processus de versants - géosciences montpellier · hillslope evolution diffusion law surface...
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Processus de Processus de versantsversants
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Hillslopes are an important part of the terrestrial landscape.
The Earth's landscape can be thought of as being composed of a mosaic of slope types, ranging from steep mountains and cliffs to almost flat plains.
On most hillslopes large quantities of soiland sediment are moved over time via the mediums of air, water, and ice often underthe direct influence of gravity.
Hillslope Processes
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Hillslope Processes
Fabriques of weak materialsPhysical processes
- heating and cooling cycles- freeze-thaw cycles- Dry – wet cycles …
Chemical processes (weathering)Bioturbation (fauna and flora)
Hillslope transport
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Hillslope Transport
Soil creepShallow sliding
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Surface runoff
Rock falls
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creepDryDry
WetWet
FastFast SlowSlow
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Hillslope Transport
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope Transport
A rock fall consists of one or maybe a few rocks that detach from the high part of a steep slope, dropping and perhaps bouncinga few times as they move very rapidly down slope.
Rock falls are very dangerous because theycan occur without warning, and because the rocks are traveling at high velocity.
You can usually tell where rock falls are common by identifying talus at the base of steep slopes.
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Hillslope Transport
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope TransportRock slide occurs where there is a tilted, pre-existing plane of weakness within a slope which serves as a slide surface for overlying sediment/rock to move downward. Such planes of weakness are either flat sedimentary surfaces (usuallywhere one layer of sediment or sedimentaryrock is in contact with another layer), planes of cleavage (determined by mineral foliation) within metamorphic rocks, or a fracture (faultor joint) within a body of rock. Rock slidescan be massive, occasionally involving an entire mountainside, making them a real hazard in areas where a surface of weakness tilts in the same direction as the surface of the slope. Rock slides can betriggered by earthquakes or by the saturation of a slope with water.
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Hillslope Transport
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Soil creepShallow sliding
Surface runoff
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope TransportAs the name implies, this type of flow contains a variety of particles or fragments, mainly smallto large rock fragments but also trees, animal carcasses, cars and buildings.Debris flows usually contain a high water content which enables them to travel at fairlyhigh velocity for some distance from where theyoriginated. Debris flows tend to follow the pathsof pre-existing stream channels and valleys, but debris flows are much denser than water, sothey can destroy anything in their paths such as houses, bridges, or highways.In volcanically active regions, ash on the slopesof volcanoes can readily mix with water fromrainfall or snowmelt. When this occurs, a low-viscosity debris flow, called by the Indonesianterm lahar, can form and move very rapidly down slope.
before
after
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Hillslope Transport
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope Transport
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Hillslope Transport
This is the slowest type of mass wasting, requiring years of gradualmovement to have a pronounced effect on a slope. Slopes creepdue to the expansion and contraction of surface sediment, and the pull of gravity. The pull of gravity is a constant, but the forces causing expansion and contraction of sediment are not. The presence of water is generally required, but in a desert lackingvegetative ground cover even dry sediment will creep due to dailyheating and cooling of surface sediment grains.
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Hillslope Transport
M. Summerfield, Global Geomophology,1991
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope Transport
Mass movement of soil and regolithaffected by alternate freezing and thawing. Characteristic of saturatedsoils in high latitudes, both within and beyond the permafrost zone. A number of features contribute to active solifluction:• frequent freeze-thaw cycles• saturated soils and regolith, aftersnow melt and heavy rainfall• frost-susceptible materials, withsignificant contents of silt and clay, at least at depth• extensive regolith across a range of slope angles
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Hillslope Transport
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Hillslope Stability
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Hillslope Stability
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Hillslope Stability
Angle of repose
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Hillslope Stability
Every body knows about friction !
Static friction
Sliding friction
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Hillslope Stability
Pore pressure
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Slope Stability Analysis
bτα
wsssb m ρυρυρ )1( −+=h
bρ
fraction of soildepth saturated
volume fraction solids
soliddensity
water densitywet bulk density
αρτ singhbb =
αρσ cosghbb =
bσ
normal stressshear stress
φσμσ tan)()( pbpbb PcPcs −+=−+=
resisting stress
cohesion
pore pressure
internal friction angle
friction
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Slope Stability Analysis
σb
τb
F<1
F>1
F=1sb
C
μ
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Slope Stability Analysish
mh
soil surface
impermeable horizon
water table
αρ cosgmhP wp =
αρυρυφαυρρ
αρφαρρ
τφσ
sin))1((tancos)()/(
sintancos)(
tan)(
wsss
sws
b
wb
b
pb
mmghc
ghghmc
PcF
−+−+
=
−+=
−+=
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Slope Stability Analysis
αφ
αρυφαυρ
αρυρυφαυρρ
tantan
sintancos
00sin))1((
tancos)()/(
==
==−+
−+=
ss
ss
wsss
sws
F
cmm
mghcF
Implication for dry cohesionless soil
F=1 at maximum stable slope
angle of repose = angle of internal friction!
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Slope Stability Analysis
σb
τb
The saturation of soilmaterials increases the weight of slope materials
Saturation of soil materialscan reduce the cohesivebonds between individualsoil particles resulting in the reduction of the internalstrength of the hillslope
The presence of bedding planes in the hillslope material can cause materialabove a particular plane below groundlevel to slide along a surface lubricated by percolating moisture
σb
τb
σb
τb
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Hillslope Transport
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Overland Flow
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Overland Flow
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Overland Flow
Rills Gullies
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Overland Flow
L
Geometric parameters• Length L• Width D• Slope S0
Physical parameters• Mean water velocity V• Water discharge q• Sediment discharge qs• kinematic viscosity ν
• Water thickness h• Basal shear stress τc• Rainfall intensity R• Bedrock rugosity k
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Overland Flow
Dimensionless number
Reynolds number
νDV
forcesviscousforcesinertial .Re ==
Low Re laminar flow - sheetHigh Re turbulent flow – rills & gullies
ghV
forcesnalgravitatioforcesinertialFr ==
Froude number
Fr < 1 subcritical flow – fluvialFr > 1 supercritical flow - torrential
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Hillslope Transport
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock fall
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creep
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Soil Creep
compression index
Total volumetric
strain
Deformationduring primaryconsolidation Effective
creep time
time scaleparameter
Madurapperuma & Puswewala, 2008
Instant and delayed compression
ε
ln t
t’ = t-τc
εc
ln τc
μ*
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Hillslope Evolution
xqPtransportproduction
th s
∂∂
−=−=∂∂
Heimstat et al., 1997
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Hillslope EvolutionProduction
Heimstat et al., 2001
Exposed bedrocksamples
Maximum of soilproduction
aheP −~
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Hillslope EvolutionTransport
Dietrich et al., 2003
Coasta
l Cali
fornia
Alpine hillslope
The flux of sediment isproportional to the hillslopegradient
xhqs ∂∂
−= κ
Diffusivity in units of L2/T
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Hillslope EvolutionDiffusion law
The flux of sediment is proportional to the hillslope gradient x
hqs ∂∂
−= κ
Conservation of mass: an increase or a decrease in the elevation is equal the change in flux per unit length x
qth s
∂∂
−=∂∂
Diffusion law
hyh
xh
th
xh
th
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2
2
2
2
2
∇=⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛∂∂
+∂∂
=∂∂
∂∂
=∂∂
κκ
κ
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Hillslope EvolutionDiffusion law
L
x
h2
2
xh
th
∂∂
=∂∂ κ
Assuming a constant incision rate1. Find the equation associated with the hillslope geometry.2. What is the maximum variation in elevation ?3. Where is the highest slope ?4. Give its expression.
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Hillslope EvolutionDiffusion law
Lachlan Valley, SE Australia
Diffusion model leads to a parabolic elevation profile
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Hillslope EvolutionDiffusion law
Surface runoff
Soil creepShallow sliding
Rock falls
SolifluctionLandslide
Debris flow
Soil creepDiffusion
Slope < 20°
The applicability of the diffusion model to hillslopeevolution depends on both the local slope and the processes acting to move sediment on the hillslope.
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Shoalhaven valley, SE AustraliaAnderson, 1994
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Roering et al., 2001
⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢
⎣
⎡
⎟⎟⎠
⎞⎜⎜⎝
⎛∂∂
−∂∂
−= 211
1
xh
S
xhq
c
s κ
xhqs ∂∂
−= κ
S c
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Roering et al., 2001
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Montgomery & Brandon, 2002
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Montgomery & Brandon, 2002
Alps
Lesser Himalaya
Taiwan
SE Australia
SE Australia
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Hillslope EvolutionNon-linear erosion law
Montgomery & Brandon, 2002
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Hillslope Evolution and Processes
Tectonic activity low highHillslope process diffusion sliding rock fallSediment flux continuous stochastic
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Hillslope Evolution and Processes
Dietrich et al., Nature, 2006