proceedings of the first international conference on environmental research and assessment...

ISBN 973-558-077-2

Edited by

University of BucharestCentre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies

PROCEEDINGS of the First International Conference on Environmental Research and AssessmentBucharest, Romania March 23-27, 2003

ICERA 2003Ars Docendi Publishing House 2003

Proceedings of the First International Conference on Environmental Research and Assessment Bucharest, Romania, March 23-27, 2003

EVALUATION OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMME FOR CHELONIA MYDAS IN SAMANDA COAST: A TWO-YEAR STUDY OF MONITORING ON GREEN SEA TURTLES1kran Yaln, Ph.D. Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Science and Letter Tayfur Skmen Kamps, 31024 Antakya Hatay / TURKEY E-mail: [email protected] Tel: (90-326) 2455803, Fax: (90-326) 2455867 ABSTRACTSamanda, located in southern Turkey, has an importance for green turtles (Chelonia mydas), which is listed under endangered species according to the IUCN, since they construct their nests on the coast, which also is one of the most important three nesting zones out of reported 17 nesting places in the Mediterranean. The coastline in Samanda is approximately 14 km in length and can be examined into three sections; evlik, placed between evlik Port and eyhhzr Shrine (5.5 km), eyhhzr, which is located between eyhhzr Shrine and Asi River mouth (4.1 km), and Meydan, which is between Asi River mouth and Sabca Cape (4.4 km). There is, however, a great need for Chelonia mydas conservation since the area has been contaminated by both solid and liquid wastes, disturbed by predator and human activities, and putting into stress due to illegal sand extraction from the shores. Therefore, a monitoring and conservation plan was implemented in 2001 in order to preserve, at least during the nesting season, the area, where the green turtles build their nests, especially between May and August. Both the years of 2001 and 2002 were the years this plan put into effect with the marking the nests, daily checking the built nests in order to evaluate the conditions of the nests, observing the hatchlings when they move to the sea, and finally examining the nests by digging them in order to see the number of successful eggs and to report unsuccessful trials. The monitoring studies were conducted frequently between July 3rd and September 15th, 2001 and randomly between 15th September and 15th October in 2001 only on eyhhzr beach and a total of 84 tracks were observed, in which seventy-nine of them were found to belong to C. mydas and five of them were from Caretta caretta. Only 20 C. mydas were able to find a suitable place for nesting; 14 of them survived and six nests disappeared due to wind, storm, and coastal erosion. The monitoring studies conducted eyhhzr, evlik and Meydan Beaches daily, two-three days a week and ones a week respectively in 2002, the observations were made between June 28th and September 15th, 2002. A total of 327 tracks were observed, in which 318 of them were found to be related to C. mydas and nine of them were found to be nests belong to C. caretta. Out of these 327 tracks, 118 C. mydas and 7 C. caretta were found to be able to find a suitable place for nesting. It is obvious that the conservation programme implemented here succeeded. However, the monitoring and conservation of green turtles is still insufficient. The notable increase in the nest number of green turtles observed in Samanda may strongly have resulted from this two-year monitoring and conservation study, which reduced the sand extraction and have the local people informed on importance of this species. However, the reason of this increase in success of nest numbers in the area may have resulted from annual wave of the number of green turtles come to Samanda Beach for nesting as well. Because of this reason, the monitoring programme must be continued on in Samanda Beach in 2003 nesting season as well as other years to come.

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ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, 2003 Ars Docendi Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania

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Keywords: Chelonia mydas, Conservation Biology, Samanda Coast INTRODUCTION Chelonia mydas, which is added the endangered species list by IUCN (1988), lives in tropical and subtropical sea water and nesting season the adult female come to coast in order to nesting. Samanda, located in southern Turkey, has an importance for green turtles (C. mydas) since they construct their nests on the coast, which one of the most important three nesting zones out of reported 17 nesting places in the Mediterranean (Baran & Kasparek, 1989; Kasparek et al., 2001). It is reported in various times the problem of Samanda beaches for green turtles. In addition, the nest numbers in a season were reported, yet they generally were far away from the consecutive studies (Yerli ve Demirayak, 1996; Baran ve Kasparek, 1989; Durmu, 1998; Yerli ve Canbolat, 1998; Demirayak, 1999). The problems impact Samanda sea turtles were indicated by these limited studies and it is noticed that the most important problem is to be illegal sand extractions. However, the conservation studies on green turtles in southern Turkey are still insufficient. This study is aimed to present the monitoring plan of Samanda sea turtles in order to increase the nesting and hatching success by contribution of MKU students and the increase the positive results of conservation programme on the nesting and hatching activity of sea turtles through the two-year study. MATERIAL AND METHOD The coastline in Samanda is approximately 14 km in length and can be examined into three sections; evlik, placed between evlik Port and eyhhzr Shrine (5.5 km), eyhhzr, which is located between eyhhzr Shrine and Asi River mouth (4.1 km), and Meydan, which is between Asi River mouth and Sabca Cape (4.4 km). In 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons, the sea turtles were monitored between the beginning of July and mid- September at the eyhhzr Beach. The monitoring programme was concluded by a team of five every morning (05.00-09.00). It must be noted that although all the coasts of Samanda were taken into account for evaluation, only eyhhzr Beach is presented in this study. The female tracks that resulted in successful nesting and unsuccessful nesting trials on the beach were carefully recorded. The places of nests, which were taken into consideration as the distance from sea and vegetation, were recorded and they were marked by horizontal and vertical rods. The nests were checked daily and if there were damaged nests by human and / or other creatures, like dogs, crabs, fox etc., were also noted (Whitmore and Dutton 1985). During the hatching season, the tracks of hatchlings were pursued and the nests that completed their incubation period were dug. The number of eggs, both shells and unopened ones, in the nests were counted and the infertile and undeveloped eggs were noted. In order to dig the nests, in which no track of hatchlings was observed, the incubation period was assumed to be 55 days for 2001 season and 60 days for 2002 season.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A monitoring and conservation plan was implemented in 2001 and in 2002 in order to preserve, at least during the nesting season, the area, where the green turtles build their nests and the hatchlings return back to the sea from, especially between the beginning of July and mid-September. Results and discussion was divided into five subsections as (1) The places of nests in the eyhhzr Beach (2) The number of tracks and nests, (3) The nest success, (4) Hatching success, and (5) The studies for conservation of green turtles; since it provides an easy to follow structure. The places of nests in the eyhhzr Beach The green turtles nests were found to be intense especially near the river mouth in both seasons. The places of the nests were indicated in Figure 1. According to one notable previous study (Yerli and Canbolat, 1998), a couple of warning signboards had already been placed in eyhhzr Beach and the marked area was left as it was. On the other hand, the marked area between these signboards was misunderstood by local residents and they thought that only this area was important for protecting the sea turtles. Moreover, it is observed that this misunderstood area was not preferred by sea turtles because of the fact that this part of the beach was occupied by construction wastes and untreated domestic wastewater of Samanda. At the end of 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons, it must be noted that the important nesting places, where sea turtles primarily preferred, were not only on the marked area but also the places adjacent to the river mouth. In addition, the importance of beaches was announced to Samanda residents by a seminar and presented that all beaches around should be protected. The number of tracks and nests In 2001 season, only on the eyhhzr Beach, totally 84 tracks were observed, in which seventy-nine of them were related to C. mydas and five of them were related to C. caretta. Only 20 C. mydas were able to find a suitable place for nesting; 14 of them were found to survive and six nests disappeared due to natural factors, such as wind, storm, and coastal erosion. In 2002 season, throughout all beaches of Samanda coast total 327 tracks were observed, in which 318 of them were found to be related to C. mydas and 164 of them were on eyhhzr Beach. It was observed that a total of 92 green turtles nested in this beach. Yerli and Canbolat (1998) indicated that the nesting success was 35 % in 1998 nesting season in Samanda Beaches. In this study, the nesting successes were calculated as 20 % and 36% in 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons, respectively. As seen in Figure 2, the increased nesting success in 2002 nesting season may have resulted from one of the two reasons or both; the annual wave of nesting activity of green turtles in Samanda and/or the conservation studies in this area. During the second nesting season studied, the team recording the data on the beach gave some useful information to the local residents about the

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protection of beach for green turtles at the same time. Besides a seminar were conducted in Samanda and the people were informed on this subject.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. The maps show the nesting places of the eyhhzr Beach (a) in 2001 and (b) in 2002 nesting seasons.

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100 80 60 40 20 0

Percent

2001 2002

Tracks with nests

Tracks without nests

Figure 2. The percentage of tracks with nest and without nests in 2001 and 2002. The nest success 6 nests in 2001 nesting season and 14 nests in 2002 nesting season were disappeared by heavy storm and erosion, 4 nests were impacted by flood and all the eggs in these four nests were damaged at various developing stages, most of which were already hatched. Figure 3 exhibits the nest success of green turtles in 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons. It can be seen that the nesting success in the second year (80.4 %) was found to be larger than that in the first year (70.0 %). Although it was observed that the rain and storm events in 2002 nesting season were stronger than those in 2001 nesting season, the percentage of lost nests in 2002 season was computed to be less than that in the first year. Despite the fact that the research team tried to move some nests to protect from erosion, the number of researchers in the team were insufficient to transfer all nests that were under threat. However, the effort was found to be successful since the number of succeeded nests in 2002 exceeded the number of succeeded nests in 2001.100 Percent 80 60 40 20 0 Succeeded nests Lost nests

2001 2002

Figure 3. The percentage of succeeded and lost nests in two years.

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Hatching success In natural conditions, the total, undeveloped and infertile egg numbers and the number of hatchling and dead ones for 2001 and 2002 nesting seasons are given in Table 1 and 2, respectively. The percentages of hatchling alive, hatchling dead, undeveloped and infertile in two years were compared with SPSS paired sample test and no statistical difference was found between the two-year percentages (P>0.05). In this study, it was assumed that the hatchling alive indicates just only the ones that leave the nest living; otherwise, one mustnt think that the hatchlings, indicated in Table 1 and 2, survived by reaching the sea.

Table 1. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on eyhhzr Beach of Samanda in 2001 nesting season Number of nests Total egg number Hatchlings alive Hatchlings dead Undeveloped Infertile 14 14 6 13 8 Total egg number 1772 1503 14 212 44 Mean SD %

126.57 33.52 107.35 31.90 2.33 16.31 4.89 1. 96 15.33 7.41 84.82 0.79 11.96 2.48

Table 2. Observed natural hatching success and survival of green turtles on eyhhzr Beach of Samanda in 2002 nesting season Number of nests Total egg number Hatchlings alive Hatchlings dead Undeveloped Infertile 78 74 12 65 70 Total egg number 9494 7852 82 1012 548 Mean 121.7 106.1 6.83 15,6 7.8 SD 23.9 30.07 10.11 34.52 10.23 82.70 0.86 10.66 5.77 %

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The studies for conservation of green turtles The following should be adopted in order to efficiently protect green turtles. These given applications could be adjusted by other communities when a conservation programme is considered to be implemented. 1. Direct protection: The adult and baby turtles (hatchlings) monitor and protect from people on the field as soon as possible. 2. Informing local residents: The research team on the field informed the fishermen and people walking on the beach. Two seminars and two radio speaks were conducted for giving the related information to the people. Posters, T-shirts were used to attract peoples attention on the sea turtles. The financial support for these activities was provided by MKU. MKU also printed brochures, which include some knowledge about sea turtles, and these brochures can be used in the coming seasons. On the Samanda Beach, which is one of the most important nesting areas of green turtles in Mediterranean Sea, the knowledge of nesting of the green turtle in Samanda compiled by Kasparek et al. (2001) noted as 33 nests in 1988 in the work of Baran and Kasparek (1989); as 126 nests in 1994 study of Durmu (1998); a number which is recorded as a lower number than Durmu study on the nests conducted by Yerli and Demirayak (1996); 44 nests in 1998 study of Yerli and Canbolat (1998); and 21 nests noted in his 1999 dated work of Demirayak (1999). While the number of nests decrease until 2001 season, in 2002 nesting season, the observation on the increased nest number evidences the success of two-year monitoring and conservation programme. It is more to expect in years to come since the success reached in past two years is still not perfectly as expected in terms of neither conservational efforts nor obtained results. Both collection of biological and environmental data on the green turtles in the area and supplementation of informational resources on green turtles to the local residents and therefore made the efforts as effective as they can be would be the future aims of the research group working on green turtles in Samanda. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During 2001 and 2002 studies, I would like to thank the research team of Mustafa Kemal University; namely: Bekta Snmez, Samim Kayk, Mnteha Saaltc, Hseyin Doru, Murat Api, enay Korkmaz, Aynur Grn, Feryal zkayalar, Cem llenolu, Ezgi Erken, Hasan zgr, Zafer Kele, Elif Enl, sa Deirmenci, Onur Kse, Murat Api, Seluk Yetkin, Evrim Yldz, Merih Kara. Thanks to the governor of Hatay, administrative district of Samanda, Prof. Dr. Haluk pek, president of Mustafa Kemal University, Prof. Dr. Miktat Doanlar of MKU for supporting a part of 2001 monitoring project. Thanks to Dr. Yakup Kaska for many of his stimulating advices. I also thank to Monica Aureggi from RACS/PA

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for supplying technical support to the research team during a month in 2002 nesting season. I am indebted to Trkiye evre Koruma Dernei and to Hatay evre Koruma Dernei for their support to the 2002 monitoring studies and to Mustafa Kemal University since they supplied the posters, brochures, and Tshirts. REFERENCES Baran, . and Kasparek, M. (1989). Marine Turtles in Turkey. Status survey 1988 and recommendation for conservation and management. Hiedelberg 1989. 123pp. Demirayak, habitat in Standing Wildlife and F. 1999. The status of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, nesting Kazanl. Medasset, Report submitted to the 19th Meeting of the Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of European Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). Strasbourg.

Durmu, H. S. (1998). An investigation on biology and ecology of the sea turtle population on Kazanl and Samanda beaches. Ph.D. Dissertation. Dokuz Eyll University. zmir. Kasparek M., Godley B.J. and Broderick A.C. 2001. Nesting of the Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas, in the Mediterranean: a review of status and conservation needs, Zoology in the Middle East 24, 45-74. IUCN, 1988. IUCN on sea turtle conservation. Amphibia- Reptilia, 9; 325-327. Whitmore C. and Dutton P.H., 1985. Infertility, Embryonic Mortality and Nest Site Selection in Leatherback and Green Sea Turtles in Suriname, Biological Conservation, 34, 251 - 272. Yerli S. and Canbolat A.F., 1998. Dou Akdeniz Blgesindeki Deniz Kaplumbaalarnn Korunmasna Ynelik Ynetim Plan lkeleri, BKGM, Yayn, Ankara, 88 pp. Yerli, S. V. and Demirayak, F. 1996. An overview on the sea turtles in Turkey and their nesting beaches in 1995. DHKD. Rapor No:96/4 129 pp. (in Turkish).

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A STRATEGY FOR CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED MEDICINAL FLORA1Naela Costic, Mihai Costic Alexandru Ioan Cuza University - Iai Faculty of Biology, Department of Plant Biology, 20A, Carol Avenue, Iai, 6600, Romania, e-mail: [email protected] Corona Foundation, 71A, D. Mangeron Avenue, Iai 6600, Romania, P.O. 10, O.B. 2015, e-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACTThe general objective of the proposed strategy regarding conservation of medicinal plant is the development of responsibility and the awareness increase of rural community concerning the conservation and utilisation of the resources of local medicinal flora according to environmental European policies and the assurance of sustainable use by the local community. As steps for implementation of this strategy we propose: 1. Development of concepts and encouragement of attitudes and behaviours needed for achievement of an effective medicinal plant conservation; 2. Supervision of implementing the community acquis within local activities regarding conservation and capitalisation of medicinal flora; 3. Setting up a local qualified structure of trainers in order to assure a permanent training of the community who will obtain the necessary skills in the field of conservation and capitalisation the medicinal flora; 4. Training of the rural community in order to provide input and proposal of legislative solutions concerning the conservation of medicinal plants. Arguments for this strategy are international conventions and programs, national reports, plans of action and programs concerning bio-diversity protection, state of wild flora and analyses of medicinal flora in Romania, abroad reports about the experience and examples in the field of conservation and education.

Keywords: conservation biology, medicinal flora, Romania, threatened flora INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND PROGRAMS Biodiversity Convention: Article 10 Protect and encourage traditional users of biological resources that are compatible with conservation; Article 12 (b) Establish and support programs for biodiversity education and training; Article 13 (a) Promote and encourage understanding of biodiversity conservation; (b) Co-operate internationally in biodiversity education and public awareness programs [2]. Convention on Environment Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention): objective To promote international co-operation impact assessment (EIA), especially in a transboundary context. Convention on Access to Information (Aarhus Convention): Article 6 Public participation in decision on specific activities; Article 7 Public participation concerning plans, programs and policies relating to the environment; Article 8 Public participation during the preparation of executive regulation and/or general applicable legally binding normative instruments. Regular Report on Romanias Progress towards Accession, Commission of the European Communities (2001): Chapter 22 Environment Romania still has a long way to go before being in line with the acquis in the field of environment policies1


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(). The development of the administrative capacity in 2001 has led to increase uncertainty about Romanias enforcement capacities in this sector. (). The staff allocations for policy implementation have been reduced and the self financing mechanism set up last year has only generated one quarter of the expected revenues. Co - ordination at regional level is non-existent At the national level, the budget devoted to environmental protection is insufficient, and the Environment Fund is unlikely to be operational in the short term. Romania should make the environment one of its priorities for accession and considerable investments need to be secured, also on medium-term, to ensure implementation of the environmental acquis. pp.82 Romania is still some way from complying with EC requirements in particular with the legislation on environmental impact assessments [12] NATIONAL PROGRAMS AND STRATEGIES National Program for the Adoption the Acquis (NPAA), 2001 There is still no realistic plan for financing investments and the weakness of the environment administration raises serious question as the capacity to enforce recently passed legislation [12]. National Plan of Action for Environment Protection general principles: pp. 13: Conservation and improvement of life conditions of the people, sustainable development, () conservation of the biodiversity, () stimulation of activities to bring to normal the environment; priorities of action: (2) Maintain and improve the existing potential of nature corresponding to the principle of sustainable development. (4) Respecting the international conventions concerning the environment protection [11]. National Strategy of Environmental Protection (2000-2004) objective: Develop a permanent action of public implication and non - governmental organisations in the domain of environmental protection Condition of Environment in Romania - State of natural habitats, of wild flora and fauna (2000): 210 t medicinal plants from wild flora were traded and the export registered an increase in 2000 compared with 1999 from 2,352,794 Kg to 9,723,738 Kg medicinal plants [11]. THREATENED MEDICINAL FLORA IN ROMANIA [9]Abies alba endangered; Acorus calamus endangered; Angelica archangelica rare; Arctostaphyllos uva-urs vulnerable; Arnica montana rare, vulnerable; Asphodeline lutea - rare; Betula nana vulnerable; B. humilis endangered; Convolvulus persicus rare; Crocus flavus vulnerable; Cypripidium calceolus rare, vulnerable; Dactylorhiza maculata rare; Daphne blagayana vulnerable, rare; D.cneorum - vulnerable, rare; Dianthus callizonus rare; Dictamnus albus - vulnerable, rare; Drosera rotundifolia rare; Ephaedra dystachia rare; Fragaria moschata insufficiently known; Fritillaria meleagris - vulnerable, rare; Fritilaria orientalis vulnerable, rare; Gentiana lutea - vulnerable, rare; Gentiana punctata rare; Hepatica transsilvanica endemic; Jasminum fruticans rare; Juniperus sabina - vulnerable, rare;

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Larix decidua rare; Leontopodium alpinum - vulnerable, rare; Lycopodium clavatum threatened; Lycopodium annotinum threatened; Silene nivalis -vulnerable, rare; Menianthes trifoliata rare; Merendera sobolifera - vulnerable, rare; Muscari racemosum ssp. neglectum rare; Narcisus poeticus ssp. radiiflorus vulnerable, rare; Oxycoccus palustris rare; Paeonia officinalis cultivated; P. tenuifolia - vulnerable, rare; P.peregrina vulnerable, rare;

Paliurus spina-christi - vulnerable, rare; Periploca graeca rare; Pinus sylvestris rare; Platanthera bifolia - rare, Polemonium caeruleum rare; Plumbago europaea rare; Primula elatior rare; Pulsatilla grandis rare; Syringa josikaea - vulnerable, rare; Taxus baccata - vulnerable, rare; Thymus serpyllum insufficiently known; Trapa natans vulnerable; Trollius europaeus rare; Tamus communis rare;

REPORTS ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE ABROAD AND EXAMPLES IN THE FIELD OF CONSERVATION AND EDUCATION How many medicinal plants are threatened with extinction?: There are circa 270,000 species of higher plants. Approximately 28% are used in ethnomedicine. At least 36,000 (13,3%) plant species are threatened. The equation is 270,000 higher plants x 28% medicinal x 13,3% at threat = at least 10,000 threatened medicinal plants species [8]. Europes Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Their Use, Trade and Conservation by Dr. Dagmar Lange: The report recommendation for the conservation of Europes medicinal and aromatic plants, including enhanced trade monitoring, improved legislation and enforcement, enhanced cultivation efforts and public awareness activities in Herbal renaissance threatens Europes medicinal and aromatic plants [7]. Local people and medicinal plants: The Chiang Mai Declaration of the 1988 WHO/IUCN/WWF Conference on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants to encourage projects in which plants are farmed by indigenous people near to their habitats [10]. Report looks into health of medicinal plants: A November 1996 report by consultants McAlpine, Thorpe and Warrier lists 25 major threatened medicinal plants. For example, the European species include Arnica (Arnica montana). They call for the development of cultivation systems for threatened medicinal plants, In many instances wild-collected material may be cheaper and so undermine efforts to cultivate, as is the case with Arnica [1]. A remedy for medicinal plants: Conservationists should embrace the idea of growing medicinal plants for conservation and development [3]. Is it using the medicinal plants compatible with conservation?: It is often suggested that the best way to conserve medicinal plants is to cultivate them, and so take pressure off wild population [5].

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Medicinal Plants: World Bank interest: The cultivation of medicinal plants can form an important livelihood for rural people as well as taking pressure off dwindling wild stocks [6]. Science, Religion and the Environment: Image, combining the knowledge and wisdom of science with sensitivity and spirituality of diverse religions to create a new and effective ethnic of caring for nature [4]. THE PROPOSED STRATEGY OF CONSERVATION OF THE THREATENED MEDICINAL FLORA could concretise through following activities: Organisation of theoretical modules of education per social professional and age categories for assuring an appropriate level of information according to EU requests and necessary to increase responsibility in using resources of local medicinal flora. It will be considered that the perception of educational messages varies from group to group, from age to age, from professional category to professional category. Therefore the objectives of educational modules will be carried out by the appropriate methods with an emphasis on practical and formative aspects for children, the scientific and methodological aspects for intellectuals and applicable and capitalisation aspects for peasants. Organisation of practical modules of instruction for demonstrating the principles of ecological harvesting, according to scientific criteria, of vegetative and/or reproductive organs of medicinal plants and their correct processing for commercialisation. Realisation of models of action by setting and keeping up the nurseries for cultivation of threatened species of medicinal plants. It is expected that, after participation in these practical exercises, a number of people of the local community will have private initiatives for cultivation some threatened species of medicinal plants. Setting up a Centre of Primary Consulting for problems of medicinal plants by assuring the financial basis and qualified persons for the functioning of the Centre in order to permit the development of conservation actions after the end of the project. Organisation of meetings and also talk shows for offering an appropriate background in finding new ideas for attracting investments in this field of activity, for improving the environment legislation and for proposing the measures of its effective implementation. REFERENCES 1. Gagmar Lange, 1997 - Report looks into health of medicinal plants, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 9: 12 2. Hugh Synge, 1995 - The Biodiversity Convention Explained, Plant Talk Plant Conservation World Wide, 1: 14 15, 3: 26 - 28 3. Hugh Synge, 1977 - A remedy for medicinal plants, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 10: 3

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4. Hugh Synge, 1998 - Science, Religion and the Environment, Plant Talk Plant Conservation World Wide, 12: 3. 5. Jennie Wood, Sheldon Michael Balick, Sarah Laird, 1998 - Is using medicinal plants compatible with conservation ?, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 13: 29 3 6. John, Lambert 1997- Medicinal Plants: World Bank interest, Plant Talk Plant Conservation World Wide, 10: 11. 7. Kelso Jo Bobbie, 1998 - Herbal renaissance threatens Europes medicinal and aromatic plants, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 4: 12 8. Leaman J.Danna, 1998 - How many medicinal plants are threatened with extinction?, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 14: 4. 9. Oltean M., Negrean G., Popescu A., Roman N., Dihoru G., Sanda V., Mihilescu S., 1994 Lista roie a plantelor superioare din Romnia. Studii, Sinteze, Documentaii de Ecologie. Academia Romn Institutul de Biologie. 10. Patrick O Harra, 1996 - Local people and medicinal plants, Plant Talk - Plant Conservation World Wide, 5: 5 6 11. xxxx Planul Naional de Aciune pentru Protecia Mediului Ministerul Apelor i Proteciei Mediului: Starea habitatelor naturale, a florei i faunei slbatice; Strategia proteciei mediului n Romnia; Aciuni strategie privind conservarea naturii 12. xxxxx Regular Report on Romanias Progress Towards Accession, 2001 Commission of the European Communities, Brussels

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GLOBAL WARMING AND THE DANGER OF EXTINCTION OF THE GREEK WETLANDS: THE CASE OF THE RAMSAR SITE ALYKI KITROUS1Efstratios Doukakis National Technical University of Athens, School of Surveying Engineering University Campus, 9 Hiroon Polytechniou Str., 157 80 Zografos Tel: 010-7722707, Fax: 010-7722670, email: [email protected] ABSTRACTCoastal and marine ecosystems support diverse and important human activities and demands on their resources are rapidly increasing. Therefore, coastal areas become more developed and the vulnerability of human settlements to erosion and flooding events also increases. Coastal and marine environments are intrinsically linked to climate in many ways. The ocean is an important distributor of the planets heat and this distribution could be strongly influenced by changes in global climate through the 21st century. Sea level rise is projected to accelerate during the present century, with dramatic impacts on low-lying regions where subsidence and erosion problems already exist. Coastal erosion is a widespread phenomenon in many countries and has significant impacts on undeveloped shorelines as well as on coastal development and infrastructure. A relative small (1400 ha) but significant wetland is Alyki Kitrous in northern Greece. It is one of the most important Ramsar sites with extensive salt marshes and a small shallow lagoon with a welldeveloped dune system on the east side. The Alyki Kitrous belongs to the Thermaikos gulf, which is a well-known subsiding area of about 40 cm/century. Working on a digitized 3d map, all models affecting the shoreline setback are taken into account. Choosing the 10 M as the depth of closure and the pessimistic IPCC scenario for sea level rise, the future shoreline could be estimated. The results demand no doubt that if the scenarios will be eventually emerged, then this important area will be lost for good.

Keywords: Alyki Kitrous, global warming, Greece, wetlands, GIS 1. INTRODUCTION Marine environments are intrinsically linked to climate all time scales. Tides, currents, precipitation, sea surface temperature, sea level changes and freshwater runoff, all influence and shape the biological and geophysical nature of coastal landforms and ecosystems. Covering more than 70% of the Earths surface, the water sphere plays a critical and decisive role in the climate system. It is the major receiver and distributor of the incoming solar radiation, with major ocean currents moving heat energy polewards from the equator. The seawater is also one of the largest reservoirs of carbon in the biochemical system absorbing one third of the anthropogenic emissions. Temperature, atmospheric storms, ocean currents, fresh water inputs from land and sea level variations have severe consequences on coastal areas and marine resources and because of interaction between the above forces, a region will experience the consequences of multiple climate forces. Most of the sea level change observed over the last hundred thousand years is accounted for by two major variables: the thermal expansion (steric effects) and the amount of water locked in glaciers and ice sheets. With regard to thermal expansion, given an equal mass the total volume decreases when ocean temperatures drop and1 ISBN: 973-558-077-2: print, on-line, CD-ROM, 2003 Ars Docendi Publishing House, Bucharest, Romania

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expands when temperatures increase. As for the amount of water locked in glaciers and ice sheets, it has enough mass to raise global sea level by approximately 80 m [6]. A thinning of glaciers in many parts of the world (Alps, Alaska, Andes etc.) has been observed [8]. Nevertheless, it is difficult to estimate the contribution of melting of glaciers and ice sheets to sea level rise (SLR) over the 21st century. Additionally, activities such as groundwater pumping, deforestation, storage of water behind dams and losses of water due to infiltration beneath impoundments can contribute 8cm/century for SLR [7]. One should not also forget the relative or local sea level change, that is, the amount by which the land subsides or lifts due to geophysical or anthropogenic reasons. Generally, sea level refers to the average water level over the course of 18.6 years period. Over geological time scales however, sea level has fluctuated greatly. During the Cretaneous period (100 million years ago) sea level was as much as 350 m above present level, corresponding with an ocean between 10 and 150 C warmer than todays and a warmer atmosphere with little or no land locked ice [6]. During glacial periods, sea level has been as much as 120 m lower than current levels, whereas during the warmer interglacial periods, sea level has been as much as 6 m higher than present. Averagely speaking, global sea level has been gradually rising since the conclusion of the last ice age (15.000 years ago). During the last century, sea level rise has occurred at a rate of 10 to 20 cm/century [8]. For the last decade, SLR impact assessments have generally followed a convention of considering the impacts of a one-meter in sea level due to global warming. The consideration of worst case scenarios is important for some types of risk assessment, where events with small probability but higher impact may have a great impact on defining the most rational course of action. The General Circulation Models (GSM) do provide credible estimates of SLR due to thermal expansion, glacial melt and historic rates of sea level change, including regional variability in eustatic sea level resulting from oceanographic and atmospheric conditions. However, these outputs need to be adjusted for regional land movements before effective assessments can be performed. One approach to addressing regional differences in sea level change is to obtain the difference between global average relative sea level rise and regional estimates of sea level change to estimate local subsidence. This subsidence can then be added to the model projection of SLR as predicted by GSM model output. Most studies conducted on SLR estimates yield average total SLR of approximate 50 cm above current level by the year 2100 [10]. It is also generally agreed that SLR will continue to accelerate beyond 2100, as a result of the long time frame necessary for oceans and ice sheets to approach equilibrium. Finally, the rate of SLR may be as important as the absolute rise for some key natural processes, such as the ability of wetlands to keep pace with sea level change. 2. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COASTAL WETLANDS Globally speaking, few environments on the planet are as biologically diverse and productive as those found in coastal areas. Most of these systems have already been moderately to severely affected by anthropogenic activities and the additive effect of climate change will further intensify the impacts on the function and biodiversity of coastal ecosystems. Since these systems provide substantial goods and services to both human welfare and planetary processes as a whole, their continuous ability to function is crucial. Natural systems, like wetlands, can provide flood control, storm19


protection and waste recycling having a tremendous economical and environmental value. Coastal erosion is already a widespread problem in Greece and elsewhere. Generally, the highest risk areas are those currently experiencing rapid erosion rates and very low relief. Sea level rise is one of the most significant threats to shoreline systems, by increasing the vulnerability of developed shorelines and floodplains through the elevation of the baseline water level for extreme storms and coastal flooding events. In general, most unaltered and naturally functioning shorelines are capable of adapting or responding to SLR, storm surges, wave impacts and other climate related phenomena. If a one meter rise in sea level occurs during this century (the worst case IPCC scenario), thousands of square kilometers could be lost, particularly in low-lying and subsiding areas. Rising sea level will also increase storm surge flooding both as a result of the higher water level and because of SLR-induced erosion of landforms. Some areas will experience dramatic changes, going from no flooding to extensive flooding. In Greece, such events occurred very often during 2002. Generally speaking, SLR will result in increased erosion of shores, increased salinity of estuaries and freshwater aquifers, altered tidal ranges in rivers and bays, changes in sediment and nutrient transport, changes in the pattern of chemical and microbiological contamination in coastal areas and increased flooding. 3. CLIMATE CHANGE, COASTAL WETLANDS AND ALYKI KITROUS Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters. A cardinal characteristic of the traditional zone between the permanently flooded and the strictly terrestrial areas is the presence of hydromorphic soils and hydrophytic vegetation [9]. For coastal wetland ecosystems the effects of global climate change can be felt directly through changes in SLR as well as indirectly through alteration in watershed inputs. The indirect effect makes the prediction of the response of coastal wetlands to climate change more complex and because of this complexity the future of coastal wetlands becomes an increasingly significant problem as coastal areas continue to become heavily populated and developed, resulting in both direct and indirect deterioration and destruction of wetlands. Coastal wetlands are valuable ecosystems since they absorb nutrients and reduce loading to the coastal areas, protect local communities from flooding. Greece has today about 400 large and small wetlands. Several of them are composite and form wetland mosaics and complexes. The most common wetland types in Greece are rivers, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, shallow lakes, shallow marine formations and marshes. Their total area is still quite large (over 200.000 ha) despite the heavy losses that occurred during the last 60 years. Alyki Kitrous is a relative small but very significant wetland with extensive salt marshes and a small shallow lagoon with a well developed dune system on the east side. It is situated in 220 38 37 in Longitude and 410 17 27 in Latitude, its administrative region is Kentriki Makedonia, belongs in Pieria Perfecture and has a maximum altitude of 1 m. Alyki Kitrous is depicted in Fig. 1.

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Reed bed formations occupy artificial ditches and canals. Alyki Kitrous is considered a very important area for birds. A large number of protected and strictly protected species use the site (including the salt works) for breeding, feeding and resting. The biggest gull colony in Greece (and the second in Europe) nested in small islets in the lagoon up to 1990 but then nesting was unsuccessful. It is included in the wetland complex of Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon delta and has the same conservation status (Ramsar Convention site). The main human activities are cattle raising and salt taking. It is seriously threatened by the illegal building of summer residencies and by the construction of a new road. Unfortunately, the number of salt works in Greece has declined from 30 to 8 in the last forty years [4]. The salt works of Alyki Kitrous covers an area of 250 ha producing approximately 20.000 tons of salt per year.

Fig. 1. The wetland of Alyki Kitrous (straight arrow) in the middle of Thermaikos Gulf as part of the wetland complex of Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon delta (curved arrow). 4. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ALYKI KITROUS WETLAND It is well known that the total change of a shoreline is the sum of the following factors [3]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Inundation Erosion Historical change Strong wind effect Sand removal

The inundation concept is a simple geometrical approach depending on the height contours of the area under consideration. In case of the worst scenario of +1m sea level rise, the region up to 1m contour will be flooded. Coastal erosion (or accretion) is a problem throughout the world and many factors act together to influence coastal

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erosion. These include the depth of water bodies, their alignment with prevailing winds, change of water levels, shoreline geology and the effects of human activities. The coastal erosion may cause problems when its development approaches, for example, a residential area. The shape of the shoreline may change as a result of the shoreline erosion. Moreover, the environment of the coastal zone can be influenced due to the shoreline change. No one can stop erosion, but it can be slowed down and its harmful effects on property and natural areas can be lessened with correct understanding and proper management. The well-accepted Bruun model is a tool to assess sandy beach erosion as a function of sea level rise, distance of closure depth and the berm of the beach and the closure depth itself [1]. Historical shoreline change (erosion or accretion) can be only deduced using a time series of air photographs. Digitizing the historical shorelines of the study area, the transverse change can be deduced and the annual rate of change as well. In Fig. (2), the area of Alyki Kitrous is shown covered by air photographs spanning half a century (1945-1997) and in Fig. (3) a close look in front of the salt works is depicted. It is concluded that the area undergoes erosion and accretion of the same size (ca. 0.5m/year) and thus it is considered more or less stable as far as the historical change is concerned. A large-scale contour map is given in Fig. 4.

(2)

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(3) Fig. 2 and 3. The study area covered by air photographs spanning from 1945 (large photograph) to 1997 (small photographs) and a close look at a small area of the region. The blue curve represents the 1997 shoreline and the black the 1945 shoreline. The scale is arbitrary.

Fig. 4. Contour lines: Blue (0 cm), Brown (20 cm), Red (50 cm) and light Blue (-20 cm).23


With regard to strong wind effects and sand removal, there are no official data to be taken into account. Therefore, the effects of the historical retreat, strong winds and sand removal are not considered in the final retreat of the study area. In order to finally assess the vulnerability of Alyki Kitrous wetland, a series of topographic maps at a scale of 1:1000, 1:2000 and 1:5000 and a hydrographic map at a scale of 1:50000 were used for digitization to produce the 3D vector map of this very important area. Assuming as depth for closure the 10 m isobath and using the Bruun model for shore erosion, the retreat of successive shoreline points could be computed [5]. It has to be mentioned here that the shoreline is composed of small grain sand. The inundation concept was then applied using the high-risk scenario of 1 m due to the fact that the wetland is part of the Thermaikos Gulf, which is subsiding at a rate of 40 cm/century [2]. Adding the results of these two models (inundation and erosion), then the area, which may be lost due to anthropogenic climate change, is estimated and represented by the thick line depicted in Fig. 5.

-10 M

SALT WORKS

SHORELINE RETREAT

Fig. 5. Shoreline retreat in Alyki Kitrous wetland due to inundation and erosion caused by climate change (the scale is arbitrary).

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5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Fig. 5 shows more than clear that under the assumed climate change scenarios, the Alyki Kitrous wetland and salt works will be lost at the end of this century. More than 1.150 ha. of land of paramount importance would become the new sea bottom in this peninsula. Another important Ramsar wetland is threatened by anthropogenic climate forcing and asks for sustainable management and protection. There is presently a trend in Greek society towards the recognition of the tremendous importance of the multiple values of countrys wetland resources. The way to sustainable management of wetland and terrestrial ecosystems will be long and hard. 6. REFERENCES 1. Bruun, P. (1962): Sea-level rise as a cause of shore erosion, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Waterways and Harbors Division 88:117-130. 2. Brochier, F. and E. Ramieri (2001): Climate Change Impacts on the Mediterranean Coastal Zones, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei, Nota di Lavoro 27.2001. 3. Cambers, G. (1998): Planning for Coastal Change, Coastal Development Setback Guidelines in Navis, COSALC, University of Puerto Rico (2a). 4. Crisman, T.L. (2000): Conservation of Mediterranean Coastal Saline Ecosystems: the Private Sector Role in Maintaining Ecological Function, Center of Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. 5. Doukakis, E. (2002): Coastal Vulnerability of the Island of Kos, International Conference on Oceanographic Aspects for a Sustainable Mediterranean, 2729/9/2002, University of Pireas, Greece. 6. Emery, K.O. and D.G. Aubrey (1991): Sea-Levels, Land Levels and Tide Gauges, Springer-Verlag, New York. 7. Gornitz, V.M., C. Rozenzweig and M.E. Moser (1997): Effects of anthropogenic intervention in the land hydrologic cycle on global sea-level rise, Global and Planetary Change 14:147-161. 8. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1996): Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: ScientificTechnical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA. 9. Maragou, P. and Mantziou D. (2000): Assessment of the Greek Ramsar wetlands, WWF-Greece, pp. 59 + Answered questionnaires pp 118. 10. Titus, J.G. and V.K. Narayanan (1996): The risk of sea-level rise, Climate Change 33:151-212.

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ANALYSIS OF VIPERA AMMODYTES SPECIES DISTRIBUTION IN THE "IRON GATES" NATURAL PARK1Popescu Dan-Viorel 1, Petrovan Silviu 2, Neculiu Radu 1 1 University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies 2 University of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine [email protected] ABSTRACTVipera ammodytes is an endangered species, strictly protected at international level. The situation and spatial distribution of this species is mostly unknown in Romania. The purpose of this study is to analyze the distribution of the habitats populated by Vipera ammodytes in the "Iron Gates" Natural Park, situated in southwestern part of Romania. This was made through detailed field survey and through GIS methods (over posing different layers, such as: aspect and slope maps, geological and land cover maps etc). Also, were observed the main characteristics of the habitats, like vegetation, geological and relief conditions, microclimatic conditions and the main threats to their integrity. The study was conducted within a LIFE NATURE project "The Iron Gates Natural Park - Habitat Conservation and Management", lead by the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies.

Keywords: species distribution, habitats, vegetation formations, xerophylous scrub, threats, GIS analysis, slope and aspect conditions. INTRODUCTION Presently, the University of Bucharest, Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies, is leading a LIFE NATURE project in the Iron Gates Natural Park. This project aims to protect and preserve the wildlife in the area, focusing on species of reptiles (Testudo hermanni and Vipera ammodytes) and birds (lesser kestrel, black stork, little egret and pygmy cormorant). The sandviper (Vipera ammodytes), being a venomous snake species, has a very delicate situation; the local people consider it a "nasty" animal and usually kill it on sight. Regarding this species, the project's goal is to assess the distribution of the habitats populated by the sandviper and to raise local people's awareness for protecting and preserving it. WORK METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS In 2002, between March and September (the period of activity of the most of the reptiles in Romania) the team had the opportunity to assess the habitats distribution during 4 sessions of field observations in the area of the Iron Gates Natural Park. The main information sources for identifying the habitats were the bibliography and field observations of some experienced Forestry Departments employees. In the same time, the digital model of the Natural Park (the DEM, land use, geology, stream network, roads network etc) was realized. The concrete results of these actions were:

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a data base of the habitats and Vipera ammodytes exemplars identified in the field (including relevant photographs of habitats and individuals) a map of habitats' spatial distribution in the Iron Gates Natural Park area (Map 1) a summary of the activities that are threatening the species in their habitats

The field observations sessions covered few of the most important areas already known as habitats of the sandviper, but also identified some problems. First, the species could not be found in a series of habitats described in scientific literature as typical (Vodia - Gura Vii area) and second, sandviper exemplars were identified in some very small and fragmented habitats throughout the park (Bahna, Focoanele Valley, Divici etc). The status of these small populations is still uncertain, because all of them suffer intense human intervention and every site has specific conditions that should be analysed in the future. After conducting detailed field survey were identified a series of specific characteristics for typical Vipera ammodytes habitats, like vegetation formations, geology, soils and relief conditions. Having these data, we attempted to identify the areas of possible occurrence of the species in the entire Natural Park, using the GIS analysis. On the basis of the digital model of the Natural Park and the above characteristics, we were able to realise a map in which we combined all relevant data in order to assess the suitability of Vipera ammodytes habitats occurrence. The factors taken into consideration were: the relief (altitude, slope and aspect), the geology and the land use. The spatial analysis suitability of habitats occurrence was realised using ArcView GIS 3.1 software and the extension Spatial Analyst 1.0. The methodology consisted in the following steps: 1. Transforming vector type data in raster type data (creating a DEM - Digital Elevation Model - from the elevation layer (point type), digitized from the topographic maps 1:25 000 and deriving the slope and aspect maps, creating grids for geology and land use layers (polygon type)) - cell dimension for each grid was 25x25 m. 2. Reclassifying each grid according to a legend established on the basis of the information gathered during the 4 sessions of field observations and awarding each class a mark suitable for the influence exerted in the occurrence of the Vipera ammodytes habitats; the marks values awarded to each class of the grids are between 1 and 10, as it follows: - Elevation range map: 10 - between 35 and 200 m, 8 - between 200 and 400 m, 4 - between 400 and 500 m, 2 - between 500 and 700 m and 1 - between 700 and 970 m - Slope map: 2 - between 0 and 10, 10 - between 10 and 30, 8 - between 30 and 40, 4 - between 40 and 50 and 2 - between 50 and 90

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Map 1

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- Aspect map: 10 - South, Southeast and Southwest, 8 - East and West and 2 North, Northeast and Northwest - Geological map: 10 - limestone areas and 2 - other rock types - Land use map: 10 - unproductive land (ridges, rocky areas, screes, sparsely vegetated habitats) and shrub habitats and between 5 and 1 - other categories of land use These values were not chosen arbitrarily, but as a result of many trials and drafts of the map (there were realised many reclassifications and types of calculations - the average and the sum of the marks awarded for each grid cell). Finally, the above mentioned marks were chosen and they were added (the sum was calculated). In this way, the final result (the suitability map) reflected very precisely the real conditions that were observed on the field, maintaining an equilibrium between the restrictions and the permissions regarding the distribution of habitats. 3. Calculation of the final mark (using Map Calculator command), resulted from summing the marks awarded for each cell of the initial grids - it resulted another grid, with cells values between 8 and 50. 4. Establishing an adequate legend, suitable for the purpose of analysis and identifying the areas with marks over 35 (considered as areas with more than 70% chances for the Vipera ammodytes habitats to occur). These areas were highlighted in the final map. 5. Realizing the map of Spatial analysis of the suitability of relief, geologic and land use factors in Vipera ammodytes habitats occurrence (Map 2). Of course, this map reveals only the typical Vipera ammodytes habitats, as the analysis emphasized the characteristics that were considered to exert the greatest influence in the occurrence of the habitats. So, the areas that were highlighted are supposed to be the most suitable for the existence of sandviper populations. The final step in analyzing Vipera ammodytes species spatial distribution in the Iron Gates Natural Park is confronting and overlaying the two maps: the map of distribution resulted directly from the field observations and the map of suitability as resulted from the GIS analysis. The results are really surprising, as the map of the suitability not only completes the initial map, by adding new areas with typical habitats (Svinita area), but also enlarges the perimeter of the first mapped habitats (Ciucaru Mic, Ciucaru Mare, Feele Dunrii, Sirinia Valley). So, we might say that we presently have an almost complete picture of the spatial distribution of the Vipera ammodytes habitats in the Iron Gates Natural Park. Secondary, we were able to realize a preliminary analysis of the management status of the perimeters in which we found sandviper individuals or the perimeters that are most suited for occurrence of the habitats. The purpose of this analysis was to find out if any of the perimeters benefits of some kind of protection measures and actions. Over posing the resulted maps and the protected areas network map, resulted that only two of the typical habitats are included in a natural reserve - Danube's Gorges (Ciucaru Mic and Ciucaru Mare). Still, the field observations revealed that these two

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Map 2

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habitats are intensely pastured (cattle, sheep and goats) and the vegetation is in an advanced state of degradation. According to the GAP Analysis criteria for land stewardship (Patrick J. Crist, 2000), this natural reserve is included in the management status 2 category, and the other perimeters are included in the management status 3 or 4 categories. It means that currently, there is an almost total lack of protection of the Vipera ammodytes habitats in the Iron Gates Natural Park. CONCLUSIONS Vipera ammodytes habitats are varied, the species proving itself to be very adaptable to different conditions. Its presence is not limited to the limestone areas, as small habitats were found on volcanic rocks (granite) of metamorphic rocks (gneiss); thus, the limestone areas condition the appearance of large habitats, with viable populations and numerous individuals. Habitats distribution is not continuous. They are sparsely distributed throughout the Park. Vipera ammodytes areal is very fragmented and is continuously decreasing. There are a few areas (Sirinia Valley, Danube Gorges), with viable populations that should be declared strictly protected areas - fauna reservations. Intensive pasturing proved to be in most cases the main threat to the habitat's integrity, for two particular reasons: habitats restraint due to the destruction of vegetation transmitting from domestic animals to the wildlife (including to Vipera ammodytes) of external parasites, like ticks (Haemophilus.sp., Ixodes sp.)

Other important threats are the killings of the viper individuals by the local people, who believe the viper can byte and kill them or their domestic animals. Regarding the distribution of the Vipera ammodytes habitats in the Iron Gates Natural Park, we can say that presently there is an almost complete picture of the situation; now, the priority in conservation should not be mapping other habitats, but monitoring typical habitats that we already identified in order to propose them as natural reserves - fauna protected areas. REFERENCES Blair Csuti, Patrick Crist (1998) - Methods for Developing Terrestrial Vertebrate Distribution Maps for Gap Analysis, Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID Bocaiu N. and co (1971) Vegetaia lemnoas mezo-xeroterm (Orno-Cotinetalia) din Defileul Dunrii, Ocrotirea naturii, nr. 15 (1), Bucureti Clinescu R. (1926) Vipera ammodytes Cuv. n Romnia, Lucrrile Institutului de Geografie al Universitii din Cluj, II (1924-1925), Cluj

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Edwards, T.C, C. Homer, S. Bassett (1994) - Land management categorization: A users guide. A Handbook for Gap Analysis, Version 1, Gap Analysis Program Patrick J. Crist (2000) - Mapping and Categorizing Land Stewardship, Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID Scott, J. M., F. Davis, B. Csuti, R. Noss, B. Butterfield, S. Caicco, C. Groves, T. C. Edwards, Jr., J. Ulliman, H. Anderson, F. D'Erchia, R. G. Wright (1993) - Gap Analysis: a geographic approach to protection of biological diversity. Wildlife Monographs No. 123 http://www.gap.uidaho.edu/handbook/

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INFLUENCE OF THE ECOLOGICAL FACTORS TO NUMBER VIPERA LEBETINA OBTUSA AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF VENOM1Topchieva Sh.A., 1Iskenderov T.M. 2 Jabbarov R.B., 2Musayeva N.N., 1Topchiev .., Aliev F.Sh. 1 Institute of Zoology of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences Pass.1128, block 504, Baku, 370602, Azerbaijan 2 Institute of Physics of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences 370143, Baku, H.Javid ave.33, e-mail- [email protected] ABSTRACTThe considerable pollution of a biosphere of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by tekhnogen ejections of industrial plants results in formation of ecogeochemical anomalies, the sizes which one grow with intensification of development industrial, power complexes and motor-vehicle transport. As a result of it is reshaped local anomalies inclusive heightened quantities of heavy metals in soils, waters and plants multiply their superior maximum allowable concentrations. By the purpose of researches was the analysis of influencing of environmental factors on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa, chemical composition of soils and plants of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan, compiling on this basis of the ecogeochemical map-schemes of pollution of a soil coverage of Apsheron peninsula by heavy metals.1

Keywords: venom composition; Vipera lebetina obtusa; Azerbaijan; heavy metals All progressing pollution of a biosphere of Azerbaijan by tekhnogen ejections of industrial plants: power, chemical, oil refining etc. conducts to saturation its by toxic substances, and also heavy metals (H) by such as Pb, Hg, As, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, Cu etc.) The guards of a biosphere as habitats of all living entities is a global problem [1]. The considerable pollution of a biosphere of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by tekhnogen ejections of industrial plants results in formation of ecogeochemical anomalies, the sizes which one grow with intensification of development industrial, power complexes and motor-vehicle transport. As a result of it is reshaped local anomalies inclusive heightened quantities of heavy metals in soils, waters and plants multiply their superior maximum allowable concentrations. The pollution of soils H is most dangerous in a kind that the soil coverage, were in constant interplay with atmosphere and hydrosphere receives and returns them the weighed or dissolved substances which are acquired by plants during the development and growth, and in further through biological food chains are transferred animals and the person [2,3]. By the purpose of researches was the analysis of influencing of1


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environmental factors on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa, chemical composition of soils and plants of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan, compiling on this basis of the ecogeochemical map-schemes of pollution of a soil coverage of Apsheron peninsula by heavy metals. With the purpose of an establishment of correlation dependence between the contents of H in soils, plants and in venom have been carried out the routes, on the basis of which one the sampling in high layer of soils (0-20 ), selection of vegetative sample and catching the snake in the given terrain with the subsequent takings of venom was conducted. Catching the snake was carried out in neighborhoods of Baku, Sumgait, Bilgah, Kurdemir, Imishli. The contents of heavy metals (lead, hydrargyrums, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, chromium, tin, zinc, vanadium, cobalt) was carried out by a method Atom absorbing Spectrophotometer (AAS-300, Perkin-Elmer) in researched samples.As a result of field researches and on the basis of a grouping of soils on the contents H the mapschemes of Pb, Cr, Ni, As etc. are made. On the map-scheme of pollution of a soil coverage of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan H areas of dissipation of H polluters, connected with a direction dominant on Apsheron of winds "by wind rose" and spacing intervals from sources tekhnogen ejections (fig.1) clearly are tracked. The results of field and experimental researches have shown, that the contents in studied samples of soils, vegetation and in samples of venom oscillates (table 1) sharply. The direct relation between a degree pollution of soils, plants both venom from spacing interval and arrangement them from sources of polluters was established. Table 1 Quantitative data of the contents of heavy metals in studied samples (mg/kg) Territory Samples Plant Soil Viper venom K u r d e m i r Concentrati on Pb 4,8 7,6 89,1 I m i s h l i Concentrati on Pb 4,6 9,3 49,13 r / n (mg/kg) Zn 284,3 99,0 371,1 r / n (mg/kg) Zn 67,05 68,05 863,6

Territory Samples Plant Soil Vipera venom

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In result of ecogeochemical researches the map-schemes of polluters of a soil coverage of Apsheron peninsula of Azerbaijan by heavy metals polluters are made. The correlative connection between the contents of H in soils, plants and in viper was detected. The considerable oscillation H in studied objects is established. The contents Pb in venom of Vipera lebetina obtusa oscillates within the limits of 89.1-49.13 mg/kg, Zn within the limits of 371.1-863.6 mg/kg. The contents Pb in soils oscillates within the limits of 7.6-9.3 mg/kg, Zn the limits of 99-68.05 mg/kg. In plants of the contents, Pb oscillates within the limits of 4.8-4.6 mg/kg, Zn- within the limits of 28.4 - 67.05 mg/kg. Thus essential role on an chemical composition of venom Vipera lebetina obtusa is rendered by environmental factors, that in turn influences pharmacological properties of this invaluable source of medicinal raw for a pharmaceutical industry. This work was carried out due to NATO Scientific Affairs Divisions Collaborative Linkage Grant Program under reference LST.CLG.978586 from Cooperative Science and Technology sub-programme for financial support. REFERENCES 1. Sh.A.Topchiyeva Influence of the environmental factors on chemical composition of viperas venom. San Francisco / California, USA,7th International Interdisciplinary Conference on the Environment, 2001. P.25. 2. Sh.A.Topchiyeva, R.B.Jabbarov et.al. Investigations of chemical composition of Vipera Lebetina Obtusa venom depending on ecological factors by laser spectroscopy method. Fizika, Baku, 1999, N2, p.38-40 3. Sh.A.Topchiyeva. to the physics chemical properties, application and some ecological aspects of venom properties. J.Bilgi, Baku, 2000, N2, p.48-52 4. Z.Gyory, Sh.A.Topchiyeva et.al. Role of Heavy metals in toxinity of Viperas venom. IV International konf. 2002, Baku, p.78

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DIRECT AND INDIRECT HUMAN-MADE IMPACT ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS OF THE RIVER NESTOS1G. Efthimiou 1, . Mertzanis 2, D. Emmanouloudis 3 1 Egnatia Odos .., 6th Km Thessaloniki-Thermi, P.O.30, 57 001, Thermi, [email protected] or [email protected]. 2 Eco-Consultants S.A., 5 Aetideon str., 15561 Athens, Greece, [email protected]. 3 Technical Educational Institute (A.T...) of Kavala, Department of Forestry in Drama, 66100, Drama, [email protected]. ABSTRACTThis paper presents the direct and indirect human-made impact on surface and ground water and the geological and morphological characteristics of vulnerable ecosystems and the techniques required for counteracting or minimizing it. Human-made activities have affected the natural evolutionary processes and the dynamics of the river Nestos delta. Of these activities, the most serious one was the construction and operation of irrigation and drainage trenches, i.e., of an artificial hydrographic network. At the same time, the controlled discharge in the main riverbed affected the rich flora and fauna of the river ecosystems in a variety of ways through the construction of dams.

Keywords: human impact, river Nestos delta, Greece, surface water, ground water 1. INTRODUCTION The most serious pressure acting on the environment is the result of uncontrolled human activities and a process of "development" modeled according to standards that overlook the requirements and tolerance limits of natural ecosystems. This pressure often has an unrectifiable impact (shrinkage or extinction of sensitive ecosystems, deceleration or reversal of the natural evolutionary processes that occur in river deltas, etc). The river Nestos Delta, which is a dynamic system as regards the velocity of its geomorphological evolution, has been subjected to intense pressure from human activities and its condition has been disturbed to a great extent. These activities, which began in 1945, included the drainage of marshes and lakes, the reduction of the moist land area, the diversion of the Nestos river bed, the construction of hydroelectric and irrigation dams, the construction of drainage and irrigation networks and the cultivation of land. The enviroment consists of interrelated biotic and abiotic factors and the change of one or more parameters (retention of waters and debris in reservoirs, reduction of the discharge downstream dams, etc.) may disturb the equilibrium, the reproductive capacity and the dynamics of affected natural ecosystems. The preservation of the equilibrium of the natural evolutionary processes in sensitive ecosystems, such as the river Nestos Delta, depends greatly on the processes that take place within the boundaries of their catchment basins, which enrich them with water and debris. The Nestos delta and estuary is also influenced by the activity of the sea.

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2. RESEARCH SITE LOCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS 2.1 Location Morphology The study was conducted in the river Nestos delta (map 1), which extends over an area of 550 km2 at the southernmost part of its catchment basin and belongs to the prefectures of Kavala and Xanthi administratively. The catchment basin has an area of 5,749 km2, 2,312 km2 (40%) of which form to the Greek catchment basin of the river Nestos (ph. 1). 2.2 Meteorology Climate

The average rainfall ranges from 668.7 mm to 801.6 mm according to data from the Greek Meteorological Service. For the period 1970-1978, it was 668.7 mm/annum at the Paranesti station, 801.6 mm/annum at the Prasinada station, 718.8 mm/annum at the Skaloti station,

Map 1. The River Nestos Delta 709.6 mm/annum at the Sideronero station (during the period 1977-1983), 621.1 mm/annum at the Drama station (during the period 1974-1982) and 393.7 mm/annum at the Chrysoupoli station (during the period 1984-1997). During the same period, the average number of storms at the Drama station was 14.7 while the average annual number of days with fog was 4.8. The average annual temperature at the Sideronero station was 10.9o C (according to data for the period 1977-1983) and snowfalls were abundant from November to April with 6.3 days of snowfall/annum at the Drama station (data from the periods 19321940 and 1972-1975). 2.3 Flora Fauna

The vegetation on the banks of river deltas and valleys is riparian and azonal. The largest part of amphibious forests belongs to the order of Populetalia albae [4]. The broader area that surrounds the Nestos delta belongs to the Quercetalia pubescentis zone. The Nestor riparian forest is characterised by a large number of climbing39


species (approximately 14 species). On the Nestos banks, there grow Phragmitetum plants, which are replaced by halophytic species as we move closer to the estuary. The riparian forest vegetation consists of soft wood species, such as: Salix alba, Salix fragilis, Salix amplexicaulis, Alnus glutinosa Populus alba, and hard wood species such as Fraxinus angustifolia, Quercus pedunculiflora, Ulmus minor etc. Approximately seven species of carnivorous animals (Carnivora) have been observed and recorded in the area, as well as approximately 20 reptile species (34%) out of 59 species recorded in Greece, and 11 amphibian species out of 17 18 species recorded in Greece in total, namely, a percentage of 61%. Fourteen fish species have been recorded along the river, its tributaries, and its irrigation and drainage channels, while 11 fish species live in the laggons and in brackish water. The avifauna of the area is also very diverse: the Nestos delta hosts 300 species [4], which correspond to 71% of the birds (420 species) recorded in Greece during recent research and 63% of the birds recorded in Europe (474 species). This fact justifies the worldwide interest in the wetland. Seventy-three of the said species have been included in the Red Data Book of Birds [4]. 2.4 Geology Geomorphology

Geologically, the river Nestos Delta consists of quaternary holocene deposits (clays sands cobbles), with surfaces of a mild to flat relief (gradient 0-15%), which alternates with lagoons, marshes, flooded soils, dunes, cobbly sandy dams, and active and inactive flow beds. Further to the north, the river Nestos catchment basin, which forms a part of the Rodopi geotectonic mass and consists mainly of alternations of marbles, gneiss, schist and granitic and volcanic rocks, is characterised by well-formed valley forms with pronounced deep erosion and steeply inclined slopes that succeed the Nestos meandering reaches that occur further to the south. There is a small proportion of Tertiary formations. The river Nestos deltaic deposits assume a width of 2.5 - 6.0 km in the form of a fan, like the Nile delta. From the inception of the Holocene to 1945, in the area of its delta, the river Nestos often overflowed, changed flow beds, formed meandres and deposited material that was dispersed as a result of the action of sea waves and currents, thereby creating a complex system of dams (small islands), lagoons, arms, marshes, slopes and aeolian dunes. After 1945 (when human activities in the area intensified) the natural equilibrium conditions were altered. The artificial dislocation of the river Nestos bed to the east by 4 km has produced erosion phenomena that are stronger than the corresponding deposition ones in a westerner part of the delta (Akroneri). These alluvial deposits are transported to the W-NW by waves and coastal curents. Moreover, after the construction of the irrigation and drainage networks, a large part of debris are deposited in irrigated areas [7]. 2.5 Water resources (surface and subsurface water)

The sources of the river Nestos are located in the Rodopi mountain range, on the mount Rila in Bulgaria. The hydrographic network that is created with two main converging branches in the area south of the border (at the site Potami) crosses the Greek territory from NW to SE between Rodopi, Falakro and Lekani and flows out into the Thracian sea. The total area of its natural hydrological catchment area is equal to 5,749 km2; 3,437 km2 (60%) of them are in Bulgarian territory. Of the 234 km of length of the river Nestos, 130 km are in Greece. Along them there are several converging branches of a smaller order (river Perivleptou, river Diavolorema, river40


Arkoudorema, etc). Downstream the river Paranesti, the river Nestos discharge is estimated as equal to 10 m3/sec. In the mountainous basin there is ground water in the marbles and the weathered mantle of schist-gneiss and granitic rocks. The carstic water-bearing strata discharge mainly through fountains (the fountain of Paradisos, etc) whereas there is occasionally a hydraulic relation with the ground water table of the Nestos Delta [2]. 3. HUMAN INTERVENTION Human intervention in the river Nestos can be classified into two categories depending on its nature and time of occurence [7]. Category 1: Indirect Intervention (earlier period). This category concerns mainly activities of an agricultural nature (flood control measures, drainage works, irrigation networks, cutting back of riparian vegetation, etc.). The region was included in the Ramsar treaty despite the fact that these activities were intensive and had a significant impact on the Delta environment. Category 2: Direct Intervention (more recent period). This category includes projects and activities performed mainly in the river cathment area in order to exploit its water capacity for power production and irrigation and for the support of the wetland. These projects are two dams reservoirs (in Thesavros and Platanovrisi) which have been in operation since 1996-97. Over the past twenty years, these interventions have disturbed the environmental equilibrium of the river Nestos catchment area significantly: a longitudinal lake, of a length of 36 km, a width of 0.2 2.7 km and a depth of 140 m has been formed. It is also impossible to predict what problems may be generated in the Delta ecosystems in the future. 4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT PRESSURE ON THE NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS The pressures exercised on the Delta region ecosystems during the period referred to as "earlier period" and their impact were restored to a considerable degree and a condition of equilibrium had been achieved by approximately 1975-77. The natural environment of the region was disturbed significantly at that time, which coincides with the beginning of the construction of the abovementioned hydroelectric projects. During the project construction stage, the disturbance and the impact affected mainly the river catchment area (Greek part) and were more severe in the twenty-year period from 1980 to 2000. At present, when the projects are in operation, the disturbance and the impact affect mainly the delta area. Therefore, we have: Period 1975-2000. During this period, the impact was felt mainly on the ecosystems around the main riverbed because during the construction of the dams, the land was cleared and trees were cut down on the riverbed slopes in the area where the reservoirs were to be built, as these works were necessary to stabilise the slopes and prepare them to bear the loads of the structures and the warer. Moreover, tunnel boring works and road works of a considerable length were conducted in forest areas, while thousands of trips were performed by heavy goods vehicles transporting building materials and road works machinery. The magnitude and the duration of the impact on the natural ecosystems in the vicinity of the works were considerable and concerned mainly the following parameters:41


a. Impact on the flora and fauna of the region. Tens of thousands of trees were cut down, the places where birds and small mammals nested were destroyed, while, according to local inhabitants, some species became extinct. b. Impact on landscape appearance. The projects and the uncovered, vertical excavation slopes have altered significantly the physiognomy of the area in the vicinity of the projects which was the typical physiognomy of a riparian ecosystem with very dense flora. c. Impact on ground and air quality. The structure and the porosity of the ground were affected negatively as a result of earthworks (excavations, compaction, clearing of land and stumping), especially during construction. Moreover, air quality deteriorated significantly, mainly due to the fumes from heavy goods vehicles and construction plant. d. Impact from noise and vibration The production of noise and vibrations during construction caused avifauna and mammal species to move to other localities. Period from 2000 to the present During this period, when the hydroelectric projects have been in operation, the changes and pressures are mainly felt at the river Nestos delta and they are distinguished into two subcategories: a. Impact on surface and subsurface water The hydroelectric exploitation of the river Nestos water capacity affects the natural environment and the surface and subsurface water in the near and broader vicinity of the reservoirs and downstream the hydroelecric projects. Some of these changes are temporary and some are permanent: Occurrence of extreme discharge values (peak discharges), which may result in the overflowing of the riverbed and floods in the lower regions downstream the projects. Changes in the ground water content of the river Nestos delta. Reduction of riparian vegetation. Interruption of water fertilization (transportation and deposit of debris). Destruction of birds' nesting areas, which indirectly displaced the fauna.

Drop of the river water temperature causing destruction of fish reproductive areas.

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b. Impact on geological geomorphological features The implementation of the program for the hydroelectric exploitation of the river Nestos water capaciy affects the geological geomorphological features of the near and broader vicinity of the reservoirs and the area downstream the hydroelectric projects. Some of these effects are temporary and some are permanent. The former are related to the time required for project construction and the latter to the filling of the reservoirs and the operation of the hydroelectric projects of Thesavros and Platanovrysi. These are: Changes in the natural geoforms and the physiognomy of the river Nestos valley Disturbing the natural processes that participate in the ongoing formation and development of the geomorphological conditions of the river Nestos valley Changes in the physiognomy of the river Nestos valley, with the concurrent appearance of geomorphological processes directly associated with a lake environment Permanent presence of artificial lakes upstream the dams Permanent interruption of the natural processes which widen (erosion of the riverbed in the direction of depth) and shape the river Nestos valley The processes of sedimentation in the reservoirs became permanent Inception of erosion phenomena inside the Nestos riverbed, downstream the projects. The tendency to stop the advancement of the Delta coastal line is made permanent while at the same time this coastal line recedes locally.

5. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR ADDRESSING THE IMPACT The application of methods and techniques that are "friendly" to the environment and the special features of the dynamically developing ecosystem is absolutely necessary if one is to combat the impact of human activities and reinstate the disturbed equilibrium of the Nestos delta natural ecosystems. The proposed management axes require the restoration of the environmental equilibrium in the part of the catchment area upstream the projects built for the hydroelectric exploitation of the river Nestos water capacity. These management axes are defined according to the subcategories of impact and they are: 1st Management Axis: Surface and subsurface water

Discharge of water quantities from the main riverbed into the old riverbeds, which are inactive at present, through the opening of controlled passages at appropriate locations of the dykes. In this way, the riparian forest is flooded again and the natural riparian ecosystems are restored while at the same time the water content of the surface waterbearing strata is enriched, which has a beneficial effect on the cultivations of the plain of the Municipality of Topeiros.43


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Diversion of water quantities from the reservoir of Toxotes to the irrigation network of the Nestos Province plain and discharge of this water to the riparian forest "Megalo", which is "completely protected", through the existing channels. In this way, the restoration of the envronment will be aided and the riparian forest will be recreated and will expand into the public land that was used for poplar cultivation in recent decades and is now protected against any human intervention. Construction of short earth dams at selected places of the riverbed, in-between dykes, according to the model used in the river Rhine in Germany [3], in order to: (a) control the re-flooding of the regions that are located between the dykes and which are not flooded today; (b) reinstate the periodic flooding that occurred according to the natural dynamics of the river Nestos, before the riverbed was confined artificially and the upstream large dams were constructed, and (c) enrich the shallow ground water content. The same result may be achieved through the construction of small spillways with an input system that operates through grates. These dams may be constructed in Delta trenches and they may supply pumping tanks through sedimentation reservoirs, and then the wa

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