel must be alert, thoroughly conversant with allhelicopter ground safety precautions, and well trained in the attachment, operation, anduse of all accessory equipment.

D. Pilot personnel should have mountain operations experience under conditions of highwinds, turbulence and high density altitudes. They must have a good feel and understandingof wind flow patterns in mountainous terrain. Throughout this article, mountain experienceshall be an assumed prerequisite for this type of work, as most wildland helicopterfirefighting is done in inaccessible mountain areas.

E. All pilots must acquire a good working knowledge of fire behavior and basic firefighting tactics, both air and ground. Most agencies directly involved in firefighting haveexcellent manuals on the subject. (Example: U.S.F.S. Fireman’s Handbook)

F. A recognition by all concerned that the pilot of the helicopter, who is ultimatelyresponsible for the safety of his crew, passengers and aircraft, will have the final authorityin denying or complying with requests.

G. A thorough knowledge on the part of the firefighting agency of the capabilities,applications and limitations of the helicopter in firefighting operations. This knowledge isacquired through a process of education and experience. Pilots can be helpful in thisregard.

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FIREFIGHTING USESGeneral Uses

Operational supervision, reconnaissance,transportation of personnel and the hauling

of both internal and external cargo are amongthe most frequent uses of helicopters in firefighting.The knowledge, training, experience and safetyprecautions for these applications are essentiallythe same as in similar operations, such asconstruction work.

Special UsesAll other uses of helicopters in firefighting arepeculiar to these operations and require specialtraining and strict adherence to the appropriatesafety precautions associated with each ofthese applications.

Water or fire retardant droppingFor an in-depth discussion on dropping, includingsafety considerations, see “Water or RetardantDropping Tactics” and “Drop Techniques” under“Firefighting Tactics.”

Aerial Ignition SystemsAerial ignition systems are utilized for prescribedburning in vegetative management programs,slash burning, and for backfiring or burn-outoperations on large scale fires. See AERIALIGNITION SYSTEMS chapter for operationalguidelines and safety considerations.

SAFETY AND RADIOCOMMUNICATIONSFlight Safety

Firefighting air operations are often in steepcanyons and mountain terrain under conditions

of reduced visibility due to smoke. In thisenvironment the danger of a wire strike or amid-air collision is always present.

Air to Air CommunicationsWhether there are two, or two dozen aircraftworking on a fire, the safe and efficient coordinationof air operations demands dependable radioequipment and the use of a common VHFfrequency by all aircraft on the fire. This isusually in addition to other frequencies onagency radios.

Helicopter pilots should make the followingradio calls to aid in maintaining a mentalpicture of each others whereabouts:

Examples: “15 Lifting” (Helicopter-15 liftingoff helibase); “15 Final for drop” (Helicopter-15 on final for a drop); “15 Clear” (Helicopter-15 clear for target area); “15 Final for Pad 1”(Helicopter-15 on final for pad 1 at the helibase)

WiresWorking in deep canyons and close to theground in dropping operations automaticallyplaces the helicopter in what must be assumedto be a hostile wire infested environment.Therefore, it is incumbent upon the pilot to beas familiar as possible with the location of allwires and other flight hazards in the areas ofanticipated operations. But regardless of familiarity,always conduct a thorough search for wires inthe entire area of each fire prior to commencingoperations. An approved wire cutting systemis a highly recommended aircraft accessory inthis line of work.

Other AircraftIn addition to good radio communications andfrequent position reporting it is an absolutenecessity to keep your head and eyeballs on aconstant swivel.

SmokeDo not fly through smoke unless you can seethrough it and you are certain as to what lieson the other side.

Landing in the BurnWhen landing at helispots within the burnedarea, anticipate a “gray-out” from flying ash.Reduce hover time to a minimum and maintainground reference directly under and next tothe helicopter. The principles are the same asfor “white-out” due to snow. Putting one ortwo water drops on the helispot prior to initialuse goes a long way toward alleviating thisproblem.

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Escape RoutesThe planning for each water drop should alwaysinclude an escape route in the event of a loss ofpower, misjudged wind or smoke, failure ofthe tank or bucket to open, a last minutechange of plans, sighting of personnel on theground in the drop zone, or other unforeseencircumstances that could cause serious problems.If the approach to the drop is properly plannedto include an escape route, the pilot can usuallyelect to:

• Fly away from the fire, hillside, smoke,or obstacle.

• Dump the water to lighten the load,thereby increasing the performance ofthe helicopter, and fly away from theproblem.

• As a last resort with a water bucket,jettison the bucket electrically or manuallyto avoid damage to the aircraft or avert anaccident.

Pull-ups, etc.Whether upslope, cross-slope or downslope,all maneuvers throughout a drop run, such asbanked turns, pull-ups, etc., must be plannedwith the load so that in the event of a dropmechanism malfunction, ample ground clearancewill have been allowed for.

Pilot FatigueAlthough somewhat controlled by maximumtime limits established by most agencies, allpilots must monitor and heed their own fatiguesymptoms as well as all other aspects of theirphysical and mental well being.

Ground Safety on the Fireline —The Helicopter Pilot’s ConcernThe helicopter pilot must be concerned withground safety on the fireline for two reasons:(1) The techniques used in helicopter firesuppression activities may have a very directimpact on both the positive and the negativeaspects of the safety of ground crews, and (2)the helicopter pilot, being in a mobile elevatedobservation platform, has the unique advantageof being able to observe changes in the fire’sbehavior or the development of a situationwhich may be potentially dangerous, but whichmay be beyond the field of view of groundcrews.

Air to Ground Communication• Air to ground communications will usuallybe via the fire agency’s radio frequencies.Radio communications with the groundis necessary:

• To receive detailed instructions so thatthe pilot may accurately provide the servicerequested when it is needed most.

• To provide command personnel withvaluable updates on fire conditions andbehavior as seen from the air.

• To warn ground crews of impendingdanger, perhaps unseen from the ground.

• To receive warning information regardingwires, other flight hazards, or other aircraft,perhaps unnoticed by the pilot.

• Ground Personnel should never assumethat approaching aircraft are aware offlight hazards observed by personnel onthe ground. Inform the pilot. Pilots wouldrather hear it again, than not at all andsuffer the consequences. And then, howwould you feel if you could have warnedthem?

Drop Hazards to Ground Personnel• Be aware of the danger of looseningrocks, dead branches or other debris whendropping above or upslope from groundpersonnel and equipment.

• One of the characteristics of retardantsis that they are very slippery. Considerthe hazards to driving or ground crewswhen dropping on steep slopes or nearroads.

• Avoid low direct hits on personnel,especially on steep slopes, and especiallywith larger helicopters having greater dropcapability, as the same possibility of injuryor death exists as with fixed-wing airtanker drops.

Rotor Downwash Effects on the FireAll pilots must be constantly aware of thefanning effect of rotorwash on the fire and thesubsequent danger to ground crews. (1) Basically,

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the lower and slower the flying, and the higherthe disc-loading, the greater the downwash.Rotorwash in strong gusty winds will generallybe broken up to the extent that there will be noeffect on the fire, or no more than caused bythe wind itself. Cyclic and/or collective pullupsincrease rotor-loading and therefore producemore rotor downwash. This should be avoidedwhen close enough to have an effect on thefire. When landing at helispots in the “burn”,but near the fireline and the unburned area,assess the likelihood of blowing hot embersacross the line into the unburned area. Inaddition to the obvious liability implications,your name could go down in infamy as thename of the new fire.

Fire Situations That Shout “Watch Out!”The following are only a few of the dangersignals which are instilled in the firefighter.These were selected because they are particularlyobvious from the air and are therefore situationswhich the pilot should keep a close watch onso that he may warn those concerned or takeinitiative action as required:

A crew is building a fireline downhill toward afire. A fireline should not be built downhill insteep terrain and fast burning fuels, unlessthere is no suitable alternate for controllingthe fire; and then only when certain safetyrequirements are closely adhered to. This is ahazardous practice because of the danger thatthe fire may cross the slope below the crewand swing uphill to trap them. Helicopter waterdrops should definitely support this type ofground attack with extra awareness of rotorwasheffects.

• A crew is fighting fire on a hillsidewhere rolling material can ignite fuelbelow them.

•A crew is on a line in heavy cover withunburned fuel between them and the fire.

• A crew is away from the burned areawhere terrain and/or cover makes traveldifficult and slow.

•A crew is getting frequent spot fires orslop-overs across their line.

• A crew cannot see the main fire andthey are not in communication with anyonewho can.

AIR OPERATIONS ORGANIZATION—AIRBORNEAir Tactical Group Supervisor

Provides strategy for accomplishment of AirOperations objectives.

Coordinates all aircraft in incident airspace.• Knows the number, identification andlocation of all aircraft in the fire area.

• Controls and coordinates the entranceto, or the exclusion from the area, ofprivate aircraft, as conditions permit.

• Initiates F.A.R. 91.137 as required. Allfire agency pilots should be very familiarwith this regulation.

• Dovetails fixed-wing and helicopteroperations whenever possible, consistentwith safety, to provide uninterrupted aerialfire suppression. In some cases, this mayrequire assigning separate sectors, corridorsand/or altitudes.

Air Tanker Coordinator (Lead Plane)The lead plane (radio call sign example: “Lead51”) establishes radio communications withthe Air Tactical Supervisor for tactical decisionsand drop requests.

The lead plane, as the name implies, serves asa “bird-dog”, by pointing out drop targets forfixed-wing air tankers with a dry run or lowpass over the target. “Bird dogging” is requiredto verify the target so that the drop can bedelivered where intended. He will also provideinformation useful in the selection of a safeapproach and departure path, and should adviseall aircraft of any wires or other hazards.

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Because the helicopters are operating lowerand slower, they are in the best position tocheck out wires and other flight hazards andshould pass on this important information tothe lead plane.

If fixed-wing air tankers arrive at a fire withouta lead plane, the Helicopter Coordinator may,after receiving instructions from the Air TacticalSupervisor or ground control, perform thatfunction until relieved by a lead plane.

Helicopter CoordinatorCoordinates tactical and logistical missionsand makes assignments for accomplishment ofhelicopter mission objectives.

Establishes helibase and helispot traffic patternsand routes to and from the target area.

HELIBASE (OR HELISPOT)ORGANIZATION AND SAFETY

Helicopter firefighting operations are usuallycentered at one or more helibases, sometimes

located at or near the main fire base, andperhaps several helispots on, near, or withinthe perimeter of the fire.

Often, large numbers of personnel are transported,some of whom may be highly trained in helicoptersafety and operations, and some who havenever been exposed to a helicopter. It is for thisreason that trained personnel who can enforcethese safety rules must be a part of the crew onlarger helicopters and or be in charge at eachhelispot.

The size of the helibase organization dependson the size of the operation and the availabilityof qualified manpower. One person may berequired to perform the duties of two or morefunctions. The two key positions are:

Helibase (or Helispot) ManagerThe helibase manager is responsible for theoverall operation and safety of the helibase (orhelispot). This shall include, but not be limitedto:

• Logistical support: pumping, hose-lays,fueling, etc.

• Helibase personnel position assignmentsto include: T.O.L.C. (Takeoff and LandingController), radio operator, mixmaster,parking tenders, etc.

• Personnel and vehicle movements onor in the immediate area of the helibase.

• Dust abatement.

• Two helispot evacuation plans in theevent of fire overrun. One of these plansfor evacuation or protection shall not bedependent on the helicopter.

• Wind direction indicator.

• Coordination with Helicopter Coordinatorto establish traffic patterns, etc.

Takeoff and Landing Controller (TOLC)The TOLC is responsible for enhancing safetywithin helibase (or helispot) airspace bycoordinating all aircraft movements throughthe issuance of takeoff and landing clearancesand traffic advisories. Helibase (or helispot)airspace is defined as that airspace within aone mile radius and 1000 feet above the helibaseelevation.

• Standardized hand signals are used asmuch as possible for takeoff clearancesto minimize radio traffic.

• When ready for take-off, the pilot willgive a “thumbs-up” signal indicating heis ready to go. The T.O.L.C. will-returnthe “thumbs up” if area around the helicopterand departure path are clear.

Ground Safety at the HelibaseAll personnel assigned to helicopter operationsare responsible for the enforcement of safetyregulations.

1. Authorized personnel and vehicles shouldkeep at least 100 feet clear of the helicopter atall times, unless specific assignment dictatesotherwise.

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2. Spectators must be kept at least 200 feetaway. If crowd or traffic control is required,request law enforcement assistance asnecessary.

3. There will be no smoking within 200 feet ofany helicopter.

4. Personnel assigned to operations at a helispotshall wear goggles and a helmet secured witha chinstrap when they are near any runninghelicopter.

5. Soft hats must be left in the wearer’s vehicleor may be hand carried by passengers.

6. Bystanders must be warned to protect theireyes from blowing sand and debris.

7. All equipment, tools, clothing, lunches,papers, refuse, etc., must be kept clear of thelanding area.

8. Never approach a helicopter unless signaledto do so by the pilot or authorizedcrewmember.

9. Approach only from the front or downhillside, in a slightly stooped-over position, andin full view of the pilot. If terrain permits, thiswill be a position about 45 degrees off the nose,to the right side of the helicopter.

10. NEVER approach from or circle the rear ofthe helicopter due to the danger of the tailrotor.

11. NEVER go aft of the cabin doors while thehelicopter is running, due to the danger of thetailrotor. The only exception to this applies totrained personnel assigned to loading thebaggage compartment.

12. NEVER carry hand tools or other longobjects in a vertical position or over theshoulder, due to the danger of the main rotor.All such objects shall be carried horizontallyat or below waist level.

13. NEVER throw any object toward or from ahelicopter, due to the danger of the main rotor.

14. NEVER stand with feet right next to the skidlanding gear, especially during loadingoperations.

15. When it is necessary to wait on a steepslope over the edge of the helispot due tolimited flat area adjacent to the landing pad,kneel or lay down and hold on to brush to avoidbeing blown over by the powerful rotorwashduring landings and takeoffs.

16. All personnel, bystanders, and vehiclesshall remain clear of the approach anddeparture paths at all times, due to thepossibility of an emergency landing or of a loadbeing jettisoned.

17. When preparing helispot touchdown pads,it should be remembered that some helicopterdrop tanks provide very little ground clearanceand should, therefore, be well cleared ofstumps, rocks, etc.

18. Helispots should be equipped with a windindicator, if nothing more than streamers on apole.

19. Traffic control at all helispots should belimited as much as possible to hand signal(except in emergencies) to reduce radio traffic.

20. Landing and refueling areas shall be wetdown whenever practical to prevent dust andsand ingestion by the helicopter engine ordamage to other parts of the aircraft. Dangerto the eyes of personnel and the generalunpleasantness is also greatly reduced.

The following rules apply at all fuel storagefacilities (fixed or mobile), and during anyrefueling operations.

• No smoking within 200 feet.

• “No Smoking” signs must be posted.

• Fire extinguishing equipment must beavailable.

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• No fueling with personnel on board.The only exception is the pilot during“hot fueling”. NOTE: Some agencies onlyallow hot fueling with a closed connectionrefueling system such as the Wiggins nozzleand receiver. This eliminates downtimeduring crucial moments of the fire.

FIREFIGHTING TACTICS

While space will not permit a completecourse in firefighting, it is felt that some

fundamental knowledge on the subject willbetter equip the pilot on his first fire contractto perform his job in a professional, safe andefficient manner. A basic understanding of firebehavior will help the pilot to recognize adangerous situation he might not otherwisebecome aware of until too late. Early recognitioncould save the life of a fire fighter or possiblythe pilot himself.

The Fire TriangleThe fire triangle consists of three sides: heat,oxygen and fuel. All three ingredients are necessaryto sustain combustion. The removal of any oneside breaks the triangle and is an effectivemeans of suppressing or extinguishing the fire.

• Remove heat—application of water withaircraft drops or by ground crews withextended hoselines or backpumps.

•Removal of oxygen —application of dirtin a smothering action by ground crewswith shovels.

• Removal of fuel— cutting line or firebreaksby bulldozer or handcrews; backfiring.

Initial Attack Crew PlacementThe point of initial attack on a small fire shouldbe the head of the fire if it is felt that controlcan be accomplished successfully, safety beingthe prime consideration. This depends on severalfactors such as the type of fuel, burning conditions,wind, terrain features, etc.

If, however, the head of the fire is too large andintense, attack should begin at a good anchorpoint, or at the point of origin, and a flankingaction initiated. After the crew is transported

close to the selected point of initial attack, thehelicopter begins hauling water either by dippingwith the water bucket at the closest open watersource, or by filling at a water source withpumping equipment or adequate hydrant pressure.These locations should be preplanned andcataloged when practical.

The helicopters then begin a continuous waterdropping operation, usually in direct supportof the ground crews or attacking the head, hotspots, or spot fires.

Returning to the first phase of this concept, thesafety of the initial attack crew must be uppermostin the minds of the pilot and the crew foremanin selecting a landing spot with reference tothe fire.

This is usually accomplished by circling thefire once or twice for a size-up of the fire andfamiliarization with the lay of the land. For thisreason, the crew foreman should be seated onthe same side as the pilot. The foreman thenselects the point at which he feels he cansafely attack the fire and so informs the pilot.

The pilot then selects a landing spot as close tothat point as possible, then double checks withthe foreman to see if his selected landing spotis safe for the crew from the standpoint of thefire. This recon also gives the crew foreman hisbest opportunity to check out possible escaperoutes for his crew in the event of a rapidchange in fire conditions. This should becommunicated to the pilot in the event protectivedrops or evacuation become necessary.

Water and Retardant Dropping TacticsWater Dropping TacticsWater drops are used in direct attack, whichmeans dropping directly on the burning fuelon the active fireline for the purpose of suppressionand extinguishment.

Retardant Dropping TacticsRetardant drops are primarily used in indirector parallel attack, or in front of the fire for thepurpose of retarding the rate of spread and theintensity of burning, especially in areas whereground crews are not expected for some time.

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Often a retardant line may be established andthe fire will actually burn itself out or at leasthold until secured by other means.

Spot FiresSpot fires, or small new fires which occuroutside of the perimeter and usually downwindof the main fire are caused by fire brandswhich have been carried aloft by the convectiveheat column, then precipitate out after beingcarried by the wind. Sometimes they are causedby burning animals fleeing the fire, but spotfires should always take priority over the mainfire; otherwise, there will be two large fireswhich will merge into one still larger fire, andcrews may get trapped between the spot fireand the main fire.

Selecting the AttackUnless it appears that there is a good chance ofcutting off the head or front of the fire withdrops and holding it with continued dropsuntil ground forces can secure it, attack on theline should begin at the bottom of the hill, at agood anchor point, or at the point of origin ofthe fire with each successive drop overlappingthe previous one and working toward the headin a flanking action. If drops are begun at someother point along the line, or uphill from lowerfire, the lower or upwind fire will hook aroundthe section of line extinguished by the dropand wipe out all that had been accomplished.

Fire Ground OrientationBecause everybody on the ground seems tohave a different idea of where North, East,South, and West are, the flanks of the fireshould be referred to as the left and right flanksas viewed from the point of origin. This eliminatesa lot of confusion and radio time for explanation.

Additionally, divisions of the fire should belettered alphabetically clockwise from the pointof origin, thus giving the pilot some clue as towhere he might be able to find Division “C”,for example, when not provided with a firemap. Unfortunately, pilots are seldom providedmaps and divisions often seem to be namedrandomly, rather than in accordance with thissystem.

Upslope FireIn most cases, it is better to allow the head ofan uphill-burning fire to “ridge out” or hit thetop, rather than attempt to stop it on the slope,unless there is a good chance to stop it, or if itis a long way from the top. When the fire isabout to ridge out, sometimes a few drops willslow down the speed and intensity with whichit hits the top.

Slop-oversSometimes it is better to orbit with a load topick up any spot fires or slop-overs that mayoccur across the firebreak at the top (if afirebreak exists), or drop on the fireline alongthe ridgetop after the fire loses some of itsmomentum.

Hot SpotsHot spots, not to be confused with spot fires,are the hottest portions of the flanks of the fire.Hot-spotting is the attacking of these portionsof the line. If the head of the fire has laid downsomewhat and is no longer “making a run”, theremaining fire could also be referred to as hotspots.

BackfiringThe principles of backfiring must be understoodby the pilot so that he can recognize a backfirebefore he starts dropping on it — very embarrassing,even if those responsible neglected to informyou of the backfiring operation. Backfiring is ameans of removing fuel in the path of a rapidlyadvancing hot fire under very exacting conditions.When the head of the fire creates a tremendousconvective heat column, cooler air rushes infrom all sides, including the downwind side,creating a wind toward the head or hottestportion of the fire. When this wind develops toa point of being steady, a line of fire is startedahead of the main fire from an establishedbarrier such as a road, firebreak, dry riverwash, etc.

This backfire then burns toward, and is suckedinto, the main fire creating a wider fuel break.The use of fusee’s (road flares), a drip torch, orof course the helitorch, are easily recognizedfrom the air. However, sometimes nothing but

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matches are available and that is when theability to recognize a backfiring operation ishelpful.

Firing-outFiring-out operations are somewhat similar tobackfiring, in that they are intentionally setfires. However, this is more associated withmop-up operations and consists of burning outragged unburned islands within the perimeterto speed these operations to a conclusion sothat these areas do not have the opportunity oftaking off again days later and possibly spottingacross the line.

Drop Concentration vs. Fuel LoadingLight fuels with no canopy, such as grass andvery light brush, require less concentrationand, providing the fireline is not too ragged,give the pilot the opportunity to put out morefireline with a single drop.

Medium to heavy brush and timber, however,require heavier concentration to penetrate thecanopy and reach the ground fire and heavyfuel masses.

Means of Drop Control By the PilotAirspeed and DirectionDrops made into the wind or at slower airspeedincrease the concentration of the drop by shorteningthe swath. Drops made downwind or at higherairspeeds will reduce concentration and increaseswath length.

AltitudeAltitude affects concentration in swath width-the lower the drop, the narrower the swath andthe heavier the concentration. Conversely, thehigher the drop, the more time the water masshas to break up into droplets and be dispersedby wind drift, therefore, the wider the swathand the lighter the concentration. Obviously,high crosswind drops would have too great aswath width and dispersal, so lower drops aremade in strong crosswinds.

Drop TechniquesWater (or retardant) dropping probably demandsmore judgment of the pilot than most otherhelicopter operations, merely by virtue of themany variables involved. It would be simple tostate that, ideally, all drops are made at fiftyfeet and fifty knots, into the wind, over flatground, no wires, and clear of the smoke.However, the “ideal drop” is very rare indeed.Equally as rare, we hope, is the drop madeunder the worst possible set of circumstances,and then only made because it might save thelives of a ground crew. Most drops are madeunder conditions within the wide range betweenthese two extremes.

For the experienced mountain pilot new tofirefighting, training should consist of:

• familiarization with fire behavior andfirefighting tactics,

• dual instruction drops on imaginarytargets in various terrain features, and

• some dual instruction on at least thefirst actual fire.

While it is impossible to enumerate all of thepossible drop situations, the following willpoint out some of the inherent dangers andprecautions of various types of drops.

Hover DropsExcept on isolated snags or trees, hover dropsare strictly taboo on active ground fire unlesswell inside a burned area, as the rotor downwashwill intensify and spread far more fire than thedrop will extinguish, possibly endangering agroundcrew.

When attempting to concentrate the bulk ofthe drop on a single snag or similar target, amodified quick-stop (not recommended with abucket) or low airspeed drop should be usedrather than hovering. The slower the drop, thehigher it should be made to preclude the effectsof rotor downwash on the fire.

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Cross-slope DropsCross-slope drops, whether above or belowthe fire usually present no special problems,but watch your main rotor clearance on theuphill side in steep terrain.

Downslope DropsDownslope drops, especially if in steep terrain,require planning by picking out objects on topof the ridge above the fire and in the backgroundbeyond the fire to line up on, as the downslopedrop presents a blind run, that is, the target isnot visible to the pilot until he has crossed theridge above the fire, and then only if notobscured by smoke.

If the slope is very steep it may be advisable toapproach the ridgetop at a reduced airspeed,using caution not to get too slow if downwindor too low when on the “lee” side (downdrafts),then drop the nose and make a descendingdrop off the ridge. Slowing prior to the“Dive”reduces the chance of excessive speed.The pull-out must be planned to provide adequateterrain clearance in the event the drop is abortedfor any reason. Downslope drops may be madeat a slower airspeed and are more effective, ifmade into the wind. Downslope drops low onthe slope may be approached cross-slope at areduced airspeed with a 90 degree descendingturn to the target. This allows the pilot to bettersee his target if turning to his side.

Upslope DropsAlthough upslope drops afford the pilot a betterview of his target than any other type of drop,they should be avoided as much as possible.

This is the drop that shouts “Watch Out.” Itwas stated earlier that building a fire linedownhill on a fire is “hazardous,” and that it“should not be done in steep terrain and fastburning fuels, unless there is no suitable alternatefor controlling the fire; and then only whencertain safety requirements are closely adheredto.”

Similarly, upslope dropping can be very hazardous,and should only be done in steep terrain whenthere is no suitable alternative. An extra measure

of caution should be taken if attempted with awater bucket.

If the upslope drop is made near the top of theridge, there is no real problem. This drop canbe made up or downslope from level flight atan altitude to safely clear the elevation of theridgetop.

The drop which requires the most skill, carefuljudgment, and experience is the upslope dropmade at a target low on a steep hillside. This isnot a drop for the newcomer to these operationsand should be worked up to gradually as morefire experience has been accumulated.

It bears repeating that this drop should be usedeven by the experienced, only when alternativetechniques will not work. Obviously, this dropcompromises safety in the event of a mechanicalmalfunction.

If the upslope drop is on a target low on theslope, the pitch attitude of the helicopter shouldbe rotated well before the target to effect astraight line climb at an angle to safely clearthe ridgetop. This drop approach must be enteredwith considerably more airspeed so that oncethe rotation for climb has been accomplished,forward momentum alone will sustain the climbto cross the ridgetop at a safe airspeed andaltitude with the load to allow for an abort ormalfunction and without a requirement foradditional power. The departure should beeither straight ahead over the ridge, or a normalbanked turn without added power. If not approachedin this manner, especially if downwind, thepilot will find himself in a situation of lowaltitude, low airspeed, and insufficient climb,requiring a near zero airspeed 180 degreepedal turn and full power causing the fire toflair up. If a drop mechanism malfunctionwere to occur as well, settling with power andan accident would be the most probable result.

SmokeSome of the factors that are weighed in decidingwhich technique will be used are, wind directionand velocity, direction and intensity of burning,general terrain features, and the steepness of

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the slope. The variability of each of thesefactors presents an infinite number of possiblecombinations. Another factor, perhaps the mostvariable of all, is the smoke pattern, and thismay indeed be the final determining factor inchoosing which technique will be used on adrop.

Example: In considering consecutive drops onthe same target, the only constant factor is theterrain, but while the other factors are variable,the extreme variability of the smoke pattern asit eddies in and around rough terrain may verywell dictate consecutive drops 180 degreesapart. What might otherwise be a downhilldrop, may become an uphill drop because thesmoke completely obscures the target whenapproached from the uphill side.

Water Bucket OperationsThe helicopter water bucket is used extensivelyfor dropping water or retardant on grass, brush,and forest fires. The bucket is slung externallybelow the helicopter. It has an advantage overa fixed tank in that it can easily be removed toenable the helicopter to perform other roleswithout being encumbered by the weight orbulk of the bucket. It has a lower initial cost,has a simpler installation, is able to be jettisoned,and is compatible with open water filling (lakes,streams, etc.)

It also has disadvantages, the most obviousones being: it’s a sling load, therefore, lessmaneuverable; the helicopter is either out ofground effect or nearly so, reducing takeoffperformance; and it has more drag, therebyreducing enroute and deadhead speeds. Becauseit is a sling load, it requires increased pilotfinesse.

The bucket also increases pilot fatigue due tothe intense concentration during dipping (filling),versus actually being able to land and relaxduring the one minute the tank equipped helicopteris being filled by hose line.

Several companies manufacture water bucketsin various sizes and capacities to match thecapabilities of most helicopters. Actuation and

method of operation may vary (mechanical,electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic) but the purposeis the same—aerial application of water orretardant on or near the fire line. Different fireand fuel situations will dictate the actual dropmethod.

Bucket Systems Preflight ChecksThe following equipment preflight checks shouldbe performed prior to water drop operations:

• Check operation of: cargo arming switch;bucket open and close operating switch;jettison switch; and mechanical jettison.

• Adjust the mirror for the pilot to see thebucket and cables when filling and dropping.

• Check sling cables for security andlength. The cables should be long enoughto allow the helicopter to land aft or tothe side of the bucket while hooked up.This allows the bucket to be hooked upon the ground and the helicopter landedwith the bucket hooked up (1) in normaloperations, (2) in the case of the bucket’sfailure to open, or (3) the failure of thecargo hook to release. Cables should beas short as possible to allow takeoff inground effect.

• Adjust bucket capacity level to coincidewith helicopter performance at water pick-up point.

• Bucket should be equipped with flotationcollar if operating in open water in caseof accidental or intentional release.

Precautions• When hooking up bucket on ground,check that cables are not crossed or tangled,or over either skid.

• When flying with bucket empty, flywith dump gates open to reduce oscillationand excessive drag.

• When using large bodies of water forfilling, dip near shore with constant forwardmotion. Obtain good shore reference toavoid excessive drift.

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• When using small lakes in big timber orin deep depressions, anticipate the powerneeded to climb out of the “hole” withthe bucket loaded.

• Beware of snags or hooking bucket onsubmerged objects during water pick-up.

• When using fast flowing streams orrivers for filling, face the flow of thestream if sufficient power is available.Although heavier loads can be picked upgoing downstream, it is more dangerous!The speed and momentum at which problemsoccur moving down stream is much fasterand increases the hazard of snaggingsubmerged objects or allowing drift leftor right. The possibility of the bucketpassing the helicopter and the pilot applyingrear cyclic to stop the bucket’s downstreammotion could result in the tailrotor strikingthe water when the slack is taken out ofthe cables.

• If dipping in a portable tank, use asignal man, or, if one is not available,remove the door and use long line visualtechniques.

• Avoid the hazard of flying over people,structures, vehicles, etc., as with any externalload. Remember, in the USA, water bucketoperations must conform to F.A.R. Part133, Rotorcraft External Load Operations.

• The sling lift ring must be able to withstandconstant twisting. The cargo hook shouldalso be checked frequently. A failure ofeither would result in dropping a bucket.

• The pilot should wear a life preserverduring water bucket operations if fillingfrom open water.

Typical Water Bucket OperationAfter completing the previously mentionedbucket systems preflight checks, you are readyto begin water bucket operations.

• Hover vertically, lifting the bucket offthe ground, checking continuously to ensurethat no cables are crossed, tangled inthemselves or their attached control lines,or the skids. This can be done visually byyourself, either in the mirror or out thedoor, or it can be checked and relayed toyou by a ground signal man.

• Fly to the nearest suitable water fill site.Approach the water, making water contactwith the bucket with some forward motionto allow the bucket to tip over and fillwhile slowly continuing to move forward(this eliminates drift). Close the bucketdoor and apply power, lifting the bucketfree of the water as you transition forwardinto translational lift. A constant smoothmotion enables the use of less power andresults in less tugging and jerking on thehook and helicopter. With a little practice,your approach, filling process, transitionto takeoff and climb-out will be one smoothfluid movement with no actual stoppingto hover over the water.

• The bucket water drop is almost identicalto a tank drop except a little slower. Aswith tank drops, various combinations ofspeed and altitude produce different resultsand are varied for different fuel types andfire conditions. A little experimenting willhelp you decide what works best for youand the particular situation.

Fixed Drop Tank OperationsWhile other fixed drop tank designs for helicoptersexist, the L. A. County Tank is probably themost widely used. It is a 360 gallon tank whichmounts to the belly of Bell 204, 205, 212, 214and 412 series helicopters equipped with highskid gear.

Recent modifications provide the pilot yet anothermeans of drop control by offering three dropoptions: 2 single door drops, a salvo, or a traildrop. This was accomplished by adding alongitudinal bulkhead down the centerline betweenthe two doors. The following are examples ofthe uses of the 3 drop options:

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Single door dropsSingle door drops are used for: light or grassyfuels requiring less concentration; jagged firelinewith short straight sections of line; and pinchingoff small spot fires by making two single drops90 degrees to each other on the head, uphill,or downwind side, each drop being 45 degreesto the direction of fire spread

Salvo (double door drop)Salvo drops are used with heavy fuels or canopyrequiring heavy concentration for penetrationor cooling; longer drops of heavy concentration;heavy concentration required to reduce excessivedispersal in very strong winds; or for snags ordowned logs

Trail DropTrail drops are two single door drops automaticallysequenced to provide a single extended droppattern. NOTE: Some installations do not havethe automatic sequencing, so the two singledrops must be triggered separately by the pilotto get a trail drop. It is primarily used for longdrops on light or grassy fuels with a straightfireline.

Tank Systems Preflight ChecksCheck proper installation of the following tank-to-aircraft connections:

• four pip pins in landing gear saddlestraps• manual release cable• compressed air hose quick disconnect• electric control cable

Check condition of:• tank• compressor installation• compressed air accumulator• associated wiring and plumbing

Mirror adjusted to see tank doors

Helicopter fill hose on board. This consists of a15 foot section of 3 inch rubber hose with a 3inch female Kam-lok fitting on one end (whichmates with the male Kam-lok fitting on theright front corner of the tank) and a 2 1/2 inch“D” handle shut-off with swivel on the other

end. This is mated to the 2 1/2 inch watersupply hose lay from the fire engine or hydrant.

Operational and Inflight Checks• Tank System circuit breakers—in• Tank Arming Switch — arm• Tank System warning lights — press to

test• Doors Open Warning Horn — test

The purpose of the horn is to prevent landingswith doors open, as they extend below the skidgear in the open position and serious tankdamage is likely to occur.

WARNING: Never open the tank doors electricallywhile on the ground as damage to the doorsand tank is probable, due to the force withwhich the compressed air system would slamthe doors into the ground.

Doors should be opened by means of themanual release at the end of each day and leftopened to relieve the door seals.

The warning horn should sound approximately20 seconds after door opening, or after thebattery is turned on if the doors were alreadyopened. After the horn sounds, close the doorsby pulling down on the “Chinese hat” switchon the cyclic stick (or the door close button onthe collective head in some installations.) Thehorn should stop within several seconds.

At a hover, or in flight, check the operation ofthe following:

• manual release for ease of operation

• drop selector switch, located on collectivehead (or the tank control panel on thecenter console in some installations.)

• Double (salvo)—both doors opensimultaneously when activated

• Single — the right door opens on thefirst activation and the left door on thesecond activation. The right door may beclosed before opening the left or closedtogether with the left.

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• Automatic— (trail) the left door opensautomatically at a preset interval followingopening of the right door (not available insome installations.)

Drop switch (door open)- the thumb switch onthe left side of the cyclic (or the thumb buttonin the right rear corner of the collective head insome installations) activates the drop optionwhich has been selected with the drop selectorswitch. Each operation should be checked anddoor position verified in the mirror.

Door close switch (Chinese hat switch, or thethumb button in the left rear corner of thecollective head in some installations) - holddown approximately 2 or 3 seconds or untildoor lights go out.

Emergency release or panic switch (cargo hookrelease button) - The “double” position shouldbe re-selected on the drop selector switchfollowing completion of each full drop so thatif a problem occurs during the critical takeoffphase, the entire water load may be jettisoned.If, however, the selector switch were inadvertentlyleft in the “single” or “automatic” position, theentire load may still be jettisoned by use of thecargo release button. Its operation should bechecked with the drop selector switch in eachof the positions.

During fill operations, ensure that helicopterfill hose is disconnected and personnel areclear prior to lift off.

FIXED TANK VS. WATER BUCKET COMPARISON CHART

TANK BUCKET

LOWER INVESTMENT X

SIMPLE INITIAL INSTALLATION X

JETTISONABLE X

QUICK CHANGE TO OTHER SLING LOADS X

SUITABILITY W/ OPEN WATER SOURCES-LAKES/RIVERS X

HIGH DEGREE OF MANEUVERABILITY X

HEAVIER LIFT CAPACITY DUE TO LOW IGE HOVER/TAKEOFF X

OSCILLATION FREE X

HIGH SPEED DEADHEAD RETURN X

ABILITY TO OPERATE IN STRONG, GUSTY WINDS X

EASE OF JUDGING HEIGHT ABOVE OBSTACLES X

QUICK DUMP FOR PATTERN AND ACCURACY X

THREE DROP OPTIONS (2 SINGLES; SALVO; TRAIL) X

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AERIAL IGNITION SYSTEMS

Aerial ignition systems must be used onlywithin a “window” or prescription of fuel

and weather conditions suited for the particularapplication. Additionally, its use must beclosely managed and directed by the “firingboss” who is an experienced firefighter trainedin its use. The two most commonly used devicesare:

HelitorchA skid mounted fuel container (usually a 55gallon drum), an electric fuel pump, an ignitionsystem and associated plumbing and wiring.This unit is slung beneath the helicopter. Someunits also have a means of eliminating hangfires, such as a C02 fire extinguisher. A hangfire occurs when a glob of burning fuel mix(alumigel and gasoline) adheres to the valvedoutlet after valve closure. This may subsequentlyfall off in an area outside the area to be burnedcausing an unwanted fire. This potential problemrequires assurance that the equipment is functioningproperly and very close monitoring by thepilot.

Safety PrecautionsAlthough some of these precautions apply toall aerial ignition systems operations, mostpertain specifically to helitorch operations.

The following items are a mixture of safetyprecautions and operating guidelines. Althoughmany are agency responsibilities, the pilotbears considerable responsibility as a key player.An opportunity for disaster will present itself ifthese safety precautions are not taken. To avoidany liability and avert a disaster, all playersshould insist on adherence to these rules.

1. Provide adequate flammable liquid fireprotection at helitorch helispot and mixingoperation.

2. The helicopter landing pad shall be aminimum of 100 feet from the mixing area.

3. Ensure proper grounding of all componentsin the mixing operation.

4. Provide static free 100% cotton protectiveclothing for the mixcrew.

5. All personnel shall attend a briefing prior tothe burn operation.

6. All personnel involved in any capacity inthe helitorch helispot operations shall attend abriefing regarding their duties andresponsibilities, safety, and an emergencyaction plan.

7. Only the minimum required personnel areallowed within 100 feet of the mixingoperation.

8. No smoking within 200 feet.

9. The pilot and firing boss shall communicateon a discrete frequency.

10. The pilot shall be provided with a mapdepicting the burn plan firing sequence.

11. The pilot, burn boss, and firing boss shallmake a reconnaissance flight prior to startingthe burn to review the plans, define the area tobe burned, and ensure that the area is clearand no ground personnel are in positions ofjeopardy.

12. The pilot must have fire experience and aclear understanding of fire behavior.

13. Double check cargo hook and all helitorchequipment operations.

14. Generally, fly contour runs at 50 to 200feet above ground level, flying successive runsfrom higher elevations to lower elevation. Winddrift, topography, and the ability to keep thefire within the prescribed boundaries whenoperating near the boundaries, determines thealtitude selected.

15. Generally, fly runs 90 degrees to the winddirection, working from the downwind end ofthe burn block to the upwind end.

16. It is safer to bite off a little less than toomuch on each run.

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17. If uncertain of firing boss’s instructions, getclarification and get him to observe a dry runto be certain. Mistakes can be dangerous andcostly!

18. Maintain a safe minimum speed.

19. Helitorch should be placed in front of thehelicopter for on-the-ground hook-up withcables running between the skid landing gear.Land behind the helitorch after setting it on theground.

20. To lift the helitorch, lift off vertically andmove into position over the helitorch until theslack is taken up, ensuring no cableentanglements.

“Ping-Pong Ball Machine”This unit is carried inside the helicopter withan operator who loads and operates the machine.The machine consists of a hopper into whichthe balls are fed and a cam operated systemwhich controls drop rate and ethylene glycolinjection of the ping pong balls which containpotassium permanganate. Each ball is individuallyinjected with the catalyst immediately beforeit is dropped through a chute that extendsoutside the helicopter. The chemical reactiontakes approximately 30 seconds before ignitionoccurs, virtually eliminating any chance ofinflight fire.

CONCLUSION

It is only through knowledge, training, alertness,careful judgment, experience, and most of

all, adherence to safety practices, that thehelicopter pilot may become an effective firesuppression pilot. NOTE: It is easy to gettunnel-vision on killing the fire breathing dragon,and it can get exciting. But the best advice thisauthor ever had, came from a highly respected,now retired, brush firefighting chief who said,“Remember, there’s not a stick of brush or ahouse out there that is worth a man’s life.”

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APPENDIX I

105

APPENDIX II

NOTES

107

E X H I B I T 2E X H I B I T 2E X H I B I T 2INCIDENT AVIATIONCOMMUNICATIONS,

FUNCTIONS, AND FREQUENCIES

108

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Communication Functions ......................................................................................................... 109

Radio Discipline .......................................................................................................................... 110

VHF-AM, VHF-FM, and UHF-FM ............................................................................................... 110

AM Frequencies .......................................................................................................................... 111

FM Frequencies ........................................................................................................................... 112

National Support Cache FM Frequencies .................................................................................. 113

Airports ....................................................................................................................................... 114

Flight Following .......................................................................................................................... 115

Five Minutes Out ......................................................................................................................... 116

Arrival In Incident Airspace ....................................................................................................... 117

Prioritizing Requests .................................................................................................................. 118

Requesting Aircraft ..................................................................................................................... 119

Arriving Aircraft ......................................................................................................................... 120

Air Tanker Tactics ....................................................................................................................... 121

Helicopter Tactics ....................................................................................................................... 122

Tactics Follow-up ........................................................................................................................ 123

Air-to-Air on Complex Incidents ............................................................................................... 124

FM Briefing Frequency ............................................................................................................... 125

Helibase TOLC and Deck ........................................................................................................... 126

Flight Following on Incidents ..................................................................................................... 127

Helispot Communications ......................................................................................................... 128

NON-RADIO COMMUNICATIONS .......................................................................................... 129

109

Separate functions have beendesignated for various incidentcommunications. For Communicationplans to be effective, radios andfrequencies must be compatible.All aircraft must have a 720 channelAM radio. Pilots should not berequired to monitor more than twofrequencies at once, one AM andone FM. If radio traffic becomesexcessive, additional frequenciesmust be assigned or operations mustbe curtailed.

Minimum functions are: Air-to-Air,Air-to-Ground, Helicopter FlightFollowing, Helicopter Take-Off andLanding, Agency Dispatch,Command, Tactical, HelispotCommunications, and Helibase Deck.

On simple incidents, more thanone function can be combined onone frequency. As incidents growin complexity, discrete frequenciesmust be assigned to each function.All personnel must be briefed onfrequencies assigned to each function.

Aviation managers, the Communi-cations Unit, and Dispatchers shouldwork together to develop an avia-tion communications plan for eachincident. Input from pilots shouldbe solicited to help develop theplan. Frequencies are assigned onlyby the Communications Unit orAgency Dispatcher.

Figure 1.Incident Radio

CommunicationsPlan.

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RADIO DISCIPLINE

Radio discipline is required to maintain effective radio communications and safety. Allmessages must be brief and to the point, so that others can access frequencies. When

changing to a new frequency, personnel must listen for any communications in progress beforetransmitting. Common incident terminology should be used whenever appropriate. It isparticularly important to keep the Air-to-Air frequency open and available to pilots. After usingother frequencies, personnel should return to the frequency assigned to their primary function.To contact other personnel, the primary function for the individual should be tried first. Primaryfunctions for key positions are listed below.

Operations Chief CommandDivision Supervisors TacticalAir Operations Director CommandAir Support Supervisor CommandAir Tactical Group Supervisor Air-to-Ground & Air-to-AirHelicopter Coordinator Air-to-Ground & Air-to-AirHelibase Command & Air-to-Air

VHF-AM, VHF-FM, & UHF-FMVHF-AM Frequencies

These frequencies are within a band width of 118.000 and 135.975 megahertz. They are usedfor general aviation communications and are used on incidents. Common terminology and

slang for VHF-AM include: AM, VHF, Victor, Comm, and Alpha Mike. VHF-AM frequenciesused for incident aviation operations are listed on page 3.

VHF-FM FrequenciesThese frequencies are within a band width of 150.00 and 173.975 megahertz. They are used forportable radio and dispatch communications during daily agency operations and on incidents.Common terminology and slang for VHF-FM include: FM and Fox Mike. VHF-FM frequenciesused for incident aviation operations are listed on page 4 and 5. The National Radio SupportCache frequencies on page 5 are reserved for incidents.

UHF-FM FrequenciesThese frequencies are within a band width above 173.975 megahertz. They are used by themilitary for aviation communications. On incidents they are used for logistics and aviationcommunications. Common terminology and slang for UHF-FM include: UHF and Logistics.UHF-FM frequencies used for incident aviation operations are not listed in this publication.They are assigned as needed by the Communications Unit Leader.

111

AM Frequencies

Helicopter 122.975 Available nation wide on a first userOperations 122.850 basis for any helicopter operation,

123.025 including private operations. 122.975,123.050 122.850, 123.025 and 123.075 are for123.075 air-to-air only. 123.050 is for air-123.925 to-ground only. 122.925 is for both. 122.925

is also the Primary Airtanker Frequency.Appropriate frequencies may be used forHelicopter Flight Following, HelicopterAir-to-Air, or Take-Off and Landing Control.

Primary 122.925 Air Tankers do not have exclusiveAirtanker ownership of this frequency. The Frequency

is authorized for air-to-air or air-to-grounduse by all Federal Natural Resource Agencies.On incidents, it may be used by Fixed-wingor Helicopters temporarily, but should bereplaced as soon as possible.

Secondary ———— Assigned to Air Tanker Base Zones - onlyAirtanker during fire season. Obtained from dispatchers.

Additional frequencies may be made availablefor incidents.

Commercial ———— Assigned to Air Traffic Control Towers,Airports Ground Controllers, and Flight Service Stations.

Shown on aeronautical charts and otherpublications.

Unicom 122.800 Used by all pilots to receive advisoriesAirports at limited control airports.

Multicom 122.900 Used by all pilots for communications inAirports transit and advisories at uncontrolled airstrips.

Limited usage in government operationsis advised.

ELT 121.500 Emergency Locator Transmitter - sends anaudio tone for 48 hours after activation ina crash.

Ramp ———— Some government ramps have frequenciesassigned. (BIFC 122.925, MSO 122.900)

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FM Frequencies

Air Guard 168.625 Air Guard is monitored by all pilots flying forthe USDA-FS or USDI agencies. It is used foremergencies, long range flight following,and initial contact when the discrete dispatchfrequency is unknown. On 9600 channelradios it is designated as Guard 1.

Local Air 168.650 If practical, Forest Service dispatchDispatch centers use the Forest frequency to dispatch

aircraft. If this is not practical, then 168.050may be assigned for dispatching aircraft.

National 168.550 This is an initial contact frequency forInteragency land-mobile units arriving at incidents.Incident Contact It is not approved for aircraft, base stations,

or repeaters.

FCC Common 163.100 These frequencies are authorized by theUser 168.350 FCC for use by any US citizen forFrequencies ground-to-ground vehicle convoy

communications. They are available on afirst come first use basis and may be toneencoded.

National Radio ———— These frequencies are sent to interagencySupport Cache incidents in radio kits. Kits are programmed

with 3 Tactical, 4 Air Tactical, and 1 Command/Command Repeat frequency. Each kit containsone of six different Command frequencies.Tactical and Air Tactical frequencies are thesame in all kits. These frequencies may betone guarded.

Agency ———— Dispatch frequencies for the USDA ForestDispatch Service, BLM and various state agencies are

listed in the USDA/USDI Aircraft RadioCommunications and Frequency Guide.

Emergency ———— Various Emergency Medical CenterMedical Services frequencies are listed in the USDA/USDI

Aircraft Radio Communications and FrequencyGuide.

113

National Radio Support Cache FM Frequencies

Tactical 1 168.050 These three frequencies are used forTactical 2 168.200 Division and Group tactics. The sameTactical 3 168.600 three frequencies are in all National Support

Cache radios. There are also three USDITac frequencies that must be authorized ona case by case basis.

Command 1 168.700/ These six sets of frequencies are the170.975 Command and Command Repeat frequencies

in the National Support Cache Radios.Command 2 168.100/ Each incident has one pair of frequencies

170.450 assigned for Command.

Command 3 168.075/ Command 1, 2, and 3 are USDA Forest170.425 Service frequencies, and have been permanently

authorized. Command 4, 5, and 6Command 4 are USDI frequencies and must be authorized

on a case by case basis.Command 5

Command 6

Air Tactical 166.675 These four frequencies are authorized for169.150 air tactical use west of Longitude 100169.200 West. All four are included in each170.000 National Support Cache radio kit. They can

be used for Air-to-Air or Air-to-Groundcommunications. 170.000 usually does notprovide good reception.

114

In the airspace around airports,pilots must be able to monitortransmissions from Air TrafficControllers and other aircraft.Passengers should refrain from usingradios in these areas without thepilot’s permission.

Commercial Airports - Air TrafficControllers and Ground Controllersuse discrete AM frequencies assignedby the FAA. Continuous advisoriesmay be broadcast on a discretefrequency called UNICOM.Advisories are announcementsconcerning wind speed and directionand other airport conditions arebroadcast on ADIS. Airportfrequencies are on Sectionals, WACCharts, and are listed in variousaviation publications.

Figure 2.Airports.

Limited Control Airports - Theseairports may have a UNICOM radio,usually managed by a Fixed BaseOperator. The frequency for limitedcontrol airport UNICOM’s is 122.800.Advisories at limited control airportsare not continuous and usually includeinformation on known air traffic.

Uncontrolled Airports - Pilots transmitadvisories in the blind on 122.900.This is the Multicom frequencyand is also for air-to-aircommunications between pilots intransit.

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All aircraft must flight follow withagency dispatchers during flightsto any destination. If an FAA approvedflight plan has been filed in advancefor a point-to-point flight, flightfollowing may be accomplishedby phoning dispatchers beforedeparture and after arrival.

Flight following is accomplishedby reporting the aircraft’s N-number,position, and destination to adispatcher every 15 minutes.

Expected Time of Departure (ETD)should be reported before take-offand Actual Time of Arrival (ATA)should be confirmed after parkingor after arriving at an incident.

On long flights, where flight followingrequires checking-in with more thanone dispatcher, the air crew should

close out with dispatchers aftercontact with the next dispatcherhas been established.Generally, flight following is doneon dispatchers’ primary FMfrequencies. If contact cannot beestablished on a primary frequency,the Guard frequency may be used.Guard can also be used to makeinitial contact with dispatchers ifthe primary frequency is unknown.

Flight following is a sharedresponsibility for pilots and agencypersonnel. Cockpit procedures forflight following should be establishedprior to take-off.

Agency FM frequencies and dispatchphone numbers are listed in theUSDA/USDI Aircraft RadioCommunications and FrequencyGuide, (NFES #0969).

Figure 3.Flight Following.

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All aircraft must report their position,altitude, altimeter setting, andexpected arrival time to the AirTactical Group Supervisor no lessthan 5 minutes out from the incidentairspace on the AM Air-to-Airfrequency assigned to the incident.

If there is no Air Tactical GroupSupervisor, one of the following iscontacted, listed in order ofpreference: Lead Plane, and AirTanker, other Fixed Wing, HelicopterCoordinator, Helibase, any helicopter.

If there are no aviation resources,Air Operations or Operations shouldbe contacted on Command FM.

Do not enter an incident airspacewithout clearance.

After obtaining clearance, arrivalmust be reported to the FlightFollowing dispatcher.

Figure 4.Five Minutes Out.

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After obtaining clearance to enterthe incident airspace, the Air TacticalGroup Supervisor should contactOperations for a briefing on thetactical plan.

The Air Operations Director shouldbe contacted for aviation operationdetails such as: shift length, theneed for additional aircraft orpersonnel, and the method forobtaining daily briefings.

Figure 5.Arriving in

Incident Airspace.

118

Air Tactical Group Supervisors andHelicopter Coordinators should returnto Air-to-Ground after using otherFM frequencies. Air-to-Ground istheir primary FM frequency to monitor.Operations, Division Supervisors,and Group Supervisors contact theAir Tactical Group Supervisor orthe Helicopter Coordinator on Air-to-Ground to request tactical andlogistical air support.

The Air Tactical Group Supervisoror the Helicopter Coordinator mustprioritize requests. Priorities arebased on the incident objectives,directions from Operations, andpersonal observation.

Not all requests for helicopter supportare made throughout the Air TacticalGroup Supervisor or HelicopterCoordinator. Division and GroupSupervisors may make requests tothe Helibase through theCommunications Unit. Operationsmay also schedule helicopter flightsat the Helibase.

National Incident Radio SupportCache radios come with four AirTactical frequencies. that can beused for Air-to-Ground: 166.675,169.150, 169.200, and 170.000.These frequencies must be authorizedby the Communications Unit orDispatcher.

Figure 6.Prioritizing

Requests.

119

Requests for Air Tankers are madeto the Agency Dispatcher on theAgency FM.

Requests for helicopters are madeto the Helibase on Command FM.

The Dispatcher or Helibase shouldprovide an Estimated Time of Arrival(ETA) for aircraft.

Figure 7.Requesting

Aircraft.

120

The Air Tactical Group Supervisormust promptly acknowledge aircraftreporting in 5 minutes out from theincident. A reporting location andaltitude must be give along withan altimeter setting. The locations,altitude, N-number, and type ofother aircraft should also be given.The Lead Plane should be notifiedif an Air Tanker has arrived.

Helicopters arriving at an incidentshould be directed to the helibasefor a briefing from the HelibaseManager. Briefing should include:the number and types of aircraft,frequencies, location of helispots,established traffic routes and a map.

Helicopters departing the Helibaseshould announce their mission onAM Air-to-Air. Generally this is a“blind call” to all incident aircraft.

They should report directly to theAir Tactical Group Supervisor orHelicopter Coordinator if they wererequested by one of them.

AM Air-to-Air is monitored by allpilots on the incident. It must bekept open and available to pilots.Pilots must be able to report theirposition at any time on this frequencyin order to maintain safe separation.All transmissions should be brief.

AM Air-to-Air, on simple incidents,is usually the Secondary AirtankerFrequency for the zone the incidentis in. If there is a conflict withother incidents, the CommunicationsUnite or Dispatcher can provide adiscrete frequency. The PrimaryAirtanker Frequency, 122.925, canbe used temporarily but should bereplaced as soon as possible.

Figure 8.Arriving Aircraft.

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The Air Tactical Group Supervisorand ground personnel are responsiblefor establishing targets. This is doneon FM Tactical frequencies. It mayor may not be possible for the LeadPlane and Air Tanker to effectivelymonitor FM Tactical.

The Air Tactical Group Supervisorrelays target location and type ofdrop to the Lead Plane on AM Air-to-Air. The Lead Plane and Air Tankerdetermine whether or not the dropis safe and the best approach for it.

The Air Tactical Group Supervisoris responsible for ensuring groundpersonnel and other aircraft areclear of the target area.

Figure 9.Air Tanker

Tactics.

122

Helicopters are directed by groundpersonnel on Division Tactical FMfrequencies.

The role of the Air Tactical GroupSupervisor or the HelicopterCoordinator is to facilitate byestablishing communicationsbetween pilots and ground personnel,helping to identify targets, andensuring adequate separationbetween aircraft is maintained.

Figure 10.Helicopter

Tactics.

123

At the completion of retardant drops,the Air Tactical Group Supervisorand ground personnel determinethe need for more retardant. TheAir Tactical Group Supervisor musttell the retardant pilot to load andreturn or hold on the ground. Thedispatcher must also be notifiedby the Air Tactical Group Supervisoror the tanker pilot.

After helicopter missions have beencompleted, the Helibase shouldbe notified the Air Tactical GroupSupervisor, Helicopter Coordinatoror the helicopter pilot.

Figure 11.Tactics

Follow-Up.

124

On complex incidents, Air-to-Airradio traffic will be excessive ifonly one Air-to-Air frequency isused. It should be split into one forfixed-wing and one for helicopters.

The first AM Air-to-Air frequencythat was assigned to the incidentby the dispatcher should be usedfor Fixed-Wing Air-to-Air.

A second AM frequency should beassigned as Helicopter Air-to-Air.This frequency should also be usedfor Helicopter Flight Following. Usingthis frequency for both functionsreduces radio traffic since flightfollowing helicopters can be doneby monitoring this frequency fromthe Helibase. It also maintains therequired number of frequenciesmonitored by helicopter pilots attwo, one AM for Flight Followingand Air-to-Air, and one FM for Tactical.

The following frequencies have beenapproved by the FAA nation wideon a first come first use basis forhelicopter Air-to-Air communications:122.975, 123.025, 123.075, and122.850. These may or may not beavailable and must be authorizedfor use the Agency Dispatcher and/or Communications Unit. If theyare not available for immediateuse, the Agency Dispatcher willbe able to provide an alternativefrequency.

The Primary Airtanker Frequency,122.925, can be used in situationswhere time is critical. This frequencyhas been assigned by the FAA nationwide for use by all natural resourceagencies. It is not used exclusivelyby USDA/USDI aircraft. If thisfrequency is used it should be replacedas soon as possible.

Figure 12.Air-To-Air

on ComplexIncidents

125

AM Air-to-Air should be kept openas much possible so pilots canreport their position at any time tomaintain safe operation.

On simple incidents, pilots are briefedon AM Air-to-Air. On complexincidents a discrete FM frequencyshould be established for briefingpilots.

National Incident Radio SupportCache radios come with fourfrequencies that can be assignedfor his purpose: 166.675, 169.150,169.200, and 170.000. Frequenciesmust be authorized by theCommunications Unit or Dispatcher.

Figure 13.Incident Radio

CommunicationsPlan.

126

The Take-Off and Landing Controller,or TOLC, controls all traffic withinthe Helibase airspace—generallywithin a radius of one or two miles.Helicopters report to the TOLC priorto take-off and before entering theairspace. The TOLC gives clearancefor take-offs and landings, directionfor flights within the airspace, altimetersettings, wind speed and direction,advice on the status of other aircraft,and mission information.

On simple incidents, Take-Off andLanding Control is done on theHelicopter Air-to-Air frequency. Oncomplex incidents, it may be doneon a discrete frequency, either AMor FM. FM is preferred since thepilot’s FM radio is not needed forany other purpose in the Helibaseairspace. Using FM allows pilotsto continue to monitor the AM Air-to-Air frequency. Since militaryhelicopters do not have FM radios,

an AM TOLC is required for theseoperations.

AM frequency 123.050 has beenapproved by the FAA nation wideon a first come first use basis forhelicopter air-to-ground commu-nications. It may or may not beavailable and must be obtained bythe Communications Unit. If it isnot available, the CommunicationUnit should obtain another dis-crete frequency.

A discrete UHF Logistics Frequencyis preferred for Deck communications.This includes communicationsbetween the following: DeckCoordinator, Parking Tenders,Helicopter Managers, PersonnelLoadmasters, Cargo Loadmasters,and the Helibase Command Post.The same frequency may also beused for Helispot communications.

Figure 14.Helibase Tolc

and Deck.

127

Fixed-wing on incidents are flightfollowed by the Air Tactical GroupSupervisor on AM1 or Air-to-Air.This is usually done on the SecondaryAirtanker Frequency assigned tothe zone the incident is in. If thereare frequency conflicts with otherincidents, another frequency shouldbe obtained from the CommunicationsUnit or Dispatcher. 122.925, thePrimary Airtanker Frequency, maybe used temporarily but should bereplaced as soon as possible.

Helicopters and Air Attack are flightfollowed by the Helibase RadioOperator on AM2 Air-to-Air. Thisis done by monitoring position reportsand maintaining a log. If 15 minuteslapse between transmissions, theRadio Operator prompts the pilotfor a position report. If there is noresponse, the rescue plan is activated.

Frequencies available for Helicopterflight following are 122.925, 122.975,122.850, 123.025, and 123.075.122.925 should be avoided sinceit is also the Primary AirtankerFrequency. If there are frequencyconflicts with other incidents, adifferent frequency should be obtainedfrom the Communications Unit.

Helicopter flight following in ruggedterrain requires a repeater. The GroundAircraft Radio/Link Kit (NFES 4370)is designed for this purpose. TheIncident Starter Kit (NFES 4390)includes a Ground Aircraft Radio/Link Kit. If a radio repeater is notavailable, flight following can beaccomplished by using a humanrepeater.

Figure 15.Flight Following

on Incidents.

128

The Helibase must maintaincommunications with Helispotpersonnel. This is done on FMCommand or a UHF Logisticsfrequency. A discrete UHF frequencyis recommended on complex incidentsin order to reduce radio traffic onthe Command channel. A LogisticsRepeater Kit (NFES 4248) is requiredin mountainous terrain.

Communications from Helispot tohelicopters is generally done onthe Division frequency the Helispotis in. Since Military helicopters donot have FM radios, the only meansof communication is with portableAM radios or Logistics radios linkedto AM.

The Air Tactical Group Supervisoror the Helicopter Coordinator mayrelay messages between the Helibaseand Helispots.

Figure 16.Helispot

Communications.

129

NON-RADIO COMMUNICATIONSHelibase Telephone

A telephone at the helibase facilitates theneed for pilots to communicate with their

company. Pilots are required by contract tomake arrangements for service truck drivers,maintenance personnel, and relief pilots. It isalso used by helicopter managers to obtaincontract administration advice from contractingofficers and by helibase managers to obtainservice and advice from agency aviation safetyteams. A telephone also facilitates communicationsbetween the helibase manager, incident dispatcher,air operations director, air support supervisor,air tactical group supervisor, and fixed-wingbase manager. These individuals need tocommunicate daily, especially about personnelassignments and frequency changes. A cellulartelephone should be considered for helibaselocations where there is no access to phonelines.

Fixed-wing Base TelephoneA telephone is needed at the fixed-wing baseto facilitate communications between the fixed-wing manager, local agency dispatcher, andother incident aviation personnel. This phoneshould be temporarily installed for the incident,separate from the fixed base operator’s phonesystem and any public phone systems. A telephoneat the fixed-wing base is especially importantduring demobilization.

ComputersComputer systems, such as the Data General(DG), can be used to complete incident actionplan forms including the air operations summary.Forest Service forms such as the Initial Report,FS-5700-14, can be completed on the DG.Lists of personnel and aircraft and their ordernumbers can also be made; these are particularlyuseful during demobilization. Computer systemsare also very useful for communications withagency aviation officers, dispatchers, and incidentaviation personnel, i.e. the FS-5700-14 canforwarded to agency aviation officers, and airtactical group supervisors can receive incidentaction plans at fixed-wing bases. A computerat the fixed-wing base is particularly useful forforwarding Passenger/Cargo Manifests, (SF-245)forms, to dispatch and coordination centers.

Fax MachinesFax machines can be used to send and receiveany document. They are useful for the samecommunications computers are used for,particularly at fixed-wing bases.