productive and physiological performance of nili...
TRANSCRIPT
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PRODUCTIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF
NILI-RAVI BUFFALOES UNDER VARIOUS HOUSING
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES DURING SUMMER
UMAIR YOUNAS
2002-VA-58
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE
OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES,
LAHORE
2014
-
To
The Controller of Examinations
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Lahore
We, the Supervisory Committee, certify that the contents and form of the thesis,
submitted by Mr. Umair Younas, have been found satisfactory and recommend it to be
processed for evaluation by the External Examiners for the award of degree.
SUPERVISOR _________________________________
PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD ABDULLAH
MEMBER __________________________________
DR. JALEES AHMAD BHATTI
MEMBER __________________________________
PROF. DR. TALAT NASEER PASHA
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In the Name of ALLAH
The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful
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i
DEDICATION
THIS ACHIEVEMENT OF LIFE IS DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS
WHO ALWAYES PRAYED FOR ME, SUPPORTED ME AND INSPIRED ME
TO GO FOR HIGHER IDEALS
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ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of almighty ALLAH, the inspirer of truth. All praise and gratitude is to
almighty “ALLAH” Who provided ease on my way, and gave me will, strength and health to
accomplish this research, who gave me the power to do, the right to observe and mind to think,
judge and analyze.
I bow my head before the HOLY PROPHET (P.B.U.H) who are a light of guidance and
role model for entire mankind.
I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my respected supervisor, Prof. Dr.
Muhammad Abdullah, Eminent Professor, Faculty of Animal Production and Technology,
UVAS whose excellent guidance, constructive criticism, encouragement, learning me
professional and applicable matters of field and moral support that enabled me to develop an
understanding of the subject.
I am grateful to the members of my Supervisory Committee Dr. Jalees Ahmad Bhatti,
Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Prof. Dr. Talat Naseer Pasha,
Vice Chancellor, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore for their patronage,
valuable inputs, encouragement and unabated advice throughout the study period and they gave
moral support that enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject.
Special thanks to “Higher Education Commission of Pakistan” for providing financial
grants through HEC-PhD indigenous scholarship and IRSIP scholarship to understand the latest
research techniques from top ranked and renowned institute University of Florida, USA.
The cooperation of Livestock and Dairy Development Department, Punjab is highly
acknowledged. Thanks to Dr. Tasneem Akhtar (Ex-Chief Research Officers; Buffalo Research
Institute), Dr. Asim Tausif (Veterinary Officer) and Dr. Burhan-e-Azam (Veterinary Officer),
Buffalo Research Institute Pattoki, District Kasur for necessary permission and their personal
interest in the research experiments. Thanks to Dr. Muhammad Junaid, Lecturer (Department of
Dairy Technology, Ravi Campus, Pattoki) for his guidance and moral support throughout study
period.
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Finally, my deepest gratitude towards Syed Sheikh Allaudin Shah Sahab (Late), who has
been my greatest mentor, under the guidance of which I learned to take stand against the difficulties
of life; my father Muhammad Younas (Late) who inspired me always through his hard work and
struggle for my education; Mother, always kind, loving and affectionate to me; my elder brothers,
Shahzad Younas and Shoaib Younas as well as sister Myra Younas, those supported me morally
especially during research work
Love to my niece Fatima Shahzad and nephews Abdullah shoaib, Hamza Shoaib and
Abdul-Rahman and most importantly, thanks to all those hidden hands which constantly raised in
prayers for my success and triumph.
Umair Younas
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION------------------------------------------------------- (i)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ----------------------------------------- (ii)
TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------ (iv)
LIST OF TABLES -------------------------------------------------- (v)
LIST OF FIGURES ----------------------------------------------- (vii)
ABREVIATIONS -------------------------------------------------- (viii)
ABSTRACT -------------------------------------------------------- (ix)
Sr. No. CHAPTERS PAGE No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4
3 EXPERIMENT 1 25
4 EXPERIMENT 2 59
5 EXPERIMENT 3 91
6 EXPERIMENT 4 124
7 SUMMARY 156
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v
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE No. TITLE PAGE No.
3.1 Treatments and Experimental Layout 32
3.2 Ingredients and chemical composition of concentrate ration fed to
lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 32
3.3 Vaccination schedule for lactating Nili-Ravi Buffaloes 32
3.4 Physiological performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes during early
summer 56
3.5 Biochemical constituents and thyroid hormones in Nili-Ravi
buffaloes during early summer 56
3.6 Milk production (lit.) and composition of Nili-Ravi buffaloes
during early summer 57
3.7 Dry matter intake (Kg), water intake (lit.), feeding and water intake
time in Nili-Ravi buffaloes during early summer 57
3.8 Milk production economics in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 58
4.1 Treatments and Experimental Layout 66
4.2 Ingredients and chemical composition of concentrate ration fed to
lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 66
4.3 Vaccination schedule for lactating Nili-Ravi Buffaloes 66
4.4 Physiological performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes during hot dry
summer 88
4.5 Biochemical constituents and thyroid hormones in Nili-Ravi
buffaloes during hot dry summer 88
4.6 Milk production (liter) and milk composition of Nili-Ravi buffaloes
during hot dry summer 89
4.7 Dry matter intake (Kg), water intake (lit.), feeding and water intake
time in Nili-Ravi buffaloes during hot dry summer 89
4.8 Milk production economics in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 90
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5.1 Treatments and Experimental Layout 98
5.2 Ingredients and chemical composition of concentrate ration fed to
lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 98
5.3 Vaccination schedule for lactating Nili-Ravi Buffaloes 98
5.4 Physiological performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes during hot humid
summer 121
5.5 Biochemical constituents and thyroid hormones in Nili-Ravi
buffaloes during hot humid summer 121
5.6 Milk production (lit.) and milk composition of Nili-Ravi buffaloes
during hot humid summer 122
5.7 Dry matter intake (Kg), water intake (lit.), feeding and water intake
time in Nili-Ravi buffaloes during hot humid summer 122
5.8 Milk production economics in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 123
6.1 Treatments and Experimental Layout 131
6.2 Ingredients and chemical composition of concentrate ration fed to
lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 131
6.3 Vaccination schedule for lactating Nili-Ravi Buffaloes 131
6.4 Physiological performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes during late
summer 153
6.5 Biochemical constituents and thyroid hormones in Nili-Ravi
buffaloes during late summer 153
6.6 Milk production (lit.) and milk composition of Nili-Ravi buffaloes
during late summer 154
6.7 Dry matter intake (Kg), water intake (lit.), feeding and water intake
time in Nili-Ravi buffaloes during late summer 154
6.8 Milk production economics in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes 155
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LIST OF FIGURES
TABLE No. TITLE PAGE No.
3.1 Meteorological Indices for the month of March 55
3.2 Meteorological Indices for the month of April 55
4.1 Meteorological Indices for the month of May 87
4.2 Meteorological Indices for the month of June 87
5.1 Meteorological Indices for the month of July 120
5.2 Meteorological Indices for the month of August 120
6.1 Meteorological Indices for the month of September 152
6.2 Meteorological Indices for the month of October 152
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LIST OF ABBEREVIATION
Ad libitum Ad lib. Total mixed ration TMR
Food and Agricultural Organization FAO Heat stress HS
Dry matter intake DMI Relative humidity RH
Temperature humidity index THI Pulse rate PR
Body condition score BCS Standard Error SE
Body weight BW Total digestible nutrients TDN
Thermo-neutral TN Litre Lit.
Crude protein CP Milk production MP
Dry matter DM Nano-gram Ng
Average daily gain ADG Millilitre Ml
Rectal temperature RT Celsius C
Respiration rate RR Milligram mg
Australian Milking Zebu AMZ Total protein TP
Tri-iodothyronine T3 Dry bulb temperature Tdb
Tetra-iodothyronine/Thyroxine T4 Body surface temperature BST
Thermo-neutral zone TNZ Association of Analytical Chemists AOAC
Buffalo Research Institute BRI Completely randomized design CRD
Livestock Experiment Station LES Least significant difference LSD
Wind velocity WV Duncan multiple range test DMRT
G Gram Water intake WI
Foot and mouth vaccine FMV Solid not fat SNF
Microgram µg Minute Min.
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ABSTRACT
Heat stress is a challenging issue for the dairy farmers of Pakistan since the geographical
location of Pakistan is sub-tropic. The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of housing
strategies on the production performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes during period of early (March
and April), mid (hot-dry: May and June; hot-humid: July and August) and late summer
(September and October). The study was carried out at Buffalo Research Institute (BRI),
Livestock Experiment Station (LES), Bhunike, Distt. Kasur, Punjab. Mature lactating
multiparous (3rd
, 4th
, 5th
and 6th
parity) Nili-Ravi buffaloes (n=20) with similar level of milk
production and stage of lactation were selected from the herds maintained at LES, Pattoki.
Buffaloes were divided into four different treatment groups with 5 buffaloes in each group.
Animals were re-randomized after each experiment to balance for milk production and stage of
lactation. Group A was kept under roof shade only; B was given anti-stress product (dry yeast
powder; saccharomyces cerevisiae); C under fans and group D buffaloes kept under showers and
fans, provided with roof shades. During early-summer (Experiment-1) temperature humidity
index (THI) value was recorded as 73.1 and 81.0 during months of March and April,
respectively. Significant (P
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x
value were 85.6 and 87.6 for May and June, respectively. Dry matter intake (DMI; Kg) was
significantly (P
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1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is agriculture based country and the role of livestock cannot be ignored that is
fulfilling the essential needs of human diet and use of large ruminants as animal traction power
in agricultural lands of rural areas. In Pakistan, there are different production systems for cattle
and buffaloes like subsistence small holding, market oriented small holding, rural commercial
farms and peri-urban dairy farms (Afzal and Naqvi, 2004). Livestock is also important for the
conversion of crop residues and agricultural by products in to valuable items like milk, meat,
leather, wool and hair with special focus on buffaloes which are considered to have high
efficiency for conversion of poor quality roughage in to food items (Bilal et al., 2006). Milk
production in Pakistan has increased by 43.8% during past ten years with current value 50,990
(‘000 tons) and buffalo contribution towards total milk production is 61.2% (GOP, 2013-14).
There are two best buffalo breeds in Pakistan, namely Nili-Ravi and Kundi that are
normally inherited in the irrigated areas and alongside rivers with a potential of more than 5000
liters of milk production per lactation (Bilal et al., 2006). About 76.7% buffaloes of Pakistan
belong to Nili-Ravi breed, which is the most popular of buffaloes in Pakistan (Khaliq and
Rahman, 2010)
Among various factors that are affecting buffalo productivity, heat stress is a challenge
for the dairy farmers of Pakistan since the geographical location of Pakistan is in the sub-tropics
(FAO, 2006) as it is situated 23.6 degree above the line of equator between Tropic of Cancer and
Tropic of Capricorn. Therefore, summer season prevail for long duration with high ambient
temperature and relative humidity. Environmental temperature may rise up to 45-50oC in hot dry
conditions and relative humidity above 85% in hot humid conditions which is far above the
comfort or thermo-neutral zone for large ruminants.
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INTRODUCTION
2
The productivity of dairy cows during summer is more than that of buffaloes and
therefore used by farmers to compensate shortage of milk supply (Pasha, 2007). Some
parameters need to be critically identified in hot conditions like rectal temperature which may go
up to 102.5oF; DMI reduced by 10% in hot weather; milk production drops 10% and respiration
rate exceed 80 per minute. Farm animals exposed to increasing level of environmental
temperature, temperature-humidity index (THI) and high rectal temperature were found to be
associated with reduced feed intake that ultimately leads to decrease in milk yield and reduced
efficiency of milk yield (West, 2003).
It was studied that lactating dairy cows begin to suffer the mild heat stress at temperature
humidity Index (THI) of 72; become moderately stressed at THI >80 and severely heat stressed
at THI>90. Heat stress also results in acidosis condition that ultimately leads to reduced cellulose
digestion, laminitis and milk fat depression. West et al. (2003) reported that temperature
humidity index (THI) is most important of all environmental variables that have significant
effect on production of milk (lit.). Similarly, dry matter intake (DMI) is found as most sensitive
to the ambient temperature during summer.
The capacity of buffalo to tolerate heat is low as a consequence of less sweat gland
density that results in reduced sweating ability of buffaloes (Marai and Haeeb, 2010). So,
buffaloes pay sensible level of sweating and open their mouth to exhale by panting under
considerable heat load. Various studies have been conducted so far to evaluate effects of heat
stress among various exotic dairy cattle. Chauhan (2004) reported that high milk yield and feed
intake can be achieved by adapting water shower strategy for lactating buffaloes. Avendano-
Reyes et al. (2006) reported increase milk yield by adapting various housing strategies like
sprinklers, fans and foggers under roof shade during day light hours (Igono et al., 1992) to
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INTRODUCTION
3
minimize stress. Also, the rising trend for feed utilization can be achieved in dairy animals by
changing housing strategies (Kamboj et al., 2000; Davis and Mader 2002; West, 2003) as a
measure to enhance productivity per animal.
The information on capability of Nili-Ravi buffaloes to withstand against heat stress and
its adaptability to the sub-tropical conditions of Pakistan has not documented before. In this
regard, study is designed to understand the relationship of environmental stress with productive,
physiological and behavioral responses in Nili-Ravi buffaloes. This information is likely to help
in suggesting strategies for reducing heat stress in Nili-Ravi buffaloes and also in judging the
appropriate housing management under hot climatic conditions to reduce heat load on buffaloes.
Objectives of study:
To evaluate the productive and physiological performance of lactating Nili-Ravi
buffaloes under moderate hot climatic conditions.
Evaluation of various housing management strategies for lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes
according to hot-dry and hot-humid conditions.
To study the effect of meteorological factors including temperature, humidity and wind
velocity speed on the milk production from lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes.
To evaluate economics of heat stress mitigation systems and strategies
Hypothesis:
Heat stress tends to reduce the milk production (lit.) in lactating buffaloes that
leads to economic burden both at farmer and national level. Various management strategies
might be helpful for minimizing the stress and thermal load on Nili-Ravi buffaloes during hot
dry and hot humid seasons.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Among livestock species, susceptibility to heat stress in water buffalo has been observed
more due to their dark color, sparse coat or hair and inefficient evaporating cooling system due
to their poor sweating ability (Marai and Haeeb, 2010). Jones and Hennessy (2000) described the
two levels of its thresholds that are considered to be the critical Temperature humidity index
(THI); >72 for dairy cattle which do not have shade, at this level milk production starts to
decrease. And >78 for dairy cattle which have shade but at this stage of THI milk production
starts to decrease.
2.1: Productive performance of lactating buffaloes affected by heat stress condition
It was studied the that productive parameters like milk yield and dry matter intake (DMI)
are decreased in heat stressed Murrah buffaloes at temperature humidity index (THI) of 80.3 in
hot dry climate and 83.6 during hot humid climate (Aggarwal and Singh, 2010).
Spiers et al. (2004) housed the multiparous Holstein Frisian cattle (12) in a tie stall
housing system of Missouri-Columbia, and acclimated to thermo-nuetral (TN) conditions. One
group of animals (6) was provided thermo-neutral condition while other group was exposed to
heat stressed condition. It was noted that during heat stress period, the feed intake of lactating
dairy animal’s decreased within 1 day after onset of heat stress, however milk production
decreased 2 day after initiation of heat stress.
Various other workers found that high milk yield and feed intake can be achieved by
providing water cooling showers to lactating buffaloes (Chauhan et al., 1998; Chauhan, 2004).
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
5
Increase intake of dry matter (DM) was observed in Nili-Ravi buffalo calves in association with
rising frequency of washing them, that subsequently resulted into increase average daily weight
gain (ADG; Das et al., 2011).
Increasing environmental temperature and relative humidity resulted in elevated rectal
temperature (RT) above threshold limits that in return decreased the intake of dry matter (DMI)
along with reduction in milk yield and efficiency of milk produced (West, 2003). Ambient
temperature and humidity in summer conditions tends to decrease milk production from 10-35%
below yearly means (St.Pierre, 2003) which is mediated as a consequence of reduced feed intake
(Marai and Haeeb, 2010). Decline in milk yield can be minimized despite high ambient
temperatures by providing cooling phase of not more than 21°C for 3-6 hours during day hours
(Igono et al., 1992). These findings strongly imply that it is necessary to improve the housing
strategies that play critical role to minimize cow’s body temperature during day light hours.
Tapki and Sahin (2006) exposed animals to heat stress consisting of high producing
Holstein Friesian of first parity and low producing Holstein Friesian of first parity in Turkey and
observed that for 3 to 5 months high producing dairy animals suffered more from heat stress and
resulted in decline in milk production because high milk production increases 10% more heat
generation as compared to low milk producing animals.
To measure the milk efficiency in Holstein Friesian in response to heat stress the study
was carried out on 193 dairy cattle in Czech Republic (East Central Europe) during summer.
During the experiment period from May to September, 86 days were observed having THI > 72
while 26 days were observed having THI > 78. The effect of elevated environmental temperature
on milk production showed that the increased environmental temperature, resulted in decreased
the milk production (P
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
6
Rhoads et al. (2009) used Holstein Friesian cattle to determine the effect of heat stress on
animals and their milk production. It was noted that during the period of high temperature the
feed intake of dairy animal’s decreased and this decreased approximately accounts for 35%
decrease in milk production for Holsteins Frisian cows due to change in the post-absorptive
metabolism.
Kendall (2006) studied the effect of shade on milk production from Holstein Friesian in
summer months of New Zealand and divided forty (40) cattle into four equal groups whereas,
two groups were given access to shade while other two did not. The result revealed that in high
producing animals the metabolic heat production was higher due to increased feed intake and
higher rate of metabolic activity. Milk yield was significantly (P0.05) drastically in both groups.
Environmentally controlled chamber station was used in Arizona to measure the effect of
increased rectal temperature on milk production on one hundred (100) multiparous Holstein
cows with the help of eight (8) different trials that were conducted over a period of 3 years.
Zimbelman et al. (2009) concluded that rectal temperature increased during the heat stress period
that resulted in decreased milk production simultaneously. There is negative relationship
between milk production and rectal temperature.
Three groups having equal number of animals were used to measure the effect of heat
stress on milk production on lactating Holstein Frisian, Australian Milking Zebu (AMZ) and
Jersey of similar age and parity in shaded condition of Oman. All the animals were spray cooled
water daily from 9.00 am to 1500 pm during the summer months to prevent the animals from
harsh environment. The milk yield were more in AMZ than Jersey followed by HS during the
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
7
months of summer in Oman, when THI exceeded >92. Although during winter months reverse
was case in same study. Heat stress reduces the milk production in Holstein cows (P
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
8
movement and is a better method for providing the relief of heat load to dairy animals, if
properly installed (Bucklin et al. 1991).
Under heat stress conditions, shade and ventilation proved the efficient and effective tool
in mitigating a heat load problem. Spraying or showering of water in heat stress condition is also
an effective method because it reduces the body temperature of dairy animals and lowers the
pulse and respiration rate of heat stressed animals, and dry matter intake (DMI) is increase as the
consequences of that process (Strickland et al., 1989).
Valtorta et al. (1997) stated that contribution towards milk loss in cattle has been reached
3.3% per annum due to unavailability of roof shade structure. And by the end of 2030, the
average milk production losses for cattle provided no shade structure would rises up from 3.3%
to 4% per annum production. Hence the same losses due to existing climatic condition would
reach up to 6% of annual production in 2070.
It is noted that when air temperature exceeded 86 0F, preference of dairy animals shifted
towards standing position in shaded structure instead of laying down in hot conditions. Dairy
animals engage themselves into some aggressive behavior to get access to the shaded part and
this behavior is especially increased in heat stress period. So importance of shade increases with
increase in the environmental temperature and relative humidity (Schutz et al., 2008).
Provision of proper shade structure may also decrease the negative effects of high
temperature and high humidity as well as direct effect of solar radiation. There is direct
relationship between high environmental temperature and use of shaded structure by lactating
animals. Sprinkling of water provides another useful tool to decrease the respiration rate (60%)
combined with shade and fan ventilation during the period of harsh, hot, and humid season of
heat stress (Kendall et al., 2006).
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
9
Increase yield of milk was noted (0.8kg/head/day) with reduction in the body temperature
of about 1.95°C seen by using sprinklers only and fans, installed in holding pen area (Collier et
al., 2006). The physiological parameters like rectal temperature and DMI can be improved by
doing modification in animal housing like use of shades, barns with enhance ventilation, water
sprinklers and fans (West, 2003).
Milk production can be increased by 2kg/day among lactating cows treated with spray
and ducted air system for 20 min than shaded controls. That is also helpful in maintaining of
body temperature near to the normal (below 39°C; Igono et al., 1987). It was observed that dairy
cows treated with fans and spray systems exhibited less incidence of elevated respiration rate.
However, it is recommended that construction of free stall should be encouraged so to provide
the natural and better means of ventilation beside these types of cooling systems (Armstrong et
al., 1994).
The study conducted in Louisiana reported the advantages of proper air flow and soaking
body surface of dairy cows. It was studied that respiration rate of cows reduced by 65-81% and
body temperature by 46-50% by using shade alone. However, using sprinklers in combination
with fans is better option rather than using shade, sprinklers or fans alone. Similar to this, it was
reported by Floridian researchers that improvement in milk yield achieved by 11.6% when cows
were sprayed for time period of 1.5 min in every 15 min. There was sharp reduction in
respiratory rate of cows i.e. 57 vs. 95 breaths per minute, as well as progress noted in the
production efficiency of kg of milk per kg of dry matter intake in cooled cows.
Das et al. (2011) observed average daily gain (ADG) in Nili Ravi buffalo calves and
found maximum growth (520 g/day) in group that was simply washed with water four times
(8 am, 11 am, 2 pm and 5 pm) a day followed by group with washing frequency three (8 am,
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
10
12 noon and 4 pm; 459 g/day) and two (9 am and 3 pm; 404 g/day) times per day. One of
important essential consideration to minimize the loss of milk yield and reproductive efficiency
is the availability of proper shade for dairy cows in order to protect from direct light and solar
intensity. Total heat load from lactating dairy animals could be reduced by 30-50% using well
designed shade. By doing comparison of dairy lactating cows for shade environment versus no
shade design, it is observed that rectal temperature was reduced from 39.4°C and 38.9°C, milk
yield increase by 10% and respiratory rate was fell from 82 to 54 breaths per minute.
High environmental temperature influences lactating cows. Introductory expense of
change of existing environment demonstrates the fiscal profits and these will build the profits
regarding benefit through expanding milk production strategies. It is critical, however, to
evaluate added revenue versus added costs of environmental changes to assess overall margins
and profitability (Jones and Hennessy, 2000).
2.3: Meteorological factors affecting the physiological performance of buffaloes
Haque et al., (2011) found significant (P
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
11
Herbut and Angrecka (2012) reported that heat stressed animals produced lower quantity
of milk. Therefore, most important challenges of current age is to maintain appropriate level of
air temperature, humidity, air velocity and low contents of gases. Animal comfort and welfare in
turn significantly increases milk production and reproduction.
Collier and Zimbelman (2007) reported the significant relationship of decrease in milk
production when temperature humidity index (THI) increases from 72 to 80 for a period of 4
days. Twelve multiparous Holstein Friesian cattle were housed in tie stall housing system of
Missouri. The cows were divided into two groups, 6 in each group. One group was controlled
group provided thermo-neutral condition while other group was exposed to heat stressed
condition. Cows were provided a temperature (T) of 29oC and Relative Humidity (RH) ~ 50%
for a period of 24 h and six (6) HS cows were used. At 48 h, 4 animals were used for
experimental data and at 96 h, 2 animals were used. In heat stress period, the feed intake of
lactating dairy animals decreased when THI level exceeded above 72. (Spiers et al., 2004).
Data was analyzed from 1987 to 1989 on 185 Holstein Friesian under South African
conditions. It was noted that animals suffered from heat stress severely when THI value was in
between 78 to 82, and cooling by any method is utmost essential to get rid of heal load by the
animal. Animal might die due to heat stress when THI value exceeds 82 (Du-Preez et al. 1991).
By using various cooling methods like fans, sprinklers and foggers, decline in respiration
rate (RR), pulse rate (PR) and rectal temperature (RR; Marai et al., 1995; Davis et al., 2002;
Singh et al., 2005; Aggarwal and Singh, 2008; Rahangdale et al., 2010) can be achieved. It was
observed that rectal temperature (RT) and respiration rate (RR) values were found non-
significant in the early morning among two groups of buffaloes viz. water showering and
wallowing group. However, decline in rectal temperature (RT) was observed as well as in
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
12
respiration rate (RR) in the wallowing group of buffaloes during evening, that significantly
implies that water pond as a source of more comfort to buffaloes than water shower system
similar to the findings of Chikamune (1986).
Taweel et al. (2005) reported the lower peak for milk yield and higher mean body
temperature in a non-shaded group of animals during the day time when twenty lactating
Holstein Frisian cows were studied to determine the effect of heat stress. They reported that
when temperature exceeded thermo-neutral zone of a specific specie of animal then animal have
reduced feed intake and this phenomenon is more pronounce especially in the afternoon.
In a study on heat stress in Murrah buffalo, they found significant changes in respiration
rate (RR), rectal temperature (RT) and skin temperature associated with exposure to sun light
throughout the day. Daily four time washing of Nili-Ravi calves aids in reducing the heat stress
by decreasing the value of pulse rate, respiration rate (RR) as well as rectal temperature (RT)
thereby help in increasing the utilization of feed on average basis and average daily gain (ADG)
under tropical climate (Das et al., 2011).
Fisher et al. (2008) conducted experiment to determine the effect of shade availability on
body temperature in New Zealand in the month of February. The respiration rate and body
temperature of heat stressed animal were higher than from the normal rates. Under some kind of
shade, the mean body temperature was lowered during the warmer part of the day when
compared to non-shaded animals. The peak body temperature was also lowered.
The behavior of low and high producing dairy animals in hot environment showed that
the low producing animals has less frequency of feed intake, water intake and standing, and high
frequency of locomotion, resting and rumination as compared to high producing animals (Tapki
and Sahin, 2006).
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13
Young Murrah buffaloes were found unable to maintain their rectal temperature during
summer season with high ambient temperature and maximum solar radiations. Also, pulmonary
frequency was found increased by 5-6 times. Protruded tongue and excessive salivary secretions
were also noted (Das et al., 1999). Significant reduction of heat stress was obtained with air
speeds of 0.8 to 1.0 m/s that are obtainable with relatively simple and inexpensive ventilation
equipment (Frazzi et al., 2000).
Honig et al. (2012) studied the effect of different cooling system on physiological
parameters in multiparous Israeli Holstein dairy cows during hot climatic condition. He noted
that respiration rates were 49.1vs.54.6 breaths/min in 8 and 5 cooling sessions, respectively and
the rectal temperature were 0.16 vs. 1.08oC lower in 8 cooling sessions than 5 cooling sessions.
The result suggested that the cooling frequencies improve the physiological responses of dairy
cows under hot and humid area.
Increased respiration rate and rectal temperature had direct effect on milk production but
milk fat was not affected by heat stress in lactating animals (Avendano-Reyes, 2010). Andersson
(2009) evaluated the importance of shade for lactating dairy cattle of Sweden Red breed and its
effect on cow’s physiology during hot months. When THI increased above 72, then respiration
rate and body temperature increases. Therefore it might be concluded that respiration rate and the
body temperature were the most valuable indicator of heat stress.
Berman et al. (1985) conducted experiment on 170 Israeli Holstein to determine the
effect of upper critical temperature on high yielding dairy cows under subtropical conditions.
Respiration rate and rectal temperature were recorded from July to March having air temperature
from 10 to 36 0C. Results showed that when air temperature increased above 26
oC then both the
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
14
rectal temperature and respiration rate increased. At high temperature, the respiratory frequency
of Israeli Holstein was raised by 60 breaths/ min.
Cattle drink about 2 to 5 times in a day depending upon the weather condition. The water
intake is maximum when animals come to pasture after milking (Phillips. 1993). Three-fourth of
water intake occurs between 6 am to 7 pm (Cardot et al. 2008). The water and feed should be
provided inside the shade otherwise cattle must choose between staying under shade or drinking
or eating. This behavior may leads to lower water intake and lower feed intake and to a
decreased milk production (Bucklin et al. 1991).
Water intake is affected by different factors; dry matter intake, ambient temperature, milk
production, body weight, lactation number, Na intake and K intake, these all shows positive
correlation to water intake (Meyer et al. 2004). The higher dry matter content in the ration, the
water consumption increases (Phillips. 1993). During hot summer period, water intake increases
compared to winter conditions (Holter and Urban. 1992). Increase in every degree Celsius
increase the water intake of 1.52 kg/day (Meyer et al. 2004). High producing animals have faster
dehydration rate when comparing high and low producing cattle (Maltz et al. 1994).
2.4: Thyroid activity and serum biochemical profile of buffaloes in relation to climatic
stress conditions
Aggarwal and Singh (2010) evaluated the physiological changes in heat stressed Murrah
buffaloes kept under water showers (group 1) and in water pond for wallowing (group 2).
Various hormones were studied like tri-iodothyronine (T3), plasma thyroxine (T4), cortisol and
insulin under hot dry and hot humid environment with THI 80.3 and 83.6, respectively. Plasma
thyroxin (T4) was significantly higher in group 2. However, Plasma T3 level didn’t vary
significantly in same group.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
15
Khurana (1983) reported the that buffalo facing the hot and dry climate were found with
low concentration of plasma thyroxine (T4) i.e. 39.10 ng/ml in buffaloes during the hot-dry
climate as compared to the buffaloes raised in hot humid season, 41.44 ng/ml. Similarly, shower
cooled group were found with rising level of plasma thyroxin (T3).
Calderon et al., (2004) compared two different cooling systems (spray/fan and
evaporative cooling) and found that both systems increased the relief from heat stress and
comfort of Brown Swiss and Holstein cows in dry hot environment. Ronchi et al. (1997) reported
the dairy cattle that were exposed to hot climate were found with decrease level of total
cholesterol, similar to the findings of Shehab-El-Deen et al. (2010) and Gudev et al. (2007).
The lower level of acetic acid in blood plasma (precursor as cholesterol synthesis) in
period of heat stress and elevated synthesis of adrenal steroid as a result of increased activity of
ACTH during these conditions might be the possible reason for lower cholesterol level. These
findings coincide with the results of Lehloenya et al. (2008) and Bruno et al. (2009) in lactating
dairy cows.
Similarly, decrease concentration of glucose in serum of young cross-bred calves during
summer has been reported by Bahga et al., (2009). Rasoli et al., (2004) studied the physiological
changes among Holstein heifers and found depressed thyroid activity in summer condition.
Concentration of T3 and T4 were found significantly (P
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
16
plasma T3 in young Murrah buffalo in thermo-neutral zone (22°C) only. Decrease in plasma T4
concentration (from 5.78 to 4.93 in young and from 4.96 to 3.35 ng/ml in 22° and 45°C,
respectively) was noted as affected by high temperature significantly lower (P0.01) in all groups of dairy animals
(Sreedhar et al., 2013).
Experiment was carried out on 32 Holstein Friesian cows to compare the cooling
management system with an objective to improve the physiological status and lactation
performance in hot weather conditions. The result revealed that the blood glucose level were
higher (P
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
17
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of their water intake. J Dairy Sci. 91: 2257-2264.
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on nutrient utilization and milk production in lactating buffaloes. Buff J. 16: 45-52.
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performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo calves under different washing frequency during hot
summer months in tropics. Trop Anim Hlth Prod. 43: 35–39.
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61(1999): 71-78.
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temperature of steers finished in the summer, Nabraska Beef Report. pp 61–65.
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Beef Report. 57–61.
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on conception in a dairy herd model under South African conditions. Theriogenology. 35;
1039-1049.
FAO. 2006. A report on country pasture/forage resource profiles of Pakistan.
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on the behavior, body temperature and milk production of grazing dairy cows during a
New Zealand summer. New Zealand J Agri Research. 51: 99-105.
Frazzi E, Calamari L, Calegari F, Stefanini L. 2000. Behavior of dairy cows in response to
different barn cooling systems. Ameri Society Agri Engineers. 43(2): 387-394.
GOP. 2013. Economic survey of Pakistan. Economic Advisor Wing, Ministry of Finance
Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Gudev D, Popova-Ralcheva S, Moneva P, Aleksiev T, Peeva T, Ilieva Y, Penchev P. 2007.
Effects of heat stress on some physiological and biochemical parameters in buffaloes.
Italian J Anim Sci. 6(2): 1325-1328.
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Hahn GL. 1985. Management and housing of farm animals in hot environments. In: Yousef,
M.K (ed.). Stress physiology in livestock, volume ii, Ungulates CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida, USA. 151-174.
Haque N, Ludri A, Hossain SA, Ashutosh M. 2011. Alteration of metabolic profiles in young
and adult Murrah buffaloes exposed to acute heat stress. Int J App Sci. 1(1): 23-29.
Henneman HA, Reineke EP, Griffin SA. 1955. The thyroid secretion rate of sheep as affected by
season, age, breed, pregnancy and lactation. J Anim Sci. 14: 419-434.
Herbut P, Angrecka S. 2012. Forming of temperature-humidity index (THI) and milk production
of cows in the free-stall barn during the period of summer heat. Ani Sci Papers and
reports. 30 (4): 363-372.
Holter J, Urban WE. 1992. Water partitioning and intake prediction in dry and lactating Holstein
cows. J Dairy Sci. 75: 1472-1479.
Honig H, Miron J, Lehrer H, Jachoby S, Zinou A, Portnick Y, Moallem U. 2012. Performance
and welfare of high yielding dairy cows subjected to 5 or 8 cooling sessions daily under
hot and humid climate. J Dairy Sci. 95(7): 3736-3742.
Igono MO, Bjotvedt G, Sanford-Crane HT. 1992. Environmental profile and critical temperature
effects on milk production of Holstein cows in desert climate. Int J Biometeorol. 36:77–
87.
Igono MO, Johnson HD, Steevens BJ, Krause GF, Shanklin MD. 1987. Physiological,
productive, and economic benefits of shade, spray, and fan system versus shade for
Holstein cows during summer heat. J Dairy Sci. 70:1069–1079.
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Jones RN, Hennessy KJ. 2000. Climate change impacts in the hunter valley. A risk assessment of
heat stress affecting dairy cattle. CSIRO atmospheric research.
Http://www.dar.csiro.au./publications/jones_2000a.pdf
Kamboj ML, Paul SS, Chawla DS. 2000. Influence of wallowing on efficiency of feed utilization
and reproductive performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers, Annual Report, CIRB-1999-
2000.
Kendall PE, Nielsen PP, Webster JR, Verkerk GA, Littlejohn RP, Matthews IR. 2006. The effect
of providing shade to lactating dairy cows in a temperate climate. Livest. Sci. 103:148-
157.
Khaliq T, Rahman, ZU. 2010. Haematological studies of Nili-Ravi buffaloes injected with
recombinant bovine somatotropin. Pak Vet J. 30: 53-57.
Khurana, ML. 1983. Studies on T3 and T4 of dairy animals as influenced by climate. Ph. D.
Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India.
Lehloenya KV, Krehbiel CR, Mertz KJ, Rehberger TG, Spicer LJ. 2008. Effects of
Propionibacteria and yeast culture fed to steers on nutrient intake and site and extent of
digestion. J Dairy Sci. 91: 653-662.
Maltz E, Silanikove N, Shalit U, Berman A. 1994. Diurnal fluctuations in plasma ions and water
intake of dairy cows as affected by lactation in warm weather. J. Dairy Sci. 2630-2639.
Marai IFM, Haeeb AAM. 2010. Buffalo's biological functions as affected by heat stress—A
review Livest Sci. 127: 89-109.
Marai IFM, Habeeb AA, Daader AH, Yousef HM. 1995. Effects of Egyptian subtropical summer
conditions and the heat-stress alleviation technique of water spray and a diaphoretic on
the growth and physiological functions of Friesian calves. J Arid Enviro. 30: 219-225.
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Meyer U, Everinghoff M, Gadeken D, Flachowsky G. 2004. Investigations on the water intake of
lactating dairy cows. Livest Prod Sci. 90: 117– 121.
Novak P, Vokralova J, Broucek J. 2009. Effects of the stage and number of lactation on milk
yield of dairy cows kept in open barn during high temperatures in summer months. Arch
Tierz. 52(6): 574-586.
Pasha TN. 2007. Comparison between bovine and buffalo milk yield in Pakistan. Ital J Anim Sci.
6(2): 58-66.
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212.
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secretion rate in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Acta veterinarian Academiae Scientiarum,
Hungaricae. 26: 369-375.
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thyroxine and triiodothyronine after thyrotropin releasing hormone in steers. J Anim Sci.
62: 1346-1352.
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wallowing and splashing on body temperature and milk yield in Murrah buffaloes during
summer. In: Proceedings of International Buffalo Congress, vol II, 1–4 February 2010,
New Delhi. 102.
Rasoli A, Nouri M, Khadjeh GH, Rasekh A. 2004. The influences of seasonal variation on
thyroid activity and some biochemical parameters. Ind J Vet Res. 5(2): 1383.
Rhoads ML, Rhoads RP, VanBaale JJ, Collier RJ, Sanders SR, Weber WJ, Crooker BA,
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CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENT 1
PRODUCTIVE AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF NILI-RAVI
BUFFALOES SUBJECTED TO HOT DRY CONDITIONS DURING EARLY
SUMMER U. Younas, M. Abdullah, J. A. Bhatti, T. N. Pasha*
Department of Livestock Production, *Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal
Sciences, Lahore54000, Pakistan
Corresponding author: [email protected]
3.1: INTRODUCTION
Various factors are affecting buffalo productivity. Among them, heat stress is challenging
issue for the dairy farmers of Pakistan. Geographical location of Pakistan is in sub-tropic as it is
situated 23.6 degree above the line of equator between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn. Therefore, summer season prevails for long duration with high ambient temperature
and relative humidity. Environmental temperature may rise up to 45oC in hot dry conditions
(FAO, 2006) and relative humidity above 90% in hot humid conditions which is far above the
comfort zone for high producing lactating animals.
The best milk breeds of buffaloes are essentially of the river type and are mostly confined
to areas where the summer temperature rises above 46 °C and the winter temperature may fall
below 4 °C, in India and Pakistan (Payne, 1990). There are two best buffalo breeds in Pakistan,
Nili-Ravi and Kundi primarily inhabited in the irrigated areas and alongside rivers with the
potential of providing more than 5000 liters of milk production per lactation (Bilal et al., 2006).
Thermo-neutral zone (TNZ) is defined as the range of environmental temperature inside
which dairy animals requires no additional energy to maintain their body temperature. Within the
range of thermo-neutral zone physiological costs are less with maximum productivity (Du Preez
et al. 1990).
mailto:[email protected]
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EXPERIMENT 1
26
Naz and Ahmad (2006) described the climatic conditions of Pakistan defining March and
April as spring season. However, data obtained from Pakistan meteorological department
(Lahore) indicated the maximum THI level of 77 and 85 with maximum temperature (29.3oC and
34.6oC) and humidity (51.3% and 54.6%) in the months of March and April, respectively during
2012. From these findings, it is evident that environmental temperature and humidity are
moderately high that might lead the high producing lactating animals beyond the comfort or
thermo-neutral zone.
West et al. (2003) reported that temperature humidity index (THI) is most important of
all environmental variables that have significant effect on production of milk (lit.). It was studied
that lactating dairy cows begin to suffer the mild heat stress at temperature humidity Index (THI)
of 72; become moderately stressed at THI >80 and severely heat stressed at THI>90. Similarly,
Zimbelman et al. (2009) reported that milk yield of high-yielding dairy cows started to decline at
THI of approximately 68. Heat stress also results in acidosis condition that ultimately leads to
reduced cellulose digestion, laminitis and milk fat depression.
Various authors reported heat stress as major factor affecting animal productivity (Marai
et al., 2002, 2007; Shelton, 2000). Effect of heat stress is aggravated when high relative humidity
is accompanying it (Marai et al., 2002, 2007). Collier and Zimbelman (2007) reported significant
relationship of decrease in milk production when temperature humidity index (THI) increases
from 72 to 80 for a period of 4 days. It is reported that thyroid functioning starts declining in
terms of tri-iodothyronine (T3) in the spring season and continue to decline with its lowest value
in extreme summer in both buffaloes and Friesians (Kamal and Ibrahim 1969).
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EXPERIMENT 1
27
The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of hot dry conditions in early
summer on the productive and physiological performance of Nili-Ravi buffaloes under different
housing and cooling conditions.
3.2: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.2.1: Experimental Site
The research was conducted at Buffalo Research Institute (BRI), Livestock Experiment
Station (LES), Pattoki, Distt. Kasur, Punjab. The experimental station is located in central
irrigated area of Punjab (31o North, 73
o East).
3.2.2: Experimental Treatments
Mature lactating multiparous (3rd
, 4th
, 5th
and 6th
parity) Nili-Ravi buffaloes (n=20) with
similar level of milk production and stage of lactation were selected from the herds maintained at
LES, Pattoki and were raised to observe the effect of heat stress during months of March and
April (early summer). The Nili-Ravi buffaloes were randomly assigned to 4 different groups i.e.,
group A, B, C and D (Table-3.1). Group A buffaloes were taken as control and kept under the
roof shade only. Group B buffaloes were given anti-stress product (10gm, dry yeast powder;
Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Yea-Sacc by Alltech) in their feed, regularly on daily basis. Ceiling
fans were provided to group C buffaloes and Group D buffaloes were given treatment of ceiling
fans as well as showers under roof shade. Group A and B were kept in one shed and group C and
D was kept in another shed. Partition was made for the groups under the same shed so as to
maintain the micro-climate of each respective treatment group. Milk production was similar for
all treatment groups. Silage was offered ad-libitum to meet the maintenance requirements at
11.00 AM daily and was accessible till next morning milking whereas, concentrate was offered
along silage as 1 kg for every 2 liter of milk produced (SMEDA, 2008; Shah, 1994; Table-3.2).
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28
The animals from each group were ear tagged for their identification. Space requirement
for each animal was maintained according to body size of animals as described by Banerjee
(1998). The experiment was conducted in the months of March and April having comparatively
mild environmental conditions for lactating buffaloes. First seven days were taken as adjustment
period followed by 54 days for data recording and sample collection.
3.3: Housing and health condition:
All animals were kept under shade. Provision of fresh drinking water to animals of each
treatment group was made available ad-libitum. Before the start of experiment, all animals were
provided adjustment period of seven days and treatment of internal and external parasites was
done during this period. The vaccination for Black Quarter (BQ) was done according to the
vaccination schedule as recommended by Livestock and Dairy Development (L&DD)
department (GOP, 2010) for large ruminants (Table- 3.3). Each animal was observed daily for
any abnormality and was treated accordingly.
3.4: DATA RECORDING
3.4.1: Meteorological Parameters
A: Environmental Temperature and Relative Humidity
Ambient environmental temperature (oC) and relative humidity (%) was recorded during
peak hours of day (12:00pm to 2:00pm) using hygrometer (Thermo-Hygro; TH-208 B).
B: Wind velocity (WV)
Wind velocity (Km/hour) was determined during peaks hours of day (12:00pm to
2:00pm) with the help of digital anemometer (Intel Smart Sensor; AR-816).
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EXPERIMENT 1
29
C: Temperature Humidity Index (THI)
Temperature humidity index was calculated by collecting data on air temperature and
relative humidity, which was then, calculated using following formula as described by Mader et
al., (2006).
THI = (0.8 × Tdb) + [(RH/100) × (Tdb − 14.4)] + 46.4
Whereas;
THI: Temperature humidity index
RH: Relative humidity
Tdb: Dry bulb temperature
3.4.2: Production parameters
A. Milk Production
Milk production (lit.) was recorded daily in the evening 6:00PM and Morning 6:00AM
following the practice of hand milking.
B. Milk composition
Milk samples were collected in plastic vial from each animal, stored at 4oC and analyzed
for milk composition i.e. total solids (TS%), solids-not-fat (SNF%) and milk fat% by the method
as described by AOAC (1999). The samples were analyzed on fortnightly basis.
C. Dry matter intake (DMI)
Buffaloes in each treatment were fed on maize silage (ad-libitum) and concentrate (1 kg
behind 2 liter of milk production) in morning. The orts were collected next morning for daily
feed intake and dry matter intake was calculated after drying the samples in hot air oven on
weekly basis.
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30
D. Water Intake (lit.)
Water intake (liter) was measured by measuring the initial and final volume of water in
the water trough and subsequently subtracted final value from initial value after 24 hours. The
reading was noted regularly on weekly basis.
E. Body condition scoring (BCS)
A panel of four scientific personnel examined the body characteristics of lactating
buffaloes for determination of body condition score before the start of trial and subsequently at
the end of trial.
3.4.3: Physiological Parameters
A: Pulse rate (PR):
All buffaloes were observed for their pulse rate (PR) in the peak hours of the day
(01:00pm to 02:00pm). Whereas, pulse was taken from the coccygeal artery on the sides of the
ventral part of the tail (Wankar et al., 2014); the hand grasps the tail from the dorsal aspect and
the fingers readily perceived the pulsations.
B: Respiration rate (RR):
Respiration rate (RR) was observed (01:00pm to 02:00pm) in terms of counting the flank
movement, one inward and one outward movement taken as one breath (Das et al. 1999).
Respiration rate was taken for 1 minute.
C: Rectal temperature (RT; oF):
Rectal temperature (RT) of Nili-Ravi buffalos was taken (01:00pm to 02:00pm) by
inserting digital thermometer 2-2.5 inches deep per rectum (Wankar et al., 2014) and RT value
was recorded once it became stable on digital display.
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D: Body surface temperature (BST)
Body surface temperature (BST) of the buffalos was taken (01:00pm to 02:00pm) using
non-contact infrared temperature measuring instrument (Model: Smart Sensor AR 330+) and
pointing laser towards targeted skin part with a distance of 4-5 inches. Middle neck, middle back
and rump site were selected for determination of BST on regular weekly basis.
3.4.4: Serum Biochemical analysis
Blood samples were taken from individual buffalo for the assessment of thyroid functions
by determining thyroid hormones (Tri-iodothyronine, T3; thyroxine, T4) as well as serum bio-
chemical profile including glucose (mg/dl), total proteins (g/dl) and cholesterol (mg/dl). Blood
analysis was conducted in Quality Operation Laboratory (QOL), UVAS, Lahore.
For serum biochemical analysis, blood samples were taken from jugular vein in a sterile
container (20ml) without anti-coagulant. Blood was initially allowed to rest for 2 hours at room
temperature and then centrifugation was done at 750 g for 15 minutes. The supernatant was
separated and stored in freezer at -20oC until use for serological test (Nazifi et al., 2011). Serum
biochemical analyses were conducted for glucose, total protein, cholesterol by using serum
chemistry analyzer.
Similar procedure was followed to determine the level of Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and
thyroxine (T4) using ELISA kits as a measure of thyroid functioning.
3.4.5: Behavioral parameters
Allocation of time for feeding and drinking by buffaloes under different housing
strategies was observed visually by one person in each shed (8am-7pm) on weekly basis.
Feeding time was calculated during 11 hours (8am to 7pm) without extrapolated to 24 hours by
observing how much time is spent on manger by buffalo for feeding only and the same way
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drinking time was calculated by observing water intake by buffalo while standing on water
trough with her mouth inside water.
Table 3.1: Treatments and Experimental Layout
Sr. No. Group No. of animals Description
1. A 5 Buffaloes under roof shades only (control)
2. B 5 Roof shades with anti-stress supplement
3. C 5 Roof shades with ceiling fans
4. D 5 Roof shades with showers and ceiling fans
Table 3.2: Ingredients and chemical composition of concentrate ration fed to lactating Nili-
Ravi buffaloes
Ingredients Inclusion level (%) Maize 8 Cotton Seed cake 22 Rape seed cake 3
Wheat bran 32
Maize gluten 20 Molasses 14
Mineral mixture 1 Crude Protein (CP) % 18.0
TDN 76.0
ME 2.6 M.cal/Kg
Table 3.3: Vaccination schedule for lactating Nili-Ravi Buffaloes
Months Vaccine
February-March Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
April Black Quarter (BQ)
May-June Hemorrhagic Septicemia (HS)
August Anthrax
September-October Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
November-December Hemorrhagic Septicemia (HS)
GOP (2010)
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3.4.6: Economics of milk production
The production cost per liter of milk was calculated for each group at the end of trial. The
cost per liter of milk was calculated by considering feed (silage and concentrate), anti-stress
supplement, electricity and labor cost. These total production costs were subtracted from the
daily milk sale value to give overall economic margins for each group (Table 3.8).
3.5: Statistical analysis
The recorded data were subjected to statistical analysis by using analysis of variance
technique (ANOVA) under completely randomized design (CRD). The difference of means
among treatment groups were determined by using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT; Steel
et al., 1997) for the interpretation of results and plausible conclusions with the help of statistical
software (Statistical packages for social sciences; SPSS).
3.6: RESULTS
The effect of various housing strategies was observed over the period of 2 months i.e.
March and April. The results for meteorological, productive and physiological parameters are as
below.
3.6.1: Meteorological Study
The weather was generally comfortable in the beginning of experiment accompanied by
wind gusts but tends to become harsh towards end of trial as well as declining trend in wind
speed. Data regarding meteorological parameters including temperature (oC), humidity (%),
temperature-humidity index (THI) and wind speed (Km/h) was collected.
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3.6.1.1: Environmental Temperature (oC)
Average temperature during peak hours was found as 27.5oC and 33.9
oC for the months
of March and April, respectively (Fig.3.1 & 3.2). Whereas, overall average temperature during
peak hours of trial was noted as 30.7 oC.
3.6.1.2: Humidity (%)
Average humidity during peak day hours was found as 36% and 38% for the months of
March and April, respectively (Fig.3.1 & 3.2). Whereas, overall average humidity during peak
hours of trial was noted as 37%.
3.6.1.3: Temperature-Humidity Index (THI)
Average temperature-humidity index value was noted as 73.1 and 81.0 in relation to
environmental temperature and humidity during March and April, respectively (Fig.3.1 & 3.2).
However, overall THI value was found as 77 over the course of 2 months trial.
3.6.1.4: Wind Speed (Km/h)
Wind speed was found as little variable component and its average value during peak day
hours was noticed as 8.7(Km/h) and 8.57(Km/h) for the months of March and April, respectively
(Fig.3.1 & 3.2). Overall average value was observed as 8.64 (Km/h) over the course of 2 months
trial.
3.6.2: Production Parameters
3.6.2.1: Dry Matter Intake (DMI; Kg)
The values for dry matter intake level (Kg) were observed and found as 14.3±0.11,
14.5±0.12, 15.6±0.09 and 15.8±0.11 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D (Table 3.7). Non-
significant (P>0.05) differences were observed between group A and B, whereas significant
variation was observed between control group with group C and D. Buffaloes raised under fans
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with or without showers showed higher (P 0.05) differences (Table 3.7).
3.6.2.3: Milk Production (MP; liter):
Daily milk production (liter) was recorded and values were found as 7.97±0.10,
8.07±0.08, 8.14±0.09 and 8.37±0.08 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. Control group A, B
and C were found to have non-significant (P>0.05) differences. Whereas, significant (P
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C (but both higher than A group) whereas group D showed significant (P>0.01) increase in TS%
value over all groups.
3.6.2.5: Body condition Scoring (BCS):
In the start of research trial, the body condition score (BCS) for each treatment group was
kept as 3.1±0.1. At the end of research trial, lactating buffaloes were examined for any change in
their body mass cover and BCS values were found as 2.95±0.09, 3.10±0.10, 3.15±0.06 and
3.15±0.06 for group A, B, C, and D. However, these variations were found as statistically non-
significant (P>0.05).
3.6.3: Body Physiological Parameters
3.6.3.1: Rectal Temperature (RT; oF)
The rectal temperature (Mean ± S.E.) in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes for the treatment
groups A, B, C and D was found as 101.12±0.06, 100.92±0.09, 100.37±0.05 and 100.08±0.07
(Table 3.4). Rectal temperature was higher (P
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3.6.3.3: Respiration Rate (RR)
The mean respiration rate (RR) of animals raised under different housing strategies was
observed and found as 19.0±0.31, 19.9±0.32, 16.8±0.30 and 16.6±0.21 for the treatment groups
A, B, C and D (Table 3.4). The highest RR was observed in control group B buffaloes
supplemented with anti-stress product and lower RR was observed in group C and D animals
treated with fans with or without showers. There was significant difference of anti-stress group
(B) respiration rate with group C and D given housing treatment of fans and showers.
3.6.3.4: Body Surface Temperature (BST)
I) Middle Neck
The mean skin temperature (middle neck) of buffaloes was observed and found as
27.3±0.56, 27.4±0.53, 25.3±0.57 and 24.9±0.57 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D (Table
3.4). The highest (P
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III) Rump
The rump temperature of buffaloes under various housing schemes was observed and
found as 28.8±0.66, 29.1±0.63, 26.3±0.59 and 26.2±0.59 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D.
Non-significant (P>0.05) differences were observed between group A and B, similarly between
group C and D for rump temperature (Table 3.4). Buffaloes raised under fans with or without
showers showed least (P
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(P>0.05) differences were observed between group A and B, whereas group D has highest
(P0.05) differences were observed between group A and B, whereas significant
variation was observed between group C and D. Buffaloes raised under showers showed higher
(P0.05) value
of total protein was observed in group D buffaloes given treatment of showers with fans whereas,
control group A and B showed lower (P>0.05) value.
3.6.4.6: Cholesterol (mg/dl)
The values of cholesterol (mg/dl) in blood were analyzed and values found as
101.6±1.32, 109.0±1.26, 113.9±1.51 and 116.1±0.99. High (P>0.05) value of cholesterol was
observed in group D, intermediate in group C and control group A and B showed lower (P>0.05)
value.
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3.6.5: Behavioral Phenomenon
Nili-Ravi buffalo were observed for their feeding and drinking behavior in terms of time
they allocated for each activity during 8am to 7pm. After 7pm environmental temperature was
observed as quite low making animals more comfortable.
3.6.5.1: Feeding Time (min.)
The mean feeding time (min.) of Nili-Ravi buffaloes was found as 210±2.0, 226.2±2.3,
235±4.5 and 242.5±3.2 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D (Table 3.7). The feeding time was
noted higher (P0.05) drinking time as compared to buffaloes kept
under shade (A and B) which showed high water intake time.
3.6.6: Milk Production Economics
Milk production economics was compared among the buffaloes with different housing
strategies using prevailing variable costs as indicated in Table 3.8. Daily cost of milk production
was higher in treatment group B, C and D as compare to control group. Therefore, cost per liter
of milk production was less for control group (A) and gross margin was higher for control group.
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3.7: DISCUSSION
3.7.1: Production Performance
The values for dry matter intake level were observed and found as 14.3±0.11, 14.5±0.12,
15.6±0.09 and 15.8±0.11 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. Buffaloes raised under showers
showed higher (P
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(1999) reported that climate is the most important factor affecting water intake. Water
consumption increased with the rise of atmospheric temperature.
Daily milk production (liter) was noted and values were found as 7.97±0.10, 8.07±0.08,
8.14±0.09 and 8.35±0.08 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. Control group A, B and C were
found to have non-significant (P>0.05) differences, whereas significant (P
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16.57±0.07. Groups C and D had significantly higher fat while group D was significantly higher
in all milk components. The results are in-line with the study of Habeeb et al. (2000) who
reported that the relatively high total solid (fat, protein and lactose) percentages observed during
February can be ascribed to the favorable conditions of the mild climate and abundance of green
fodder in winter. Various other researchers (Habeeb et al., 1993; 1996 and Yousef et al., 1996)
reported the reduction values in milk constituents at high ambient temperature and high relative
humidity. It was noticed that body condition score was lower for control group (A) although non-
significant variation were recorded. Aggarwal and Upadhyay (2013) stated that exposure to hot
environment for long time may negatively affect the growth.
3.7.2: Physiological Parameters
The rectal temperature (Mean ± S.E.) in lactating Nili-Ravi buffaloes for the treatment
groups A, B, C and D was found as 101.12±0.06, 100.92±0.09, 100.37±0.05 and 100.08±0.07.
Singh et al. (2003) studied the effect of environmental effects on Murrah buffalo physiology and
stated that RT has a positive correlation with environmental temperature. Lowest RT was found
in buffaloes kept under fans and showers. The findings are similar to the results of Igono et al.
(1987) who reported the decline in rectal temperature when spray and fans were used. Similarly,
lower rectal temperatures were reported by Flamenbaum et al. (1995) for a group of Holstein
cows under the cooling system compared to cows that received no cooling. Our findings are
close in-line with the results of Chaiyabutr et al., (1987) and Chikamune, (1986) who reported
that dry air temperature up to 30o C has no adverse effect on rectal temperature.
The mean pulse rate of Nili-Ravi buffaloes was found as 50.6±0.90, 51.9±0.90,
45.3±0.41 and 44.8±0.51 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. Buffaloes showed high PR
kept under roof shades only as compared to lower PR in group treated with fans and showers
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with fans. Our findings are in-line with the Aggarwal and Upadhyay (2013) who stated that
buffaloes showed decrease pulse rate (PR) and respiration rate (RR) when provided cool
environment as compare to cattle. The findings are in accordance with Gaalas (1945) and Blaxter
and Prince (1945) who observed an increase in pulse rate with increase in environmental
temperature. Similarly, higher pulse rate was reported in summer months as compared to lower
in winter months. However, the results are close in line with the Joshi et al. (1982) who reported
that pulse rate increased moderately during exposure to hot environment in buffaloes.
The mean respiration rate (RR) of animals raised under different housing strategies was
observed and found as 19.0±0.31, 19.9±0.32, 16.8±0.30 and 16.6±0.21 for the treatment groups
A, B, C and D. The highest respiration rate was observed in group B and lowest respiration rate
was observed in group D animals treated with fans and showers. The results are in accordance
with the West (2003) who reported that cooled cows had sharply reduced respiratory rate (57
versus 95 breaths/min) probably due to lower energy expenditures for body cooling and Marai
and Haeeb (2010) who reported that RT and RR were found to be significantly higher from
spring to summer and in summer than in winter in Egyptian buffaloes, indicating that the animals
were heat stressed. Verma et al. (2000) stated that rectal temperature (RT) and respiration rate
(RR) are the most sensitive indices of heat tolerance among the physiological reactions studied.
The results are similar to the findings of Lemerle and Goddard (1986) who reported that,
although rectal temperature only increased when THI was greater than 80, the respiration rate
would begin to increase above a THI value of about 73 and would probably increase steeply at
THI values 80.
The highest (P
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animals treated with fans and showers. Similarly, middle back and rump temperature were
highest for buffaloes kept under shade as compared to lower in fans and showers groups. This
might be due to the thickness and the black pigment of the buffalo skin help in absorption of
more heat and leads to disproportionate convective and radioactive heat losses from the
extremities during exposure to solar radiation as reported by Chaiyabutr (1993). Due to high
wind velocity for buffaloes under fans convection process helped to cool off buffaloes. Payne
(1990) suggested that a wind velocity (5-8 km/h) is the optimum for buffaloes. Aggarwal and
Upadhyay (1998) stated that heat loss through skin is more in cattle as compared to buffaloes.
However, in buffaloes respiration is main source of heat loss that might explain why skin
temperature was high for various points for control group (A) buffaloes as there was no suitable
source of convection as well as dark skin and less number of sweat glands make it difficult to
dissipate heat (Marai and Haeeb, 2010).
3.7.3: Serum Bio-chemical Profile:
The blood glucose level was examined for various treatment groups and found as
62.2±0.76, 63.5±0.52, 66.7±0.84 and 70.9±0.89 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. The
results are close in-line with the Kamal et al. (1962) and Shafferi et al. (1981) who noticed
decrease in glucose level under hot conditions and attributed this decrease in blood glucose
mainly to the high respiration rate (RR) which causes the increase utilization of respiratory
muscles. Also, decrease in feed intake also contributes to decrease in glucose.
The values of total protein in blood were analyzed and values found as 6.54±0.09,
6.59±0.07, 6.96±0.12 and 7.36±0.08 for groups B, A, C and D, respectively. The results are close
in-line with the findings of El-Masry and Marai (1991) who reported serum total proteins were
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estimated as 44 g/L in summer and 51 g/L in winter. Yousef (1990) reported the close values of
total proteins in Egyptian buffalo calves as 7.4 and 9.5 g/dl in the same seasons, respectively.
The cholesterol in serum was analyzed and values found as 101.6±1.32, 109.0±1.26,
113.9±1.51 and 116.1±0.99. High (P>0.01) value of cholesterol was observed in group D
whereas, control group A and B showed lower (P>0.05) value. The results of our study are in
accordance with the Verma et al. (2000) who reported the decrease level of cholesterol in
lactating Murrah buffaloes in response to the heat stress. Similarly, other researchers reported the
marked decrease in cholesterol level with the increase of ambient temperature (Shafferi et al.,
(1981) and Abdel-Samee (1987).
The mean±S.E value for tri-iodothyronine (T3) in Nili-Ravi buffaloes was found as
182.9±0.81, 184.9±0.77, 189.2±0.79 and 197.0±0.71 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D.
The T3 level was noted higher (P
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3.7.4: Behavior and Economics
The mean feeding time (min.) of Nili-Ravi buffaloes was found as 210±2.0,
226.2±2.3, 235±4.5 and 242.5±3.2 for the treatment groups A, B, C and D. The results suggested
a significant (P
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facility changes (fans and showers) did not offset marginal costs effectively to implement theses.
Since marginal revenue of shaded group A and group D (fans with showers) was not different
therefore, farmers especially the small scale farmers of rural areas are not required to install
showering system for early summer keeping their affordability in mind. However, providing
animal comfort through showers and fans would be a nicer strategy for commercial farmers and
those who may afford this strategy.
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animals with different techniques. Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig
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Aggarwal A. 2004. Effect of environment on hormones, blood metabolites, milk production and
composition under two sets of management in cows and buffaloes. PhD thesis submitted
to National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana), India.
Aggarwal A, Upadhyay RC. 2013. A book on Heat Stress and Animal Productivity. ISBN 978-
81-322-0878-5. Springer, India.
Aggarwal A, Upadhyay RC. 1998. Studies on evaporative heat loss from skin and pulmonary
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heat challenge. J Anim Sci 79: 1780–1788.
AOAC. 1996. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official Methods of Analysis, 16th
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Ashour G, Omran FI, Yousef MM, Shafie MM. 2007. Effect of thermal environment on water
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(1): 25-33.
Banerjee GC. 1998. A Textbook of Animal Husbandry. 8th Ed, Oxford and IBH Pub.
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Chaiyabutr N, Buranakarl C, Muangcharoen V, Loypetjra P, Pichaicharnarong A. 1987. Effects
of acute heat stress on changes in the rate of liquid flow from the rumen and turnover of
body water of swamp buffalo. J Agril Sci Cambridge. 108: 549–553.
Chikamune T. 1986. Effect of environmental temperature on thermoregulatory responses and
oxygen consumption in swamp buffaloes and Holstein cattle. Buff J. 2: 151-160.
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annual southwest nutrition & management conference
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performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo calves under different washing frequency during hot
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