problems regarding the metronome markings in the …
TRANSCRIPT
PROBLEMS REGARDING THE METRONOME MARKINGS
IN THE MUSIC OF BEETHOVEN
by
LARI DIANNE YOUNG, B.M., B.M.Ed.
A THESIS
IN
MUSIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF MUSIC
Approved
Accepted
May, 1991
ACKNCWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest thanks to my advisor, Dr. Paul
Cutter, far his constant support and guidance throughout my Master's
program and Dr. Richard McGowan for his help and service on my thesis
carmittee. I could not have canpleted this document without their
patient assistance. I also greatly appreciate the continued
encouragenent from my family and their support and understanding of my
educational goals.
ii
CONTENTS
1\CKNavr.E~S . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i
LIST OF TABI..ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF FIGURES................................................. vi
r . r·NIRooucrroN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. THE HIS'IORY OF TEMPO IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD............ 5
Beethoven and the Metronome........................... 9
Other Evidence of Tempo in the Classical Period....... 12
II I. TEMPO AND THE .MEI'RONCME IN THE GENERATION FOLI..()h!ING BEEI'HOVE'N. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 15
The Timings of Sir George Smart....................... 19
wagner and Beethoven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
IV. TWENI'IEI'H CENTURY VI:El'~S; PART ONE (1942-1980).. . . . . . • . . . 26
Rudolf Kolisch - 1942................................. 26
Hermann Beck - 1954................................... 29
William S. Newmann - 19 81 . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • 31
Nicholas Temperley- 1966............................. 31
Peter Stadlen- 1967......... .. . . •• . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . 34
David Fallows - 1978.................................. 36
V. 'IW"ENTI EI'H CENTURY VIE\vS ; PART 'lWJ (19 8 0-PRESENT) . . . . . . . . 3 7
Iv1ax Rudolf - l 9 8 0 . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . 3 7
Peter Stadlen - 1982.................................. 40
WilliamS. Newmann- 1982............................. 42
William M:t.lloch- 1985. .... .... .. .• ..•• ••.. .... .... .. . 44
Standley Howell - 1986................................ 45
lll
Recent Performances - Norrington, Hogwocrl, Huggett, Gocrlnan, Zander ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Richard •raruskin - 1987. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 7
Rorert Winter - 1988. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Sandra Rosenblum - 1988............................... 50
Willy Hess 1988 . ................................... . 50
Eric Salzrran - 1989................................... 51
Edward Rothstein - 1990. • . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 51
VI. THE NINTH SYMPHONY: A CASE IN POINT .......•............• 53
VII. CO'OCLUSI ONS • .••.••...•.•••••.••.••••••.••.••...••••••••• 59
Final ReillClrks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9
ENDNar~. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 72
BI~I ffiRA.PHY. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7 7
iv
LIST OF TABLES
1. Rudolf Kolisch: Tempi According to Beethoven; Arranged According to Meter Signatures and TemJ?C> Ca.tegories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2. Hermann Beck~s Table from "Berrerkungen"............. 30
3. Extract fran Sir George Smart ~ s Timings of Beethoven Symphonies; More Than One Movement; with Repeats [Canpared with Norrington's Present Timings . ] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
4. ?ymphony No. 1 First Movement Tempos................ 48
5. Ninth Symphony Timings Organized Cl1ronologically.................. .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . 65
6 . Ninth Symphony Timings Organized by Duration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7
v
LIST OF FIGURES
l. Scale for Pridgin-York's Chronometer............. 5
2. Beethoven's Metronome Markings for his First Eight Symphonies as Published in the Leipziger Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung................. ll
vi
CHAPI'ER I
INffiODUcriON
The question of the accuracy and meaning of the metronome
markings in the works of Ludwig van Beethoven 1s a current topic of
heated debate among musicologists. In 1815, even before the
II perfection of the metronome by ~1lzel in 1817, Beethoven had already
welcomed it. Beethoven was the first serious comp:>ser to make use of
''l , . Ma zel s new 1nvention. 11 1 have thought for a long time of giving up
these nonsensical terms allegro, andante, adagio, presto, and K1lzel's
metronome gives us the best opfOrtuni ty to do so. 11 The character of a
given composition was very important to Beethoven and he believed the
best guide to character in his rnusic was the metronome indication.
11 ln our century, .. said Beethoven, 11Such indications are certainly
necessary ...
In 1817, the Leipziger Allgemeine musikaliscbe Zeitung published
metronome markings for the first eight symphonies by Beethoven. Then,
in 1818, S.A. Steiner in Vienna published two pamphlets, the first of
which contained metronome markings for Beethoven's symphonies nos. l-8
and his septet. A few months later, the second of these was published
containing markings by Beethoven for the string quartets composed
before 1817: Op. 18, nos. 1-6; Op. 59, nos. 1-3; Op. 74; and Op. 95.
Markings for the Ninth S~ho~ appeared in the Allgemeine
musikalische Zeitung on October 13, 1826.
1
Disregard for the metronane marks, generally too fast for the
romantics, stems from the middle of the nineteenth century. Richard
Wagner led this movement, by seeking to find deeper expression in
Beethoven's music by slowing it dONn to match his ONn style. For
example, the slow rrovement of the _Ninth S.YJ!lphony, on which he wrote:
"it may be said of the pure adagio that it cannot be taken too slow."
Wagner's interpretation and conducting of the Beethoven symphonies set
a precedent eventually serving as the basis of the German Conducting
School. Numerous followers of Wagner emerged, among them Richard
Strauss, who thought Wagner "the greatest of all authorities on
Beethoven . "
The tradition established by Wagner prevailed especially among
German conductors until the arrival of the authenticity movement, in
the 1980's, with recordings by Norrington, Hagwood, Zander, and others
who perfonn Beethoven's VJOrks on period instrurrents. In particular,
Roger Norrington has been praised for adhering closely to the given
tempi with little if any fluctuation, with results as astonishing as
they are controversial.
Two camps have formed, regarding the metronorre markings. An
article written in 1942 by Rudolph Kolisch opened the lid on the
problem of deviation from Beethoven's given tempi. Suddenly numerous
opinions began to emerge. On the side of Beethoven we have Hennann
Beck, who in 1955 discussed the importance of metronorre markings to
the basic rhythmic character of a piece and Herbert Seifert, who ln
1977 at the Beethoven-Kolloquium in Vienna, endorsed the markings
which could be proven authentic. others are not so convinced.
2
Nicholas Temperley stated in 1966 that the metronaTle markings were
"useless as guides to performance speed," basing his conclusions on
the timings of Sir George Smart. In 1967, Peter Stadlen set out to
discuss the discrepancy in the trio of the Ninth Symphony citing
printing errors or misreadings of the metronome by Beethoven as
possible causes. (In 1989, Benjamin Zander reconfirmed this theory
but found Beethoven's nephew Karl at fault.) Stadlen also believes
past recordings by world-renowned conductors justify the validity of
slower interpretations. He believes those conductors could not all
have incorrectly judged the markings. (The fact is they disregarded
some of the markings completely.)
Instruments of the time could have played a major role in the
performer's ability to play the given tempo. Max Rudolf suggests that
the metronome markings were provided to help the conductor and
performer correctly interpret the prescribed character, and we shall
see that the argument against tempo being necessary to the character
of music is also a hotly debated topic.
Innovative hypotheses surface continuously on possible
interpretations of the metronome markings with conclusions remaining
widely divided. As Stadlen states, there has not yet been a
conclusive study as to why these marks are so often blatantly ignored.
In this study I intend to first, compile a comprehensive
bibliography on the subject from the earliest findings through the
present and then evaluate the very large body of writing on the
subject.
3
Second, I will survey numerous modern recordings of the Ninth Symphony
and compile a table to illustrate the blatant disregard for the
markings. Finally, I will draw my own conclusions about the meaning
and application of the metronome markings.
4
CHAPI'ER II
THE HISTORY OF TEMPO IN
THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
In the 1780's, William Pridgin, a clockmaker in York, was working
on a device for measuring musical time. It was encased in a dark
wooden box which stood seven inches high and four inches square. The
lid opened in front; inside was a brass plate engraved with musical
tempi and time signatures and a brass shaft with a sliding knob. He
called his new invention the Chronometer Pridgin-York [1].
This was the first such device to go into production and also the
first to chime and tick. Pridgin's brass scale contained general
values for tempi, illustrated in Figure 1, which compare with our
current markings of: Allegro ( ) =120-168); Andante () =76-108);
Adagio ( ) =66-76) ; Largo ( ) =40-60) . The Pridgin-York chronaneter
was short lived because of its delicacy of construction and cost of ,,
manufacture, thus opening the way for Malzel 's later, less expensive
invention [ 2].
Figure 1. Scale for Pridgin-York's Chronometer
COLU!\.1:'\ I COLL!\1'\ .2
:\lk).!IIJ 6 -1: J, ~ IL! c or 3,4 01 12 4 or~ -1 J.- 12h
.-\llt-~10 1 4 or b· U: J or J.- 100 4 l rUIChl·l~ :\lil-l!IU ur 12 8 J. ~ lib
.\lkgro 'J U ) • ... 114 3.'4 IJ,IIIllllg \JliiUl'l llllll' J =IOU
CULU~I:'\ 1 l'OI.U!\1:\ 4
c ·\1111.11111': IIU \ Jlllt' gl\ I'll C L.ugo. 110 \' ,IJUl'
2 4 .\1ul.111ll'. J -= '7 2 1. L..1rgu J ~ IJ'J
J 4 ·\1111.11111' tJUil\ •·rs· t·~ 12b 3. 2 1..11 j.!ll J ~ 63
( 11 qu.'"''~- And.ullt' I' ;. lib 3 J\tl.lglll j = ~.!.
5
Intriguing circunstances surround the invention and promotion by
Salieri, Beethoven and others, of ~lzel's highly acclaimed version of
the metroflOITE. Johann Ner;:omuk t~hzel (1772-1832) was the court
mechanic for the Emperor in Vienna, an appointrrent which brought his
inventions to tl1e attention of many influential people. In 1813,
MHlzel began working on his own version of a chronometer for
calculating tempo. It is believed MMlzel was copying an invention
previously begun by an inventor narred Stoekkel in 1813. In a letter
of October 13, 1813, printed in the Wiener Vaterl~dische Blatter,
Salieri discussed his ~1 use of 1~lzel's chrononEter. He is said to
have assigned temfX> markings to Haydn's Creation, al·though no evidence
of this has ever been found. Salieri also planned to use the
chronometer to assign ~~rkings to con~)Ositions by Gluck and Handel
[3]. Salieri, in the above letter, ¥Jrote of Beethoven:
Herr Beethoven looks upon this invention as a t.velcome means with which to secure the perfonnance of his highly original oanpositions in all places in tJ1e tempos intended for them, which he regrets is so frequently lacking. [4]
On December l, 1813, Salieri agairt promoted the need for a
chronan~ter, to ensure the correct tempo according to the composer's
wishes, in an article in the Leipziger Allgemeine musikalische
•• Zeitung. Salieri discussed the wide acclaim received by ~Blzel for
his previous invention, an autaMted chess machine [ 5].
At the time of the December statement fro."TT Salieri, fello.v
canposers Beethoven and vJeigel had becace acquainted with fulzel 's
n~tronorre and were using the instnnnent regularly. Mc~lzel 's final,
perfected version of the n~tronome seems to have evolved fran numerous
6
ideas of various inventors of his time. I have already mentioned
Pridgin and Stoekkel, from v11horn r~lzel borra.ved basic design, but
Haimund W. Sterl, in his 1981 article entitled, "Johann Nepornuk M'::lzel
und seine Erfindungen," published in Musik in Bayern, believes the
mechanical inner workings of what we now know today as the metronome
•• was stolen by IValzel frorn inventor Diederich Nicklaus ~vinkel.
Winkel, the son of a clockrnaker, was born in 1777 in Lippstadt.
By Novar~r 27, 1814, Winkel had invented a metronome and, in 1815,
showea it to the Kc~niglichen Institut fllr ~vissenschaft und Kunste. On
Aus~st 14, 1815, Winkel's metronome was officially recognized by the
Institute.
In 1815, ~lzel took his chess rnachine to a mechanical trade show
in Amsterdam. Winkel also attended the same convention with his
version of the metronane and hoped to exchange ideas with f~ l ze l whose
work on the chronorreter had interested him. Winkel asked .tVlt1lzel to
look at his metronome and 9ive him suggestions on how to promote it.
II , ~1lzel s work on the chronometer had faltered due to his lack of
understanding of the inner workings. rv~lzel took vhnkel 's rnetroname
ca11pletely apart and studied the inner mechanism. He then told Winkel
that he could not help him and had no advice on how to improve the
invention. In reality, ~·,lzel went home to Vienna and rerrn.de his
chronaneter using the inner mechanism he had seen in Winke 1 's
machine, and assigned the term metronome to his new invention.
By 1816, ~lzel had perfected and patented a new metronorre, using
Winkel's idea, and engaged Salieri's help in prorroting the invention
in Vienna and Paris. M~lzel presented the metronome to the
7
Musikversan~lung, in Paris, calling it his own discovery. •• Malzel was
completely successful in getting rid of any links to the original
inventor, Winkel.
On April 9, 1816, Gaspare Spontini, an Italian COill[X)ser, sent a
letter to "a friend canposer in Vienna" [Salieri?] after seeing
111 1 , r~ ze s metronome at the Paris EY~ibition. He described the
invention as:
sorrething to fix the tem[X)s of music finnly. Yesterday, a collection of the best ccxnJX>sers in Paris saw and worked with this new invention of
II Malzel. They were in wonder of thi~; new invention .•. they were very satisfied with it. The chroncxneter [ netronane] is the resu 1 t of many stimulations and illuminating suggestions by Salieri.
They [the composers at the Paris convention] examined it and it b-=came clearer how perfect it was and the great advantage that would result from it.
As soon as it is cornrronly in use, Italy, Germany, France, England will owe him [~lzel] enthusiastic applause. A 1~1chinc that will truly reproduce the intentions of the composer so his works cannot be falsified in front of the public as was often the case in the past. [6]
By 1816, Winkel realized ~lzel had plagiarized his invention and
marketed it as his own. vhnkel turned to the Fachpresse, a mechanical
trade journal, to tell his side of the story and also to gain
recognition as the sole inventor of the metronane in question.
Hearings ensued, led by the K~niglischen Institut, but lV~lzel somelK:>~.v
always seerred to avoid the surnrocmses to appear at these hearings, or
would arrange to have them cancelled.
8
The c~ssion ultimately determined that MSlzel contributed only
the scale of tempo markings to the metronome, with the rest of the
invention remaining Winkel's work. ~lzel finally signed, but
eventually ignored, an "obligations explanation" (an open statement)
recognizing Winkel as the inventor [ 7].
Beethoven and the Metronome
The earliest surviving metronome markings on a composition are
those of Ludwig van Beethoven. In 1813, even before the perfection of
the metronome by ~lzel, Beethoven already recognized its importance:
•.. I look upon the invention of the metronome as a welcome means of assuring the performance of my compositions everywhere in the tempi conceived by me , which to my regret have so of ten been misunderstood. [8]
Beethoven was the first major comr;Dser to make use
of ~lzel 's new invention:
I have thought for a long time of giving up these nonse~sical terms allegro, andante,adagio, presto, and Malzel 's metronome gives us the best opportunity to do so, I give you my word here and now that I will not use them in any of my new compositions ... I be 1 ieve it [the metronane] would be best, especially in our countries, in which music has become a national necessity, and every village schoolmaster must be urged to use the metronome. [9]
An announcement appeared in the Wiener Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung on February 14, 1818, and was signed by both Beethoven and
Salieri stating their collective delight in the newly perfected
metronome:
~lzel 's metronome has arrived! The usefulness of his invention will be proved more and more. Moreover, all the composers of Germany, Eng land
9
and France have adopted it. .• We recorrrnend the metronone as an indispensable aid to all pupils for since the pupil must not in the teacher~s absence arbitrarily sing or play out of time, by means of the rnetronome his feeling for the time and rhythm will quickly be guided and corrected. We think that we should acclaim this invention of Millzel ~s which indeed is so useful from this point of view also [in addition to setting the basic tempo according to the composer~s wishes], for it seens that for this particular advantage it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated. [10]
On Deceml:er 17, 1817, Beethoven published metronane markings for
his eight symphonies both in two pamphlets distributed by Steiner and
Co., and also in the Leipziger Allgemeine musikalische Zeitun9.
(Figure 2) Beethoven later provided the rnetronane markings for the
Ninth Symphony, markings also entered in the dedication copy for the
King of Prussia and again in a letter, signed by Beethoven to his
II publisher, Bernhard Schotts Sohne, on October 13, 1826. Entries can
also be found in the Schott~s house journal the C~cilia.
Beethoven provided metronome rrarkings for all nine symphonies,
the string quartets through opus 95, and for a few other compositions
[ ll] . He intended to provide them for all his compositions, a project
left unfinished. Beethoven ~s passion for fv'rilzel ~s metronome lasted
until the end of his life.
In one of his last letters, dictated to his nephew, Karl, on
December 18, 1826, Beethoven tries to impress upon his publisher,
Schott, the importance of metronome markings in his compositions:
The rnetronome markings will be sent to you very soon. Do wait for them. In our century, such indications are certainly necessary. Moreover, I have received letters from Berlin informing me [that] the first perfonnance of the [ninth] symphony was received with enthusiastic applause,
10
Figure 2: Beethoven 's t-Etronorre Markings for his First Eight Symphonies as Published in the Leipziger Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung.
U\17. Dec~mber.
Die Tempo'~t Bilnuntliclt«"r Saue allf'r Symphonicn df'.a Hrn L.Y&·lhovcn, wm Vuf. 11tJbM oad1 M.t-lza11 lk-lronom 11fttimmt
S,•.-mph II . Op S6
Symph. m Op .u
S;'4 mph V. Op 07.
-m;:r:n ro~~, w rJ1 ~- p: ·~~ Dl'rrm•
!i!l . ~ ;o .bt ~
p,u_ ~- ~1!! )1 ~(tidi-Jg Nfi:-v __ _
11
~ .... mph V1 Or fiR
Al/.etp-o. ,... NJn :::a:· ~"t~T:i~
S,y mph. YO llv 11:.:
Jhogoi'Oolf6~~1~ _4_~~--~~ t>'!J~ i ~::r.r=-,..~=--- :!1 .. ~
n..._.._ ~ --. r: FF. - ·- c=--:::::.::.a n·-···· ---::£a::--.:-_~ /.¥2 f'· ._ .:a.:: ~-= -
Symph vm ,_,,, 9&.
which I ascribe largely to the metronome markings. We can scarcely have tempo ordinari [i.e., Andante, Allegro] any longer, since one must fall into line with the ideas of unfettered genius. [12]
Other Evidence of Tempo in the Classical Period
There are numerous accounts of the pace of music in the Classical
period. Mozart left many references in his letters regarding concerts
he witnessed or performed in. Many times, his conrnents centered
around the temr:os of performances of his own music. He f reguentl y
commented that he wished the music to go faster, e.~., in a letter to
his father, in regard to the "Haffner" Symphony, Mozart asked for the
first movement to be played "with great fire" and wished the finale to
proceed "as fast as r:ossible." In a rehearsal of the Presto section of
his overture to The Marriage of Figaro, Mozart conrnented: "that was
beautiful! ..• Let us take it still quicker this evening" [13].
Accounts like this strengthen the credibility of the rather fast
metronane rrarkings left by Beethoven and the assertion that tempos 1n
the Classical period were faster in general than twentieth century
performances would indicate.
In a letter written to his friend Ignaz von Mosel, Beethoven
describes his feelings about the Italian terms alone. This account
also gives us an insight into the performance practice of the time:
I heartily rejoice in the same opinion that you share with me regarding the temr:o indications that have been handed down from the days of musical barbarism, for what (to take an example) can be more absurd than allegro, which means no more nor less than ~rrerry ~; and how far removed we often are from this meaning of this tempo designation,
12
so that the music itself 1s quite the opposite of the designation. [14]
Beethoven goes on to describe how important the character of a
given canposition was to him. Beethoven believed the best guide to
character in his music was the metronome indication combined with
descriptive terms, such as non troppo, espressivo, and cantabile.
As for the four chief speeds [Adagio, Andante, Allegro, Presto] which are far from having the truth or the accuracy of the four chief winds, we could readily do without them. It is quite another matter with the words that indicate the character of the piece. These we cannot give up, for the tempo is more the body, while these refer to the soul of the piece itself. [15]
Another valuable source for determining tempo in the eighteenth
century is the mechanical l:Errel organ. William Malloch's article
entitled "The F.arl of Bute 's machine organ," published in Farly Music
in April 1983, details the selection and pinning of various pieces of
Baroque music by John Christopher Smith the younger (1712-1795) [16].
Alexander Cumming (1733-1814) built a rnechanical organ and
documented Smith's pinning of the barrels in his book which ends with
a "Catalogue of the Music on the Various Barrels." Each barrel allows
for twelve minutes of music and each canposi tion is timed to the
second in Currming 's catalogue. Malloch believes that we are here
presented witl1 potentially the greatest storehouse of information
about tempos and tempo relationships available to us from the
eighteenth century. Malloch assigned tempo markings to the various
pieces on the barrels as they were played on the mechanical organ.
For example, for Carelli's seventh concerto, the allegro is
perforrred at ( J = 123), whereas, Adagio is assigned ( ) = 64), which
13
leads one to the conclusion that tempi during the time of the pinning
of these pieces on the barrels were faster than what we are accustomed
to today. Therefore, what few documents concerning tempo in the
second half of the eighteenth century exist seem to suggest brisk
tempos in general and to support Beethoven's metronomic indications.
In conclusion, Beethoven's repeated endorsements of the metronome
over a dozen years can leave no doubt of its importance to him. He
was obviously searching for a means to improve the standard
terminology used in prescribing tempo, thereby to correctly indicate
the tempo and character of his awn compositions. II ,
M':tl ze l s metronome
provided Beethoven with another voice in indicating the proper pace
for his music.
14
CHl\P'ffiH I I I
'I'EivtPO AND THE METRONCME IN THE
GENERATION FOUDWING BEETHOVEN
Needless to say, Beethoven did not intend that the performance of
his music be strictly metronomic; the metronome marki~J was intended
to establish the opening and the general tempo. In 1824, Carl Maria
von Weber published a valuable essay on the proper execution of his
temp:> narkings, which ~t.Uuld seem to apply to performance in general:
The beat, the tem{X), must not be a controlling tyrant nor a n~chanical driving hilirnner; it should be to a piece of music what the pulse beat is to the life of man. '!'here is no slOIN rrovcrll..-"nt without places that denand a quicker motion in order to avoid a sense of drayging. In the san-e way, there is no Presto that does not require a contrasting, more tranquil execution of rrBny passages, for otherwise the expressiveness would be lost in excessive speed. [17]
Weber's account leads us to believe that he felt as strongly
about interpretive flexibility as all other canposers did. But the
interpretation would be canpranised, perhaps falsified, without using
the canposer 's metronome mark to give the proper tem[X).
Tempo in Beethoven· s music did not becane a dormant issue in the
generation following---quite the opposite. Many followers of
Beethoven, and, in the case of Czerny, a forrrer pupil, tried to extend
Beethoven's intentions by applying rnetronane markings to Beethoven's
unnarked works.
For example, after Beethoven's death, Carl Czerny and Ignaz
Moscheles individually assigned metronane uarkings to various editions
of Beethoven's unmarked piano sonatas. [18] They felt this task would
15
aid future generations in proper interpretation of Beethoven's works
for piano. Many questions have been raised as to why these men felt
impelled to assign tempo markings to unmarked works, haw they came up
with their markings, and whom we should believe when they differ.
Some background on the relationship of these two contemporaries of
Beethoven to the composer may shed some light on answers to the above
questions.
carl Czerny (1791-1857) would become one of Beethoven's most
famous pupils and a composer of pedagogical literature for the piano
still in use today. William r~lloch describes Czerny as "a dedicated
teacher, and a thoroughly professional composer" [19]. Czerny was in
close contact with Beethoven for many years as pupil, teacher of
Beethoven's nephew Karl, and good friend. The documented
correspondence between Beethoven and Czerny establishes the fact of
Czerny's close association with the composer.
Questions have arisen concerning the credibility of Czerny's
markings of most of Beethoven's piano music because of the number of
years between Beethoven's death and Czerny's published markings in
1836. Nottebohm spoke in Czerny's behalf by stating:
Czerny had not only had instruction in piano playing with Beethoven for some time (1801 and later) and had often heard Beethoven play, but he also knew what piano playing was and he certainly new the playing of his time from every angle. [20]
Furthermore he believed:
Although not of authentic validity, still these [Czerny's] indications can lay claim to a certain confidence, especially for those works which we know that Czerny either heard
16
played by Beethoven or studied under his instruction .
••• Anyone who knew Czerny personally, who had the opportunity to observe his nature, which was above all directcu toward the practical, will believe him capable of impressing firmly on his memory a te!Tp) that he had heard, and wi 11 have noticed the certainty that he had in such outwardly tangible musical matters. [21]
Czerny provided at least three sets of metrooorre narkings for
Beethoven's piano sonatas. The first set was prepared by Czerny
around 1828, and was published by Haslinger in 1836 [22]. The second,
and most famous edition containing these markings was published in
1846, in Czerny's _On the Pro~Pe~formance ~f A~l__8eethoven's Work~
for the Piano, which also contains Czerny's markings for sane of
Beethoven's violin and cello sonatas, trios, and concertos. Czerny
also provided narkings for Simrock's edition of the piano sonatas in
1856-1868 [ 23].
Sandra Rosenblum has done extensive comparative research on the
markings in her article: .. Two sets of unexplored metronorre marks for
Beethoven's piano sonatas," found in the February 1988 issue of _Ea£1~
Music. In the article she compares four sets of metronome Jnarkings,
the three left by Czerny and one by an unkno.vn author (perhaps also
Czerny).
To sumnarize Rosenblum's findings regarding the three known sets
by Czerny, there are sane differences among the markings themselves
made over the span of some forty years between the Haslinger 1828
edition and the Simrock 1856-68 edition. But my own comparison of
various modern performances to Czerny's earliest set of markings,
17
closest 1n proximity to Beethoven, indicates that, in general, modern
tempos, especially in the slow movements, are slower. Moreover, it
would be fair to state that modern performances are, in general,
slower than even the slowest tempos indicated among the three Czerny
sets.
For example, in Beethoven's 11Appassionata 11 sonata, Op. 57, the
Adagio con moto is marked ( ) = 120) in 1828, 108 in 1846, and back,
once again to his original marking of 120 in 1856. In modern
recordings by Horowitz (1972), Rubinstein, and Casadesus, the tempos
range from 76 to 92.
In 1814, when Ignaz Moscheles (1794-1870) was only twenty years
old, Beethoven employed this gifted pianist-composer to produce the
piano/vocal score to his only opera, Fidelia. From Moscheles'
reminiscences of Beethoven we learn of Beethoven's close association
with ~lzel and also about the composer's struggle with encroaching
deafness [24].
Moscheles' staterrent, below, of how he assigned metronome
markings to Beethoven's piano sonatas confirms Czerny's work:
I have not merely listened to my own musical feelings, but [have] been guided by my recollections of what I gathered from Beethoven's own playing, and that of the Baroness ErUtBn [sic], whom I have heard perform many of his works in his presence, and to his entire satisfaction .
•.. It is with satisfaction that I add that the tempi I have ventured to give differ very slightly from those affixed to Haslinger's Vienna edition by Car 1 Czerny, whom I consider to be a competent authority in the matter. [25]
18
A review of all the tempo markings by Czerny and Moscheles once
again leads one in the direction of faster tempos than we are used to
today. It is therefore difficult not to conclude that Beethoven
wanted his music played in general rather fast and that the metronome
markings were his way of indicating this.
The Timings of Sir George Smart
Timings of nineteenth-century performances provide invaluable
information on tempo. Unfortunately, we do not have very many of
them. While scholars wish more concert-goers in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries had written dONn performance durations, one
source of documentation from Beethoven's time does exist.
Sir George Smart ( l 776-1867) was a contemporary of Haydn, Mozart
and Beethoven and left some 140 programs of performances he conducted
for the London Philharmonic Society between 1819 and 1843, programs
no.v housed in the British Museum. In 1825, he had the opportunity to
meet Beethoven in Baden to discuss the symphonies with him.
Beethoven gave me the time, by playing the subjects on the pianoforte, of many movements of his symphonies, including the Choral Symphony. [26]
Smart wrote do.vn the timings for all of his own performances of
Beethoven's symphonies and most of Haydn's and t1Jzart's well-kno.vn
works as well. Unfortunately, he neglected to indicate whether the
repeats had been taken, a crucial omission when dealing with tenpo.
In some cases Smart also failed to mark timings for individual
movements and, at times, failed to note if any movements had been
omitted or repeated during a performance. Smart leads us to believe
19
that long repeats, for example in the exposition, ~re sorretirres
omitted during performances of the day. Unfortunately, Smart is not
specific enough to validate all of the timings he left behind.
Nicholas Temperley's research in 1966 into the timings left by
Smart shows a pace for his performances similar to modern day
performances. For example, Temperley cites three performances by
Smart of Beethoven's sixth symphony which, taken without repeats as
Smart notated, lasted thirty-seven minutes in 1821 and an average of
thirty-two minutes in 1823 and 1829. These performances are compared
to modern performances averaging thirty-six minutes. We do not know
how much of the time of the thirty-seven minute timing was spent
bet'irJeen nnvements, but Temperley feels compelled to conclude that
modern tempos are not drastically faster or slower than Smart's.
However, the timings show that Smart did not adhere to
Beethoven's tempo markings only a few years after Beethoven's death,
so it is precisely performances like Smart's that Beethoven so
strongly objected to. Beethoven's metronane markings, as played by
Roger Norrington, indicate a symphony of t~nty-nine and a-half
minutes with all repeats taken [27]!
Nicholas Temperley's survey of Smart's timings gives interesting
insights on performance practices in the early nineteenth-century and
will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter IV.
Wagner and Beethoven
If there has ever been one influential individual who could have
completely transformed traditional musical practices, it would have
20
been Richard Wagner. His innovations in orchestral usage, conducting
practice, and overall presentation of music [what he called "music of
the future"], have had an enduring effect on late nineteenth and
twentieth-century performance practices. Only recently, with the
authenticity movement, has his overwhelming influence been
sufficiently examined.
Wagner worshipped Beethoven's music, especially the ~i~tQ
~hony. Without ever hearing the piece, \'Jagner felt compelled to
copy the score; and he eventually transcribed it for piano.
Beethoven's influence on Wagner would later be surpassed only by
Wagner's influence on the performance of Beethoven's works.
In 1861, Moscheles reacted to Wagner's growing influence on
performance practice of the mid-nineteenth century:
I know many think me old-fashioned, but the more I consider tile tendency of modern taste, ... the more strenuously will I uphold that which I know to be sound art, and side with those who can appreciate a Haydn's playfulness, a Mozart's Cantilena, and a Beethoven's surpassing grandeur.
What antidotes have we here for all these morbid meanings and overwrought effects! ..• Here as elsewhere I miss the right '"l'ernpi," and look in vain for the traditions of my youth.
That tearing speed which sweeps away many a little note; that spinning out of an Andante until it becanes an 1\dagio, an "Andante con nota," in which there is no "mota" at all, an "Allegro coma:lo" which is anything but camfortable .•. [28]
Samuel Lipman wrote of Wagner's influence on the performance of
Beethoven's music in a 1990 article "Cutting Beethoven J)Qr...ln to Size":
I think this idea that music should be sehr ernst [very serious] and not a rratter for huni)rilll ___ _ began in the Victorian era when music was an
21
upper-class activity that separated you from the trogs.
Also, the t~ when all this heaviness set in was the tirre religion was really being challenged in a major way, and for a while music took over the significance of a religion---it acquired stained glass---and Wagner was the arch-priest.
Now it was the "mystical \\Grld of Gernan music"---it had to be seen to be difficult, heavy, plush, an embodirrent of authority---everything that Beethoven was against. [29]
Wagner's trend toward slower tempos began with his
study with Fran1Dis Habeneck in Paris from 1839-1842.
During that period, Wagner came to realize what he wanted to express
in his own conducting and compositions: the melodic line, or what he
called melos. Wagner observed Habeneck's ability to slow things dawn
to better bring out the rrelodic element of a familiar piece of music,
which Wagner thought so imr:ortant .
••• in a stroke the picture I had had of the wonderful work [Beethoven's ninth symphony] in the days of my youthful enthusiasm, and that had been effaced by the murderous [Jerformance of it given by the Leipzig Orchestra under the worthy Pohlenz, now rose up again before rre in such clearness that it seemed as if I could grasp it with my hands.
Where formerly I had seen nothing but mystic constellations and soundless magical shapes, there was now poured out, as front innumerable springs, a stream of inexhaustible and heart-compelling melody. [30]
Tb achieve this pouring out of melody, Wagner felt
that he had to slow down tempos in the slow movements as Habeneck had
done. However, he expressed an opposite approach to fast movanents:
22
As I have said that, in the ideal sense, the pure ~g~~~Q. can never be taken too slow, so the pure, the absolute Presto can never be taken fast -----· enough. [ 31 ]
Wagner decided to spread his ideas throughout Germany and beyond,
and inspire others to perform Beethoven as he thought it should be
perfonned and heard. In 1865, he wrote a 11Re{X)rt concerning a German
music-school to be established in Munich .. wherein he pleaded with his
friend, King Ludwig II, of Bavaria, to establish a German school to
teach proper musical performance practice of German masters'
canposi tions.
We possess classical works, but we are not in possession of a classical style for the execution of these works.
Does Gennany possess a school at which the proper execution of t~zart's music is taught? Or do our orchestras and their conductors 1nanage to play ~vzart in accordance with same occult knowl~~qe of their own? If so, whence do they derive such knowledge'? Who taught it them? [32]
wagner never saw his dream becane a reality, but still managed to
establish a "German Conducting School, .. which became the cornerstone
of modern conducting practice. It evolved through the work of now
II famous names in the history of modern conducting: Hans von Bulow,
Hermann Levi, Hans Richter, Ernst von Schuch, Anton Seidl, and Felix
~ottl. Through the work of these great conductors, Wagner's concepts
were refined and practiced throughout Europe, eventually spreading to
American conductors.
Felix Weingartner's treatise on conducting, in 1905, clearly
transmits Wagner's conducting vision to the next generation of
conductors:
23
He [Wagner] sought for the unifying thread, the psychological line, the revelation of which suddenly transforms, as if-by r~gic, a rnore or less indefinite sound-picture into a beautifully shaped, heart-rroving vision, making people ask themselves in astonisrut~nt how it is that this work, which they had long thought they knew, should have all at once becorre quite dnother thing, and the unprejudiced mind joyfully confessed, "Yes, thus, thus, must it really be." [ 33] ---
Hans von B~low 1s probably the most famous pupil of Wagner, about
whose conducting it was noted:
Where a modification of the tempo was necessary to get expressive phrasing, it happened that in order to make this modification quite clear to his hearers he e~~gg~-~~teq it; indeed, he fell into a quite new temp..> that was a negation of the m.-=tin one. [ 34]
.. In the late nineteenth-century, Bulow had become a reputed
conductor of Beethoven's symphonies, a direct descendant of Wagner.
One instance of B~low 's transformation of Beethoven's original tempo
marking can be seen in the following example. During a performance of
•• Beethoven 's ~.i!Jl....e.hony No. 8 in 18 89, Bulow conducted the ~eJ]_l!et_to at a
( ) =92) although Beethoven's rmrking is clearly, () =126). When
asked why he had made such a drastic change in tempo from Beethoven's
original marking, B~low stated that he felt the Men_':l_~t"=.<?. was rreant to
be the slow-movement of the _Eighth S.Y!!£l]_ony [ 35].
Weingartner aptly summarized B~low's effect on the interpretation
of Beethoven's works:
The saddest part of the business was that the chief arena chosen for all these varieties [interpretation] and experlinents was our glorious classical music, esr:ecially the holiest of all, tl1at of Beethoven. [36]
24
The more one reads the literary works of Wagner, and all the
various treatises on his teachings and theories, the more one feels
his intense need to find the spirit and inner meaning of music. He
apparently found new spirit and inner meaning in Beethoven, conveyed
by drastic alterations of Beethoven's tempos. One is left with the
question of whether a composer's markings should be changed on the
assumption that there is some new meaning to be brought out in the
music. Does the slowing dawn of a tempo help draw out melodic
intensity and were the tempos set by Beethoven so fast as to obscure
the inner meaning or character of the music?
25
CHAPI'ER N
'IWENTIEI'H CENI'URY VIEWS; PART ONE
(1942-1980)
Rudolf Kolisch - 1942
Numerous studies have been conducted over the past fifty years
concerning the validity and feasibility of the perforrnance of
Beethoven's music according to his metronome markings. The various
studies raise many interesting questions about performance practice in
the nineteenth versus the twentieth century, the use of nodern versus ,. ,
period instruments, the reliability of Malzel s rretroname, and the
can1petence of not only Beethoven himself, but his nephew Karl who,
after Beethoven's deafness had set in, assisted him by writing down
metronome markings in conversation books as Beethoven dictated them to
him.
A two-part article published in 1943 by Rudolph Kolisch opened
the lid on the problerr1 of deviation from Beethoven's given tempi.
Kolisch sought to re-establish the basic credibility of Beethoven's
metronome markings which he felt had been ignored since the middle of
the nineteenth century. Kolisch reviewed several important issues
that have led to the present situation.
First, Kolisch raised the question of the authenticity of
Beethoven's rretronome marks themselves by asking: "Yes, the rretronane
narkings are Beethoven's, but do they really convey his
intentions" [37]?
26
Secondly, Kolisch raised the often repeated statE'Illent: "tempi
indicated [by Beethoven] are unplayable, and •.. this fact alone
disposes of them" [ 38]. He also mentioned the differential between , - ,,
modern day metronorres and .Beethoven s m:::del by Malzel, and finally
canmented on the attitude that metronane indications are " 'inartistic'
and ..• cramp the freedom of the re-creating imagination" [39].
Kolisch ultimately wanted to be able to prescribe metronane
markings for Beethoven's unmarked pieces by examining the rhythmic
characteristics of the marked pieces and the accompanying tempi which
encompass Italian terms, modifiers connected to those terms, and the
metronorre markings themselves. Kolisch felt he could: " ... deduce from
a study of pieces for which Beethoven did provide such [rretronomic]
indications, the tE'Illpi for those which he did not" [40].
Table 1 shows Kolisch's arrangement of Beethoven's metronome
markings according to meter and tempo categories.
•rable 1. Rudolf Kolisch 's Tempi Acmrding to Beethoven, Arranged According to Yeter and Tempo Categories
ALLE(iRO ADAGIO ANDANTE ALLtu
""'"""~ ----- con br1o molt--;;-modrt"Qtb
11 J. '"JO J.:; so ~ +. J ::10 J • 60 J • 100 J •17.6 J = 126 J •168·11'1 J • 181· 2.£X
1' Ji,. 10-fl .1>=86 Jl=200 &
6 J •• 30 J .• so J. =56 J . .:; 8i J .• 10-l J.:l32 J.:.l76 ~~ r1!! • 92)
J J .. .}0 J .. 50 J =81·88 J. 120 J • 132. J •IS1-I76
l J •10 J •10·66 J=66·1l0 J • 80-SG J • 96 J•I26·1J2 J •/41 J • 176· 181 ... ~ J. =69·81 J. • 95·/CX J .• 108·126
9 J. =44·16 J .• 56 6 j J =J0-1-1 J. 60·66 J =80·116 J "l4·H52 J •162·20 1 .,
f-~ J. =56 J ... 68 J .• 108
.s Jl,. JS-56 Jl= 72.-92. }h 110 0
27
-PRESTo I -J • 2oo
-J. = 192
J : 131
J • IBi
J. • IJ7
J=Jco
He provided numerous examples from Beethoven's marked works to
explain the relationship between meter and tempo. For example, he
cited the Scherzo movements in the quartets Op. 18, no. 4; Op. 18, no.
5; Op. 59, no. 2, and Op. 59, no. 3, and in the septet, Op. 20 and
explains:
••. all of these are marked "Minuetto" or "Allegretto"; yet each of these movements is in a different tempo, and the differences are by no means mere nuances; on the oontrary, the tempo varies from quarter-note equals 120 to quarter-note equals 252! [41]
Kolisch believed the character of the music would detennine the
correct tempo. To find the correct tempo, he decided he must:
"determine the essential quality in the music, its spirit" [42].
He believed Beethoven had assigned certain tempo markings to certain
character-types, therefore, when a certain character-type is
determined in a canposition marked by Beethoven, it can be assumed
that he probably would have assigned similar tempi to similar
character-types in other pieces.
Kolisch stressed that he was not trying to undermine the
"individuality of r:articular works" or "attempt a simplification of
the infinite complexity of musical phenomena." His objective was
simply to: " •.• isolate a single element in that complexity, tempo, and
errphasize its relationship to character" [43].
Kolisch died before he was able to summarize his findings or
completely answer the questions he posed. What he did contribute to
the debate over the tempo markings of Beethoven was the debate itself,
and one could conclude that, in general, he agreed with Beethoven's
28
markings or he would not have felt compelled to categorize the
markings for future use in urunarked works. He also inspired further
investigation into the problem of misinterpretation of the markings
and many valuable studies followed his lead.
Hermann Beck - 1954
An extract from Hennann Beck's German dissertation (1954)
entitled "Bemerkungen zu Beethoven's Tempi," appeared in the
Beethoven-Jahrbuch in 1956. As Kolisch had done eleven years
previously, Beck's study dealt with Beethoven's metronome markings and
their relationship to the character of the composition to which they
were assigned.
He felt one must have a full understanding of the "characteristic
rhythmic flow and feel" or Bewegung as he called it, to ultimately
reveal the true tempo of a composition [ 44]. Beck believEd three
elements needed to be harmonious in order for the correct rhythmic
character to be determined, first: "the prevailing note values and
patterns," second: "the time signature and its traditional tempo
associations," and third: "the tempo inscription" [45].
Beck made a detailed analysis of nearly ninety separate movements
studying the relationships between certain tempo markings assigned by
Beethoven and the rhythmic patterns and time signatures. He analyzed
only those movements marked Allegro or faster for he felt they had
been the most misinterpreted arrong Beethoven 's marked pieces, whose
validity Beck had generally agreed with. In Table 2, one sees his
29
Combination of the· three elements for determining rhythmic character
as listed alx>ve.
Table 2. Hermann Beck's Table fran "Bemerkungen"
I.TanpOj~Nppc 2. Tcmpogruppc l.Tcmpog01ppc
Bcwrgung ... • II • y ~~ IT IT - ':!
1TTrTT1 r--.r----, r-,,..--.
IITIJI gl.ordcNill!, I J J I J .J I
Allegro J-96 J- 1::.'0 d- 69 d~s. (op. 18, 2, I. S.) (op. 18, I; 4. S.) (op. 18, 2; 2. S.) (op. 74; 4. S.)
J-121. (op. ~9. I: 4. S.)
In ltnlpO .I~ ll2 d'Allcl(rO (op. 611; l. S.)
1\. m• non d-66 c:l-80 UOI'P" (op. 6/J; I. S.) (op. 60; 4. S.)
1\. m• noo J- 88 noppo. (op. 125; I. S.) Wl poco RUUlOtO
1\llcsru d-72 d-108 \'on brio (op. '11; 4. S.) (op. 67; I. S.)
1\.mohu d-76 (op. 55; 4. S.)
1\. moho d-1111 r nvacc (op. 21; 4. S.)
1\. moho d-•n •tu.u.i prctto (op. 18, 4; 4. S.)
l'ruco J·I16(J·II6) J-n I (up.~~. -4. S.) (op. ~~. I; 4. S.)
'-
Beck's ul tirnate goa.l was to prove that certain rhythmic [>a.ttems
and time signatures continually had the s~ne temporal connotations
assigned to them; therefore, like markings could by assigned to
unmarked pieces. In regard to the debate over the validity of
Beethoven's rretronome markings, Beck's research proves that he rnust
have believed wholeheartedly in the markings or he would not have
tried to group them as he did for use in unmarked pieces.
30
William S. Newman - 1981
WilliamS. Newman puts Beck's theory to the test in an article
which appeared in the 1981-82 issue of the Piano Quarterly entitled
"Tempo in Beethoven's Instrumental Music: Its Choice and Flexibility"
[ 46] 0
Like Beck, N~nan also found he could assign metronome markings
to pieces left unmarked by Beethoven by comparing rhythmic character
with Beethoven's marked pieces. Part II of N~n 's 1982 artie le,
which will be discussed in the next chapter, takes up where Beck left
off and attempts to answer some new questions not posed by Beck.
Beck's study does give us a better understanding of how to go about
categorizing the character of an Allegro movement by Beethoven. 'rhis
study, in addition to the comparisons left by Kolisch, helps provide
an excellent basis for possibly assigning markings to unmarked pieces
of the same character, an aid in rncdern performance, and a better
overall understanding of Beethoven's intentions.
Nicholas Temperley - 1966
A contrasting point of view on the usefulness of Beethoven's
metronome markings surfaced in 1966 in a study conducted by Nicholas
Temper ley. In an article entitled "Tempo and Repeats in the F..arly
Nineteenth Century," which appeared in Music a_!l_g Letters, Ternperley
determined the markings left by Beethoven to be "alrrost useless as
guides to performance speed" [ 47].
'femperley believed the flexibility of tempo negated the validity
of metronome markings. He felt that the only way to accurately
31
detennine performance speed was to tirre actual perforrrances. As was
already discussed in Chapter III, Temperley reviewed the timings for
the Beethoven symphonies left by Sir George Smart and concluded that
Smart's tempos were not drastically faster or slower than tempos at
the time of his 1966 study. However, as was also noted, on numerous
occasions Smart failed to rrark dawn whether repeats were taken or cuts
were made. Smart also failed to time the tnovements separately, which
could allow for ti~ngs to include applause or encores of certain
movements. Hence, Smart's t~ngs may be suspect. They may also be
evidence that even in Beethoven's day, conductors played the works
generally slower than is indicated by the metronome markings.
Table 3 shows Smart~ s timings for all the Beethoven symphonies,
and others, along with Temperley~s own averages of modern performance
times, and Norrington ~s ti~ngs at or very near Beethoven ~s rretronane
markings. (Norrington's timings are given only for ease of comparison
and will be considered in detail later.) For example, there seems to
be sorre discrepancy in the ti~ngs of the Eroica SymphoQY which
Cipriani Potter conducted on May 18, 1842, in that his performance is
much shorter than any other. 'l'emperley believed that a whole movement
may have been omitted. He also found the timings of the slow
movements of the fourth and eighth symphonies interesting, in that: "
•.• they are longer even than the modern times with all repeats played.
It may be that these times included encores or unusually long
intervals between movements" [ 48].
32
Table 3. Extract from Sir George Smart's 'I'imings of Beethoven Symphonies; More Than One lVbverrent; with Repeats [Compared with Norrington's Present Timings.]
Symphony Date Smart's Average Modern [Norrington] 'l'iming Timing
No. 1 30 Apr. 1821 25 27.08 [25.46] No. 2 22 Feb. 1819 34 34.43 [32.44] No. 3 24 Apr. 1820 41
do. 5 Mar. 1838 50 51.42 [43.29] do. 18 May 1842 33
No. 4 21 Feb. 1825 31 do. 3 Jul. 1843 35 33.14 [30.40]
No. 5 10 Feb. 1819 27 do. 19 Mar. 1827 31 34.18 [33.43] do. 12 Mar. 1832 30
No. 6 28 May 1821 37 do. 5 May 1823 32 do. 23 Mar. 1829 32.5 do. 11 May 1835 39 40.46 [40.05] do. 9 May 1836 40 do. 12 Jun. 1837 38
No. 7 26 Feb. 1821 35 44.58 [38.21] No. 8 17 rvar. 1834 30 26.54 [25.28] No. 9 21 M3r. 1825 64
do. 17 Apr. 1837 67.5 69.26 [62.23] do. 3 May 1841 61.5
In regard to Norrington, who we know adheres closely to
Beethoven's metronome markings, one sees a remarkable difference in
performance times, in the case of Symphony No. 3, with Norrington's
timings being three to eight minutes shorter than rrodern perfonrance
times. In most cases, Norrington's timings seem to fall into the same
general time span as Srrart's but are generally faster than the modern
performances that rremperley examined.
Part of the problem is, Smart did not mention the circumstances
surrounding these perfonnances, such as encores or whether he took
33
repeats, so the usefulness of these timings in determining the proper
performances of Beethoven symphonies may be lost [49].
Peter Stadlen - 1967
In 1967, Peter Stadlen set out to discuss the discrepancy
surrounding Beethoven's marking for the Presto section in the Trio of
the second movement of the Ninth Symphony. It appears that two
different markings were printed for the same section bringing
surprisingly different results.
Three sources exist which contain Beethoven's markings for the
Ninth Symphony, those being: l) Karl's entries from September 27,
1826, in the presentation copy for the King of Prussia: ( J =116),
2) the letter to Beethoven's publisher, Schott; October 13, 1826
(written by Karl and signed by Beethoven): (d =116), and 3) a letter
to Moscheles, penned by Schindler, on March 18, 1827, and signed by
Beethoven; ( J =116) [50].
However, in the Collected Edition, the marking for the Prestg
section reads (C)= 116) [51]. In 1896, Grove concluded that the
whole note was incorrect because the stem was "rubbed off" in the
second printing (1827) of the first (Schott) edition. But, Stadlen
refuted the ( J =116) marking stating:
If, then, we have to accept as a sine qua non that the first bar of the Presto must be faster than the last one of the stringendo and that the new tempo must prevail throughout the Trio, then ( J =116) is absolutely certain to be wrong. [52]
34
Stadlen also found a discrepancy in the PrestQ finale, printed
( d' =96) in the tvbsche les letter and ( J' =66) in the King of Prussia 's
copy. In 1925, Otto Baensch established:
... that the man at Schott's whose job it was to deal with Beethoven's rretronome letter mistakenly turned the 6 into a 9, quite possibly because in the printed score the Finale happens to start on page 96--a Freudian slip. [53]
Stadlen found numerous errors such as these, which explain why
some performers forsake the metronane markings, all or some of them,
and draw their own conclusions as to the correct tempi. He pointed
out how Karl and Beethoven battled on occasion with the mathematical
calculations of whether to use a half-note or quarter-note as the unit
of measurement for the tempo marking. Sometimes two very differing
numbers like 66 and 132 would be written on the same page of a
conversation book. (We must assume the beat note value would have
been twice as long for the greater number.) Hence, some of the
markings may be in error, and, according to Stadlen, if sane of the
markings are questionable, perhaps many or all are.
Stadlen concluded his 1967 article with the question:
If the evidence provided by the autograph score [of the Ninth] proves conclusively that the Trio needs to be played substantially faster than the Scherzo, •.. is it possible to find a common denominator, a figure that will make a reasonable fit for both?
Suppose that on that fateful occasion he did play both Scherzo and Trio at 100 or even 104--is there anything to account for the gap that remains between that sort of figure and the two ll6's of the Conversation Book? [54]
35
Stadlen leaves us with a great deal to think about and poses new
questions 1n his study from 1982 which will be discussed in the
following chapter.
David Fallows - 1978
In 1978, David Fallows' review of a radio broadcast appeared in
the July issue of Musical Times [55]. In the article, he noted that
conductor Lawrence Leonard's perfonnance on May 27, with the BBC
Northern Symphony Orchestra, of the Eroica Symphony, was in accordance
with Beethoven's metronome markings. First, Fallows questioned the
performance wondering if a change from the nonn was needed, and
second, asked if such a change was really what today's listener
wanted. Finally, Fallows discussed the difficulty of various solo
passages in the symphonies of Beethoven and questioned the ability of
the original performers to execute those passages at the rate of speed
required by the markings on instruments of the tinE.
He concluded that historical performances definitely needed to
occur with more frequency to answer the questions he posed and he
welcomed the authenticity movement wholeheartedly.
36
CHAPI'ER V
'IWENTIErH CENI'URY VIEWS ; PAR'l, 'IW)
(1980-PRESENI')
Max Rudolf - 1980
Studies in Chapter IV, beginning in 1942 with Rudolf Kolisch's
research, continued at an average interval of one new study every ten
years. Beginning in 1980, several studies appear every year. With
the release of new recordings by conductors claiming authentic
performances, many new questions would need to be considered. Thus,
the debate over the proper interpretation of the metronome markings
was heating up.
Max Rudolf poses some interesting questions concerning
Beethoven's metronome markings in his article, written in 1980, for
the Journal of the Conductor's Guild, entitled "The fv'Jetronotre
Indications 1n Beethoven's Symphonies." Rudolf begins by stating:
In modern scores, metronome indications are readily accepted as an essential and welcome guide to a composer's intentions. By contrast, they are frequently ignored in works written in the nineteenth-century.
One must assume, therefore, that performers either believe that metronome readings of former times are unreliable, or prefer to choose a tempo without regard for the composer's wishes.
Beethoven's symphonies are among the works whose metronome markings are still being given a low credibility rating by many conductors. In fact, prominent manbers of the profession have recorrmended that these markings be disregarded altogether. [56]
37
Rudolf deals with the problem of the disregard for the metronome
markings by asking some basic questions. First, he compares
Beethoven 's metronome with modern versions. He suggests that the
spring~riven model like Mk~lzel's could have, at times, produced a
lopsided beat, and could have had inexact calibration, or a noticeable
slo.ving down of the beat as the spring wound down. Nevertheless,
scholars such as Stadlen, whose results in this area will be discussed
presently, have found not much variance in the performance of today's
metronomes when compared with the kind Beethoven probably used.
Rudolf also questions the possibility of Beethoven's metronome being
faulty, but cites several puzzling examples from Beethoven's letters
wherein he describes how he had his "sick" metronome fixed.
The possibility of misprints of the metronome markings by
publishers, Beethoven's nephew Karl, and Beethoven himself is raised
by Peter Stadlen in 1967 and again by Rudolf, with Rudolf stressing
the care Beethoven and Karl took in writing the markings in the
conversation books, evidenced by the written conversation surrounding
the markings themselves in the books, and by the fact that Beethoven
and his nephew rechecked the markings several times. Hence, while
misprints are possible, they would be rare.
Rudolf's fourth question concerns whether Beethoven was less
attentive in handling the metronome than later composers. Here Rudolf
discusses the character Beethoven wished to convey to future
generations through the use of the metronome markings. Rudolf
believes: " •.. in fairness to Beethoven, one should not question his
38
results [with the metronome] without first investigating how he
arrived at a given metronome figure" [57].
Rudolf explains haw Beethoven might have arrived at a given
marking by singing, conducting, or playing through a given score on
the piano, and further notes that by 1817, when Beethoven was
assigning markings to the first eight symphonies, he had already
conducted or listened to many perfonnances of them. Some scholars
agree that by 1817, he [Beethoven] had lost the proper feeling for
works composed between 1800 and 1812. But, Rudolf concludes that
Beethoven could not have misjudged his own music to the point of
distortion.
Rudolf also reminds the reader that Beethoven would have just
recently attended performances of his seventh and eighth symphonies
and concludes that if these performances were inaccurate, surely
Beethoven would have noticed and changed the markings.
Finally, Rudolf discusses the changing performance practices of
the nineteenth-century, concerning Wagner, finding that modern
interpretations of Beethoven's symphonies still suggest his influence.
Rudolf goes on to explain that "of the sixty metronome indications in
Beethoven's symphonies, only twenty are observed in most performances"
(58]. Rudolf, however, has complete confidence in the markings and
fully believes that they should all be followed. But he adds that a
conductor's decisions regarding performance tempi should reflect
numerous factors, such as the players' ability and the hall, s
acoustics.
39
Rudolf believes that all available evidence as to a composer~s
intentions should be followed and he welcomes the recent authenticity
movement. Moreover, 1n his concluding remarks, he expresses
confidence that "in the course of time the late-romantic concepts of
the Viennese classics will give way to an approach that is germane to
the spirit of the classical era" [59] .
Peter Stadlen - 1982
In 1982, Stadlen continues, in a second article, the study of the
metronome markings of Beethoven that he had begun in 196 7. He
observed:
Today the poor reputation of Beethoven's rnetronome indications is notorious, but still no survey has been compiled, no explanation offered.
This means that musicians feel free to follow their inner voice when it comes to questions of tempo, and so it seemed to me relevant to establish precisely which of Beethoven's figures are out of step with current performance practice, and to what extent. [60]
Stadlen asks the same questions as Rudolf regarding printing
errors, which he concludes caused only about one percent of the
misinterpretation of the markings. He also agrees with Rudolf that
Beethoven~s use of a faulty rretronome was highly unlikely. Stadlen
brings up the point of the acceleration or retardation of Beethoven's
metronome as a possible cause of the misinterpretation of tempo
markings, but concludes that "Beethoven~ s instrument was at the most
one year old at the time he published his first two lists; but above
all, an accelerated metronorre would yield figures that are too slow,
not too fast" [61]. Stadlen adds that a retarding metronome would
40
produce an asymmetrical beat which would be highly visible to a
sensitive musician, a feature the deaf Beethoven would surely have
noticed (62].
Another interesting question concerns whether Beethoven or Karl
had pressed the weight against the metronome while reading it and at
what angle or parallax view was he looking at the weight in relation
to the metronome. Stadlen cited this hypothesis:
Beethoven, sitting at the piano, might have placed the instrument on top of some scores. In that position the lowest figures are hidden by the weight, but at 58 and 60 an error of one degree is feasible, between 63 and 96 of two degrees, between 100 and 132 of one degree.
But as with an accelerated metronome, this would have yielded narks that are too slow •.. [ 63]
Stadlen does not assume that Beethoven could have misread the
metronane in such a manner, but in the autograph of -~l:!.<?i!Y_~_g_.~
cites an entry in Beethoven's hand of 108 or 120. He credits Henmnn
Beck, Otto Baensch, and Kurt Masur for noticing this. The first two
men believed that Beethoven could not make up his mind. Stadlen then
looked at a metronanc and noticed "that with the old mcrlel [metronane]
the lower edge of the weight is in line with 120 when the upper eage
shows 108" [ 64].
Therefore, Stadlen concludes that there could have been a brief
instance where Beethoven was not sure which reading he actually
wanted, but in that position, the rretronome would have been beating
108 [65].
Stadlen examines all one-hundred and thirty-six metronane
rrarkings left by Beethoven, contained in the nine symphonies and other
41
assorted works including the septet, string quartets Op. 18 nos. l-6;
Op. 59; nos.l-3; and Op. 74; 95; and the piano sonata, Op. 106.
Stadlen listened to recordings by eight conductors, including those of
Abbado, Furtw~ngler, Karajan, and Tbscanini; pianists ranging from
Arrau to Schnabel ; and perforrrn.nces by the Amadeus, Budapest, and the
Guarneri string quartets.
Stadlen's extensive tables illustrate his findings: the majority
of the perfonnances examined are drastically under-tempo. For
example, in the first movement of the Eroica, none of the perfonnances
surveyed cane close to Beethoven, s marking of ( J· ==60) . Moreover, in
the first movement of the Ninth Symphony, Beethoven's rrarking is
( ) =88) with the tempo of the closest modern performance being
() =76). (Roger Norrington's recordings were not yet available.)
Stadlen concludes that Beethoven's expectations of tempo are not
unrealistic and, actually, quite workable when the issues discussed
above, such as printing or misreading of the metronon~, are taken into
account. But, his tables seem to indicate that modern performers
disagree with him.
William S. Newman - 1982
In Part II of an article entitled: "Tempo in Beethoven's
Instrumental Music: Its Choice and Its Flexibility (1982)," Newman
expands on his extensive review of Hermann Beck's research discussed
in Chapter IV. Newman examines five aspects of tempo choice and the
flexibility of tenpo that Beck and others had not previously examined
closely.
42
Newman extends Beck's work of assigning characteristic metronome
markings to unrrarked fast pieces, to mcrlerate and slow tempo
compositions, while also assigning markings to pieces of similar
rhythmic character. The second aspect Newman discusses deals with the
further definition of the rhythmic character itself in light of the
harmonic rhythm and textural density. Newman concludes that "any
enrichments of the rhythm that disturb or oppose the steady beat of
the meter and any enrichments of the texture that complicate the
smooth flow of the lines also are likely to slow the music" [66].
Newman cites the Rondo theme in Beethoven's Emperor Concerto as
an example of how "the hemiola effect created by the slurs and the
vigorous syncopa.tion that follows" causes conflict with the meter and
creates an overall slowing of the tempo, marked Allegro rna non troppo
[67].
Flexibility is the third aspect of Newman's discussion, which he
defines as: "an elasticity in the pulse rate." Newman discusses the
pianist Alfred Brendel's slowing of the "Andante" of Beethoven's Piano
Sonata, Op. 7~, which he clocked at Brendel's beginning tempo of
( ). =50), and concludes that Brendel "slows the pulse in order to give
momentary emphasis to each expressive high point" [68]. Newman cites
Beethoven's use of modifiers to his awn tempo markings, such as,
rallentando, stringendo, and -~ssionato, as sufficient evidence for
flexibility.
The fourth aspect Newman discusses is structural influences on
tempo, which he finds does influence tempo choice and flexibility as
the length and complexity increases. For example, Newman explains that
43
the Grosse Fuge would require a tempo marking slow enough to
distinguish all the intricacies of the texture, yet fast enough to
retain the attention of the listener.
Newman's final focus is upon the changing historical attitudes
toward Beethoven's tempos, which he SlliTiffirizes as dependent upon the
.. individual artistic temJ;erament and athletic prowess [of the
performer] 11 as much as the influences of Wagner and his follo\\ers
[ 69]. Newman concludes that Beethoven's metronome markings should be
taken seriously due to the great amount of thought and effort
Beethoven exerted in assigning the markings. Newman also hopes his
study will .. provide more persJ;ective and reason ... on which to base
individual choices and flexibility of tempo in Beethoven's music ..
[ 70].
Willam Malloch - 1985
An article by William Malloch's entitled 11Toward a 'New' (Old)
Minuet .. appeared in the August 1985 issue of Opus magazine. Malloch
deals with the minuet of the late Viennese Classical symphony, and the
neglect of its proper performance by modern conductors.
Malloch believes that performers today are interpreting the
tempos in the minuets of the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven 11 radically wrong, .. because the metronome markings are not
being taken seriously. Malloch defends the metronome markings by
stating that: ..... a metronane mark should be regarded like a snapshot,
as a significant blip out of a once live event ..... [71].
44
Malloch cites many examples to substantiate Beetooven 's metronane
Inarkings by calling attention to contemporaries of Beethoven and their
metronome markings for their own canpositions. For example, Antoine
Reicha (1770-1836) published metronome markings for eighteen woodwind
quintets between 1817-1819. The markings v.ere based upon the dotted
quarter to 144 which Malloch considers "extremely fast ... what we would
consider "scherzo" tempos" [72].
Ma.lloch concludes that the fast metronane markings of the
Classical period should be tried. He also believes that today's
performances, as well as performances as early as 1830, are distorting
the character of the music.
Standley Howell - 1986
In the Journal of Musicological Research, Standley Howell reviews
recordings which surfaced in 1986 by conductors Christopher Hagwood,
Franz Bniggen, Monica Huggett and Roy Goodman of the Hanover Band, and
the Collegium Aureum. Howell compares Beethoven's metronane markings
with those of the above recordings of various Beethoven s~nphonies.
His tables show that, overall, the performance tempi are well under
the prescribed markings. For example, in the Second Symphor:!Y_, Hagwood
and Huggett are both consistently under tempo throughout. Hov.ell
concludes that performers often alter the historical evidence, in this
case the markings, to please a preconceived notion of how a piece
should be performed.
45
Recent Perfonnances: Norrington, Hagwood, Huggett, GocrllllCln, Zander
The recent authenticity moverrent has spawned renewed interest in
proper execution of Beethoven 's rretronOI"l'e narkings. Numerous
recordings and perfonnances have begun to surface 1n the last three or
four years providing varying interpretations.
Roger Norrington and his London Classical Players, who follow
Beethoven's markings almost to the letter, have recorded all of the
Beethoven symphonies on period instrunents. In Norrington's
self-composed program notes, complete with Beethoven's metronome
markings, he defends the markings and the need for rethinking in
regard to Beethoven's tempo choice.
Besides Norrington, other groups claiming authentic performances
have begun to overturn "traditional" interpretations of Beethoven's
symphonies. Christopher Hagwood and his Academy of Ancient Music
claim authenticity in their recordings by using period instruments, a
snaller orchestra, etc.; but, for some reason, they do not adhere to
Beethoven's rretronome narkings. For example, Hagwood's recording of
the Eroica Symphony lasts exactly fifty minutes while Roger
Norrington's interpretation, at Beethoven's metronome indications,
lasts forty-three minutes and twenty-nine seconds.
The Hanover Band, under the direction of Monica Huggett and Roy
Goodman from the concertmaster's chair, does follow Beethoven's
markings to an alnost rigid extent. Their tempo has been described as
"unyielding and relentless" [73].
46
Conductor Benjamin Zander provided one of the first authentic
perfornances with his interpretation of the Ninth Symphony in 1983 and
again in 1990, both on modern instruments . He provided new
information concerning the markings for the Ninth Symphony which will
be discussed in Chapter VI.
Richard Taruskin - 1987
Richard Taruskin has reviewed these recordings of Beethoven's
symphonies. His article entitled "Beethoven Symphonies: The New
Antiquity" appeared in the October, 1987, issue of Opu~- nagazine and
provides a nice sunmary of the groups in question. Taruskin wished to
define authenticity and, thus, decide whose performance of Beethoven,
if any, is the authentically correct one.
Taruskin [74] cites several approaches to authenticity:
l . The score is the musical work. 2. The first performance is the musical work. 3. The whole issue is absurd.
•raruskin telieves "anyone who has really thought alx>ut the
problan [of authenticity in performance] will be found in the third
camp" [75]. But, others believe that the score is the plan for the
work and the performance an instance of it. Both the ~anover Band,
conducted by Monica Huggett, and Christopher Hagwood and his Academy
of Ancient Music believe that whatever occurred at the first
performance of the piece should be regarded as the final word on the
subject of how a piece should te perfonred [ 7 6] .
In reviewing the recent recordings by the Hanover Band and the
Academy of Ancient Music, Taruskin discusses the approaches to
47
Beethoven's tempos. The conductors of the HaQ_gve~Band_ justify the
lack of adherence to Beethoven's tempos as the result of following the
conventions of Beethoven's day, such as inadequate performers and the
problems with period instruments.
On the other hand, Taruskin states that Christopher Hagwood does
not cament on Beethoven's tempo markings and does not follow oony of
them in his authentic recordings. rraruskin canpares the tempi of
recordings of the first movement of Beethoven's 0~Pb~ny No. ~by
Arturo Toscanini, Herbert von Karajan, Rene Leibowitz, Monica Huggett
and Roy Goodman, Christopher Hagwood and Roger Norrington which are
illustrated in Table 4.
rrable 4. .e~hony_~g~ First Movelllent Tempos
Marking 'Ibsc ./BBC rrosc./NBC Karajan Leibowitz Hanover Hogwocrl
Allegro 104 107 96 112 86 104 Bridge 112 lll 99 114 90 107 Second Theme 104 103 95 106 90 107 Cello Thellle 99 98 92 105 H5 96 Developnent lOY lll 97 113 90 114
[l'brrington 112 throughoutJ
He finds that the authentic recordings conformed less to
Beethoven's intentions regarding tem[)Q than did the older
performances---except for Norrington. For example, since Beethoven's
rrarking for the first rrovement is ( J =112) it is puzzling why the
Hanover 'Band is so far off the mark at ( J =86). Taruskin also cites
Hagwood's inability to follow Beethoven "s metronome marking in the
Eroj.ca, first movement, ( d• =60), which Hogwocd performs at
( d· =47-49).
48
In regard to Roger Norrington and his London Classical Players,
Richard Taruskin's praise for Norrington's adherence to Beethoven's
metronome markings in his recording of ~ph~~o. 2 is overwhelming.
Taruskin exclaims "what a wealth of detail the perfonnance contains";
and, "from the very beginning of the slow introduction ... this is a
performance to rank with the great ones" [ 77]. Taruskin finds his own
concepts of the Second S~~Qhony have changed along with his need for
other, older renditions and views Norrington's performance as a new
"veritable Eroica" [78].
Robert Winter - 1988
In 1988, Musicologist Robert Winter wrote an article which
appeared in Early Music entitled "Performing Beethoven's Early Piano
Concertos." He deduces that Beethoven did not provide metronorre
markings for his early piano concertos because, by 1817 (when he
marked the first eight symphonies,) he had lost touch with the
concertos and was retired from performance of them hirnsel f. To find
some tempo conformities, Winter compares seven recordings of the first
movement of the first piano concerto and concludes that, first, the
soft passages were played slower than the loud ones, and the greater
the level of rhythmic activity, the faster the tempo. He also
discovered that chromatic digressions, normally already soft, called
for additional slowing, and that ritardando occurred at the opening,
intermediate, and closing ritornello, and 1n the development.
Moreover, Winter questions how one should go about consulting history,
and at what degree of integrity. He calls for a critical edition to
49
be produced of Beethoven's piano concertos--one that takes performance
practice more seriously. In his book, Beethoven Performers and
Critics, published in 1977, he does not deal directly with the current
problem surrounding the metronome markings but does state that time 1n
Beethoven's Vienna was measured by seconds (60 seconds= 1 minute),
therefore, each beat received one secorrl.
Sandra Rosenblum - 1988
Sandra Rosenblum has written extensively on the subject of.tempo,
mainly for Beethoven's piano music in her book entitled Performance
Practice In Classical P~ano Music (1988). Rosenblum finds, by timing
various modern recordings, that, in general, Beethoven's fast sonata
move1nents are played within the range of the metronomizations left by
Czerny and Moscheles (discussed at length in Chapter III). In
contrast, she concludes that the first movement of the "Moonlight"
sonata is consistently performed significantly slower than the
prescribed marking. On the subject of the metronome markings
Beethoven did leave, Rosenblum believes that one can hear a piece in
one's head at a faster tempo than one is able to perform it, stressing
the importance of the influence of the performance environment as well
as the musical traits of the composition, and concludes that the
chosen tempo should not interfere with the spirit of the piece.
Willy Hess - 1988
Swiss musicologist Willy Hess takes the side of the perfornances
of FurtwMngler and Toscanini in his article from The Beethoven
Newsletter in 1988 entitled "The Right Terrpo: Beethoven and the
50
MetronoiTE." Hess raises the issue of Beethoven's deafness, as did
Rosenblum, concluding that a work proceeds faster in one's mind than
in actual perfonnance. One must remerrber that it is docurrented that
Beethoven worked out the metronome markings at the piano, therefore
would have been able to feel the tempo while playing. Hess firmly
believes that the current authenticity movement, mainly in the
adherence to Beethoven's metronane markings, "calls for the
destruction of the work under the guise of literalism"
[79].
Eric Salzman - 1989
Fric Salzman's review of recent recordings in Stereo Review
(January 1989) seems to indicate that he does not agree with
Beethoven's metronane markings. He canpares Riccardo Muti's recording
of the nine symphonies with those of Bernard Haitink and prefers
Muti 's on the basis of the "dramatic narrative" he finds in Muti 's
performance. In their recording times for the ~inth S~hony, neither
performance even comes close to Norrington's timing of 62:23 (which is
the closest to Beethoven's intended tempos) with Haitink's perfor1mnce
at 69:29, and Muti's time being 71:52. In a later review, Salzman
does not agree with the Hanover Band's "unyielding terrpos" and
concludes that Classical music was not meant to be performed that way.
Edward Rothstein - 1990
In 1990, Edward Rothstein's article entitled "Jolly Roger and the
Musical Past" appeared in The New Republic. Rothstein questions how
well equipped one is to define authenticity and how one is to know the
51
will of the canposer. He concludes that Beethoven was too far rerroved
fran his first eight symphonies, by 1817 when he assigned the
markings, but he agrees with Benjamin Zander (discussed in Chapter VI)
concerning the tempo of the A~la_Ma~cia section of the finale of the
N~ntb_~Y!!lEb.ony. Rothstein believes the text of that section is too
joyous to be performed at the slow ()•=84) marking it carries, and
therefore, believes that the performer should use his own judgn~nt
when executing the passage.
52
CHAPI'ER VI
THE NINI'H SYMPHONY:
A CASE IN POINT
The Ninth Symphony is a very special case where controversy still
surrounds the metronome rrarkings Beethoven assigned. Mainly, two
sections stand in question; the Presto section of the Trio in the
Scherzo marked ( d =116), and the Alla Marcia section of the Finale
rrarked ( J, =84) . At those markings, both sections would be rather
slow.
Discrepancies can be found among the existing sources, mentioned
in Chapter IV. '!'he first of these sources is Beethoven 's nephew
Karl's entries from September 27, 1826, in the presentation copy for
the King of Prussia; the second is the letter to Beethoven's
publisher, Schott, dated October 13, 1826 (written by Karl and signed
by Beethoven), and finally a letter, penned by Anton Schindler eight
days before Beethoven's death, to Moscheles in london for a
perforrrance with the Philharmonic society.
I have already cited the discrepancy Stadlen found in the
metronome marking for the Presto finale printed (J. =66) by Karl in
the King of Prussia's copy, and ( d·=96) in the 1827 Moscheles letter,
and also the possible printing error in the () =116) or (o =116)
marking for the Presto section in the Trio of the second-movement.
(The problem interpreters find here is that there is no accelerando
into the Presto if the marking rerra1ns the same.)
53
He found another instance of printing error in anily Anderson's
translations of Beethoven's letters. She printed the Moscheles letter
with the Presto of the _Triq marking as ( J. =116). Stadlen solved this
problem by looking at the original Moscheles letter, which does not
contain a dot; also, the section is actually in cut-time.
The recent authenticity movement has spawned renewed interest
especially in the markings for the ~inth S~~~~- Numerous articles
and recording reviews have been written in the last three or four
years concerning these markings and their interpretation. For
example, Roger Norrington, who follows Beethoven's markings almost to
the letter, is not only praised but maligned for his interpretion of
the sections in question. In detailed program notes for the Nint~
Symphony, Norrington defends the controversial sections discussed
above. He points out that the T_ri~ at ( d =116), follaNing the
stringendo marking, is in perfect relance with the .$.C2b_~rzo ( d·=ll6),
and holds the opinion that this movement alone puts the myth to rest
thctt all Beethoven's metronane markings are "too fast."
In the Alla Marcia section of the Finale marked ()• =84), -------- -------
Norrington cites three reasons why that tempo is not too slow. First,
he believes it is a natural march speed, and secondly, that tempo 1s
important proportionally to the rest of the movement. Finally,
Norrington concludes that the "steady, horrespun, 'villagey' pace has a
humour and a humanity about it which is very important to the
movement" [71]. He reminds one that Beethoven's contemporaries would
have thought of the section as "Shakespearean" and Beethoven's message
was, after all, for all m:::-n: "Alle Menschen werden Bruder."
54
Richard 'faruskin 's 1988 article entitled "Hesisting the Ninth"
appeared in Nineteenth Cent~ry Music; he finds Norrington's
(Beethoven's) temJ?Os to re no faster than "nonnal" except 1n the
Adiigi2_, where Beethoven rmrked ( ) =60). t-t:>st conductors disregard
Beethoven's marking and slow down this movenent drastically. For
example, Wilhelm Furtwllngler's performance begins at ( J =30) and
slows down from there; Herbert von Karajan's tempo is ( J =38); Otto
Klemperer 's ranges from ( ) =39 and 46); and even 'Ibscanini 's is
( J =40). Roger Norrington is just shy of Beethoven's tempo marking
at ( ..J =58).
The questionable marking in the Tr~2 of the ~cberzo is rejected
by all of the aforanentioned conductors except Norrington. Taruskin
cites these examples: ( J =150-160) by Toscanini, and ( J =156) by
Walter. In the All~_Ma_~sja section of the final~, again Norrington is
close to the metronome marking of ( ). =84), clocking in at ( ), =<J4)
and ( ~. =100) for the folla.ving fugue (which contains no _?-lcce_l_~ra_~go
marking), while others continue to disregard the marklitg completely.
For exanple, extrerres range from Furtw~mgler's tempo of ( J. =130-140),
to Toscanini 's at ( ). =191)!
Taruskin praises Norrington's adherence to Beethoven's intended
tempos in the recordings of the second and eighth s~nphonies, but in
the case of the ~inth Taruskin feels that it is impossible to arrive
at one definitive interpretation of an enigma such as the ~i~!~
~~ho~ itself. Norrington's interpretation is too literal for
Taruskin, who also does not agree with (), =84) for the Alla Marcia
section of the Final~ or Norrington following that marking. Instead,
55
Taruskin opts for Furtw'~ngler 's performance, which he believes
contains "spiritual content" [80].
Conductor Benjamin Zander provided one of the first authentic
performances with his interpretation of the _Ninth Symphony in 1983 and
again in 1990 on modern instruments. In 1989, Zander cited research
by Stewart Young showing that the t"VK> rrarkings mentioned in the
opening paragraph above were incorrect, and that Karl was responsible
for the faulty markings. Zander found Karl's entry of the metronome
markings for the Ninth in one of Beethoven's conversation books. The
marking for the Trio is, clearly, ( dd =116), (although why it is
written that way is unclear). The Alla Marcia section in the Finale
is marked 84, in 6/8 meter, with no specific note value given.
According to Zander, when Karl later transcribed the markings for
these sections in his letter to Schott, he inadvertently left off one
of the half notes for the Trio marking resulting in ( J =116) and then
wrote ( .1. =84) instead of ( d· =84) for the All a Marcia section.
Zander concludes that these sections performed at twice the
printed tempo "makes perfect sense" [81]; second, that these markings
create a true Presto for the Trio; and third, the Alla Marcia section,
while fast, is completely playable. He cites an example from the text
of the Finale:
The ecstatically heroic character of the words for the march are much more apt for a very fast tempo ("Joyous as his suns are flying across the firmament's magnificent design, run, brothers, your race, joyously , as does a hero tO\IJard victory") than for the comic, farce like slow tempo of ( ;. =84) . [ 82]
56
Zander's performance of the ~jnth takes fifty-six to fifty-eight
minutes (Norrington's is sixty-two minutes), and, regarding tempo, may
well be the closest to Beethoven's intentions.
However, Denis Stevens flatly disagreed with Zander's hypothesis
of Karl being at fault for the misinterpretation of the markings. He
believed that Beethoven himself was at fault and asked some pertinent
questions: what was the state of Beethoven's piano; could Beethoven's
rretronane have been "sick"; and when Beethoven wrote to Schott on
December 18, 1826, of the great reception of the Nii)_tl)_ in Vienna being
due largely to the metronome markings, how did Beethoven know if they
took the prescribed markings--he was not there. Stevens concluded
that the "whole business is in an almighty mess," and stated that "one
should use one's brain when deciding on an interpretation" [83].
William Malloch canments on the Ninth Symphony in his 1989
article for Musical America entitled "'rhe Stuff of the Sublime."
Malloch, unlike Stevens, agrees with Beethoven's markings for the two
sections in question because the tempos of both sections come directly
from the preceding sections, and because the emotional content and
structure are, he believes, clarified when following Beethoven's
rrBrkings. For example, concerning the Trio, Malloch cites Beethoven's
lack of a repeat of the section and concludes that the slow tempo
fills in the proportions of the movement.
The question remains: could Beethoven's orchestra have played
better at faster tempos than a modern orchestra? Perhaps the smaller
orchestras of the Classical Period, the lighter, differently balanced
bows on the stringed instrunents, and softer tonguing by the winds
57
were able to make faster tanpos ~NC>rk better. In 1942, Kolisch said "I
can conscientiously lfr1.intain, on the basis of experience, that all the
tanpi required by Beethoven of stringed instruments at least, are
perfectly playable on the ba.sis of the average technique of today"
[ 84] , and RCXJer Norrington and other authentic perfornance groups have
certainly proven Kolisch correct with their authentic interpretations
on period instruments.
58
CHI\PTF.H VII
CCX'JCLUSIONS
In conclusion, I would first like to briefly summarize the
findings of the various scholars and their positions regarding
Beethoven's metronome markings and, second, to illustrate the total
lack of respect given the markings by nost modern conductors as
evidenced by a chart comparing modern performance times.
Chapter II outlined Beethoven's numerous testaments concerning
the need for a device to measure speed. One is reminded that in 1813,
even before the perfection of the metronome by Johann Nepomuk ~1lzel
in 1817, Beethoven had already recognized its importance by stating
that, prior to its invention, the performance of his tempi had been
misunderstood and that correct performances would issue from following
his markings. Beethoven makes it unmistakably clear that following
his metronome markings is essential to a proper perfonnance.
Chapter III dealt with the three known sets of metronane
markings, provided by Czerny, for the printed editions of Beethoven's
piano sonatas. In my own oompar ison of various modern _perfonnances to
Czerny's earliest set of markings, closest in proximity to Beethoven,
I found that, in general, m:xlern tempos, especially in the slow
movements are slower. Moreover, it would be fair to state that ncdern
performances are, in general, slower than even the slowest tempos
indicated among the three Czerny sets . A review of all the tempo
markings by Czerny and Moscheles leads one in the direction of faster
tempos than we are used to today. Therefore, it is my feeling that
59
Beethoven wanted his music played, in general, rather fast and that
the metronome markings were his way of assuring this.
Wagner's influence, of drastically slowing Beethoven's slow tempo
markings and speeding up Beethoven's fast temp:> markings to bring out
the "inner meaning" in the music, is still present today in many
modern performances [as the chart later in this chapter will
illustrate] as is the effect of the "German Conducting School,"
established by Wagner.
Chapter IV summarized the various findings from scholarly studies
concerning the metronome markings left by Beethoven. In 1942, Rudolf
Kolisch sought to reestablish the basic importance of the metronome
markings which he believed had been ignored in performances of the rnid
to late nineteenth century.
Kolisch's main concern dealt with the rhy~c character, which
he believed would deterrnine the correct tempo. Kolisch also stated
that Beethoven had assigned certain tempo markings to certain
character-types. Kolisch believed in Beethoven's markings, and he
detailed their relation to the character and spirit of the music.
Hermann Beck's 1955 study also dealt with Beethoven's rretronane
rnarkings and their relationship to the character of the composition to
which they were assigned. Beck's research proved that he also
believed wholeheartedly in the markings or he would not have tried to
group them as he did for use in unmarked pieces.
Nicholas Temperley falls into the category of scholars who do not
agree with the markings left by Beethoven. He described them as
almost useless as guides to performance speed. Temper ley also
60
believed that flexibility of tempo negated the validity of metronome
markings, and that the only way to accurately determine performance
speed was to time actual performances. Temperley's findings may lose
their validity, based as they are upon the timings of Sir George
Smart. In 1966, Temperley stated that Smart's timings revealed a pace
for his performances similar to modern day performances, thus
concluding that modern tempos are not drastically faster or slower
than Smart's. If the performance times of Beethoven's contemporary
Sir George Smart were more valid, they would have proven invaluable to
this study. Unfortunately, Smart neglected to indicate whether the
repeats had been taken, failed to mark timings for individual
moverrents and, at tines, neglected to jot do.vn if any noveiD2nts had
been omitted during a performance, thus shortening the timings
drastically.
Ironically, the timings show that Smart himself did not adhere to
Beethoven's tempos only a few years after Beethoven's death, so it is
precisely perfornances like Smart's that prompted Beethoven's support
for the rretroname. Smart's timings may also be evidence thc'1t even in
Beethoven's day, conductors played his works generally slower than is
indicated by the metrornme markings.
In 1967, Peter Stadlen concluded his discussion of
the discrepancy surrounding Beethoven's marking for the ?re~to section
in the ~ of the second-movement of the Ninth ~!]_ony by stating
that sane of the markings may be in error, and if some of the rmrkings
are questionable, perhaps many or all are.
61
Chapter V discussed the studies surfacing after 1980 beginning
with Max Rudolf who stated that perfonners either believe the
metronare markings are unreliable, or prefer to choose a tempo without
regard for th~n. He stated that all available evidence as to a
composer's intentions should be followed---including the metronome
rnarkings. Rudolf welcomed the recent authenticity movement, obviously
tctking Beethoven 's markings at face va 1 ue, and be lieverl the
late-romantic approach to the Viennese classics would give way to an
approach more germane to the spirit of the classical era.
In 1982, Peter Stadlen's conclusion to his previous study of the
metronome markings revealed that printing error constituted only about
one percent of the problem and he agreed with Rudolf that Beethoven's
use of a "sick" metronome was highly unlikely. Stadlen also believed
in Beethoven's markings, concluding that Beethoven's expectations of
tempo were not unrealistic and, actually, quite workable.
In 1982, WilliamS. Newman concluded that Beethoven's metronome
markings should be taken seriously due to the great amount of thought
and effort Beethoven exerted in assigning the rrarkings.
Willam Malloch concluded in his study of 1985 of the minuets by
stating that the fast tempos of the Classical Period should be tried.
He also believed that today's performances, as well as perforrmnces as
early as 1830, were distorting the character of the music. M.:1lloch
obviously agrees with Beethoven's tempos and seems to feel tempos were
quite fast in Beethoven's day.
After reviewing recent recordings by the H~nove~~pq and !be
Acadeny of Ancient Music, Taruskin concluded that the authentic
62
recordings conformed less to Beethoven's intentions regarding tempo
than did older performances. nut, he believed Roger Norrington and
his ~don Classical Players recordings to be performances to rank
with the great ones, and found his own perceptions of the ~ec~nq
S~npho~y had changed.
Chapter VI dealt with the controversy surrounding the metronome
markings Beethoven assigned to his tJ iiJ.tl.ll>.Y!!I?.bOI}Y. Here one finds
Richard Taruskin writing again. Taruskin felt that it was impossible
to arrive at one definitive interpretation of such an enigma of
symphonic music as the ~i~tb_$~~ho~y has became and that Norrington's
interpretation was too literal. This change of loyalty to Beethoven's
markings rnakes me question his previous conclusions.
Benjamin Zander found Beethoven's nephew Karl to be at fault for
a possibly incorrect entry of the netronorre markings for the tJjnth_ in
one of Beethoven's conversation books. Zander also concluded ~1t
each section in question, performed at twice the printed tempo, made
perfect sense.
On the side of disagreement with the markings, Denis Stevens
leads the way, flatly disagreeing with Zander's hypothesis. He
believed Beethoven himself was at fault, and concluded that the whole
business is in an almighty mess, and that one should use one's brain
when deciding on an interpretation.
William Malloch's feelings for the Ninth S~p~ony are consistent
with his earlier conclQsions concerning the rninuets. Malloch agrees
with Beethoven's markings for the two sections in question because, on
the one hand, the tempos of both sections come directly from the
63
preceding sections, and secondly, the emotional content and structure
are clarified when following Beethoven's markings to the letter.
Groups claiming authentic performances have begun to overturn
established traditions in the interpretation of Beethoven's
symphonies. Christopher Hagwood and his 1-\cademy of Ancient Music
claim authenticity in their recordings by using period instruments, a
smaller orchestra, etc.; but, for some reason, he does not adhere to
Beethoven's metronome markings. Roger Norrington's recordings with
the London Cla~sical P~yers give a basis with which to compare other
recordings since he follows Beethoven's markings completely.
I have attempted to provide some data to validate the fact that
modern performances are generally slower than what Beethoven intended
except for finales, which are often played faster. I have compiled a
list, contained in Tables 5 and 6, of over forty modern performances
of Beethoven's Ninth Sym.phony ranging from 1926 to 1990, which
demonstrates this point.
I have used Roger Norrington's timings to represent Beethoven's
timings since we know Norrington follows the markings. The rretronome
marking for the slow-moverrent seems to be the most disregarded. For
example, Norrington's timing is 11:08 at Beethoven's tempo. Only
Hagwood's authentic performance time is faster at 10:44. All others
are slower, some drastically so. The slowest slaw-movement has to be
Solti's 1988 recording, timing in at 19:59! [On a recent radio
broadcast, Solti recanted his lack of adherence to the markings with a
performance of Beethoven's Fifth SyrnphoQY during which he adhered
closely to the prescribed markings.]
64
rrable 5. ~i_l_lth ~_2hO_QY Timings Organized Chronol~ically
Orchestra Conductor Date lstMvt 2ndMvt 3rdMvt 4thMvt Tt1'lm ------------------------- ------------- ----- ------ ------ ------ ------ -----
IDrrlon Sympoony Weingartner 1926 15:26 10:38 14:23 21:00 61:27
Vienna Philharmonic Weingartner 1935 15:08 9:54 14:40 22:32 62:14
NBC Symphony 'lbscanini 1939 - 77:25
Vienna Philharmonic Karajan 1947 - 66:58
Columbia Symphony Walter 1949 15:25 10:04 16:24 23:44 65:37
Vienna Philharmonic II 1951 Furtw.IDgler -
NBC S~'lTlphony 'lbscanini 1952 13:30 13:09 14:21 23:24 64:24
Vienna Philharmonic Kleiber 1952 -
Vienna Staatsoper Orch. Scherchen 1952 -
Columbia Symphony Walter 1959 -
Cleveland Symphony Szell 1961 15:38 11:28 15:23 24:06 66:35
Chicago Symphony Reiner 1961 15:48 10:49 16:52 24:45 68:14
l.Drrlon Symphony M:>nteux 1962 15:37 11:34 14:33 25:14 66:58
Philadelphia Orchestra Onnandy 1966 15:15 10:21 15:12 23:55 64:43
l.Drrlon Symphony Stokcwski 1969 - 67:32
Amsterdam Concertgebouw Jochum 1969 - 68:21
Vienna Philharmonic &l;,hm 1970 16:46 12:08 16:38 27:09 72:41
Munich Philharmonic Kempe 1973 -
Berlin Philharmonic Karajan 1977 15:21 10:04 16:50 24:23 66:38
London Sympoony Jochum 1979 16:31 11:06 16:36 23:53 68:06
Vienna Philharmonic Bohm 1981 18:38 10:50 18:15 28:37 76:20
Dresdner Philharmonic Kegel 1983 16:35 11:19 16:06 26:21 70:21
Cleveland Orchestra Dohnanyi 1985 15:05 11:27 14:57 24:32 66:01
Atlanta Symphony Shaw 1985 - 69:65
Bavarian Radio Symphony Davis 1985 17:05 13:41 15:14 23:56 69:56
65
Table 5. Continued
Orchestra Conductor Date lstMvt 2ndMvt 3rdMvt 4 thflltvt Ttl 'lln
---------------------- ------------- ------ ------ ------ ------
English Chamber Orchestra Tilson-'rhomas 1987 66:31
North German Radio Symph. W.md 1987 15:33 11:12 16:00 23:37 66:22
~nsterdam Concertgebouw Haitink 1987 6Y:29
Chicago Symphony Solti 1988 18:00 10:51 19:59 24:40 73:30
Vienna Symphony Orchestra Horenstein 1988 65:22
Philadelphia Orchestra Muti 1988 16:25 14:42 16:04 24:41 71:52
Milwaukee Symphony Macal 1989 14:05 10:46 12:55 22:35 60:21
London Classical Players Norrington 1989 14:13 14:21 11 :08 22: 39 62:23
Prager Festival Orchestra Lizzio 1989 14:16 ll :40 13:38 23:40 63:14
Academy of Ancient Music Hogwocrl 1989 13:56 13:34 10:44 25:00 63:14
Wiener Symphoniker Inbal l9YO 15:29 13:28 14:55 24:28 68:20
Hungarian Philharmonic Fercncsik 64:')8
Lordon Festival Orchestra Lizzio 65:15
London Symphony Krips 65:16
Staatskapelle Dresden Blomstadt 16:02 13:33 16:09 24:23 70:07
.. 74:09 Bayreuth Festival Orch. Furtwangler
66
Table 6. _t_;J_~l)_tb_ $.YI:'_1Ph9DY Timings Organized by Dur ;1 t ion
Orchestra Conductor Date lstMvt 2ndMvt 3rdMvt 4thMvt Ttl 'nn ------------------------- ------------- ------ ------ ------ ------
Milwaukee Symphony Macal 1989 14:05 10:46 12:55 22:35 60:21
London Symphony Weingartner 1926 15:26 10:38 14:23 21:00 61:27
Vienna PhilhariiDnic Weingartner 1935 15:08 9:S4 14:40 22:32 62:14
London Classical Players Norrington 1989 14:13 14:21 11:08 22:39 62:23
Prager Festival Orchestra Lizzio 1989 14:16 11:40 13:38 23:40 63:14
Academy of Ancient Music Hogv.ood 1989 13:56 13:34 10:44 25:00 63:14
NBC Symphony Toscanini 1952 13:30 13:09 14:21 23:24 64:24
Philadelphia Orchestra Ormandy 1966 15:15 10:21 15:12 23:55 64:43
Hungarian Philharmonic Ferencsik 64:58
London Festival Orchestra Lizzio 65:15
IDndon Symphony Krips 65:16
Vienna Symphony Orchestra Horenstein 1988 65:22
Columbia Symphony Walter 1949 15:25 10:04 16:24 23:44 65:37
Cleveland Symphony Szell 1961 15:38 11:28 15:23 24:06 66:35
Berlin PhilhariiDnic Karajan 1977 15:21 10:04 16:50 24:23 66:3A
Vienna Philharmonic Karajan 1947 - 66:58
IDndon Symphony tvnnteux 1962 15:37 ll :34 14:33 25:14 66:58
Cleveland Orchestra Ddmanyi 1985 15:05 ll :27 14:57 24:32 66:01
North Gennan Radio Symph. Wand 1987 15:33 ll: 12 16:00 23:37 66:22
F~glish Chamber Orchestra Tilson-Thomas 1987 - 66:31
IDndon Symphony Stokcwski 1969 - 67:32
London Symphony Jochum 1979 16:31 11:06 16:36 23:53 68:06
Chicago Symphony Reiner 1961 15:48 10:49 16:52 24:45 68:14
Wiener Symphoniker Inbal 1990 15:29 13:28 14:55 24:28 68:20
Amsterdam Concertgebouw Jochum 1969 - 68:21
67
Table 6. Continued
Orchestra Conductor Date lsb.\Wt 2ndMvt 3rdMvt 4 thMvt Tt 1 'fin
------------------------- ------------- ------ ------ ------ ------
Amsterdam Concertgebouw Hoitink 1987 - 69:29
Bavarian Radio Symphony Davis 1985 17:05 13:41 15:14 23:56 6Y:56
Atlanta Symphony Shaw 1985 - 69:6S
Staatskapelle Dresden B1omstadt 16:02 13:33 16:09 24:23 70:07
Dresdner Philharmonic Kegel 1983 16:35 11:19 16:06 26:21 70:21
Philadelphia Orchestra Muti 1988 16:25 14:42 16:04 24:41 7l :52
Vienna Philharmonic B8hm 1970 16:46 12:08 16:38 27:09 72:41
Chicago Symphony So1ti 1988 18:00 10:51 l9:5Y 24:40 73:30
Bayreuth Festival Orch. Furtw~U,g 1 er 74:09
Vienna Philharmonic Bohm 1981 18:38 10:50 18:15 28:37 76:20
NBC Symphony Toscanini 1939 - 77:25
68
The timing of the Scherzo movement is interesting and may help
prove the misinterpretation of the Jrio section. Other timings shaw
an average of eleven minutes with Weingartner's 1935 timing of 9:54
being the fastest in my survey. The timings of the Finale are fairly
consistent throughout the recordings consulted, with most being slower
than l~orrington [Beethoven]--probably because the instrumental
recitatives are played much slower than Beethoven wanted. The overall
timings are what really seem questionable. Haw can a piece with
markings causing the duration to be 62:23 last for seventy-seven
rninutes as did Toscanini's 1939 performance?
Throughout this study I have attempted to provide answers to the
questions surrounding Beethoven's metronome markings and their rampant
disregard as shown in Tables 5 and 6. Peter Stadlen stated that there
was yet to be a conclusive study into this problem of interpretation,
but hopefully this paper has helped to sumnarize, to the present, the
ever-present disregard and, also, to highlight the current scholars'
and performers' determination to correct the past disregard for
Beethoven's intentions.
Final Remarks
Simply stated, the reasons for the disregard of Beethoven's
metronome markings are first, the question of their validity, second,
Wagner's influence, third, individual modern interpretation, fourth,
the opinion that the speeds required by Beethoven are unplayable on
modern instruments, and finally, the overall lack of understanding of
what Beethoven intended and indifference to his wishes.
69
On the question of the validity, I definitely believe that the
markings are valid. Too much evidence has been left in Beethoven's
hand confirming his opinions concerning the metronome and the
possibilities of its use. Obviously, the ultimate proof is the
markings themselves.
'l'he question remains as to why so !Tlctny conductors fail to follow
Beethoven 's intentions with regard to the metronorre markings. I do
not think Beethoven was inept at using the metronome, as some believe.
He had M.:~lzel right there in Vienna to help him, and we have
Beethoven's letters attesting to the fact that the metronome was fixed
at a clock shop when it broke down.
Conductors and performers claim that the speeds required by
Beethoven are technically unplayable on instruments of today.
Benjamin Zander has proven that claim to be false with his
performances of the -~j.n~h SYI:_ll..f>.hony on rrodern instruments and Roger
Norrington's recordings are evidence to the fact that the markings are
completely playable on the instruments of Beethoven's tirre. I believe
the only effect acoustics might have on Beethoven's intentions would
be the inability of the players to hear one another in a large hall,
but that should not greatly affect the speeds required by the
composer.
Recent attempts by groups such as the ~nqon Classical Pl~~~~'
the ~cademy of Ancient Musjc, and the ~~ove~Ba~q to recreate the
performance aspects of the time of composition are praiseworthy. I
would encourage more perfonnances of this type, on period instruments,
in other orchestras, for example, community and college orchestras. I
70
do not agree with groups who claim authenticity but still disregard
the markings, treating them as if they are not part of the original
compositions. In my 1nind the groups have negated their whole purpose.
Beethoven was obviously concerned with the spirit of his compositions
and disregard for the markings, which to him conveyed that spirit, is
unacceptable.
In the future, I would like to hear more attempts by major
orchestras to play Beethoven, s symphonies at the proper speeds. One
is hopeful that more conductors will study the findings, contained in
the numerous scholarly studies, and think about haw they might aid in
turning around the established "traditional" performances of tcx:lay
into the performances Beethoven intended.
71
ENDNOTES
l. Other earlier inventions of this type include Parisian Etienne Loulie's adjustable pendulum rrechani9ll, called the chronometer, described in his Elements ou Pr~ncipes de Musique mis dans un nouvel ordre in 1696. Later, in 1701, Joseph Sauveur invented ~he E~tre which featured a metric scale while Pajot and Wiliam ransur 1nvented similar devices from 1732-1746.
2. Ma.rtin, David. "An Early M=tronome, " Early Music, February (1988) ' 90-92.
3. Sterl, Raimund Walter, "Johann Neporru.k 1~lzel und seine Erfindungen," Musik in Bayern, 22 (1981): 144.
4. Salieri's letter of October 13, 1813, printed 1n the Wiener Vaterlandische Blatter
5. The chess machine was actually an invention of ~lzel's father's which Malzel claimed as his OM1 upon his father's death.
6. Sterl, ".M:~lzel und seine Erfindungen," 145.
II 7. Winkel was still embittered and planned revenge upon Malzel.
Sterl feels Winkel "tried to beat M&lzel at his own game" by inventing his [Winkel's] awn version of ~lzel 's celebrated Panhannonico~, calling it a "Componium." In 1822, Winkel presented the "Componium" to the public in Amsterdam causing, acmrding to Sterl: "quite a sensation •.. Mechanics were fascinated ... musicians curious ... but the public was not interested. " (Ibid. , 146) Winke 1 died in 18 26, at the age of 49, poor and unknown. ~lzel pulled in great success and financial gain throughout Europe with the stolen invention; Winkel's metronorre. On October 23,1817, Salieri assigned metronome markings to his awn opera, Die Danai~en, in Paris. Sterl believes this may be the first opera ever performed on French soil with metronome markings. Sterl draws his own conclusions on the MSlzel/Winkel debate stating: "What undeserved glory could .rvlillzel claim? As in the case of the chess machine [plagiarized fran his father] and the case of the metronome [stolen from Winkel], ~~lzel was hardly the dismvering mechanic, full of the 'spirit of taking things on.' He is more a clever businessman." Mc~lzel went to America in the 1820's and died aboard ship on July 21, 1838. (Ibid., 148)
8. Wiener Vaterlandische Bl~tter; Oct. 13, 1813
9. Anderson, flnily, ed. The Letters of Beethoven, Vol. 2. London: 1961, no. 845, 727.
10. Wiener AllJiemeine musikalische Zeitung; February 14, 1818.
72
11. Beethoven played each movement on the piano as he dictated the markings to his nephew Karl who copied them dawn in a conversation book. The conversation books ~Nere a vital means of camnunication in the composers later years. According to Schindler only 138 surviving books passed down by Schindler; 3/8ths of the original amount of these books---Schindler then sold these books to the now Deutsche Stadtsbibliothek.
12. Anderson, Letters of Beethoven, Vol. 3, no. 1545, 1325.
13 . ~Jagner, Richard, On Conducting. London: Will iarn and Reeves, 1897, 39.
14. Anderson, Letters of Beethoven, Vol. II, no. 845, 727.
15. Ibid.
16. Barrel Organ/Pinning: Norton/Grove Encyclopedia of Music definition: A mechanical organ in which a cylinder with protruding pins slowly revolves; the pins raise keys which operate a mechanism that allows wind, produced by bellows, to enter the required pipes. Barrel organs were popular in English churches cl760-l840.
17. Schindler, Anton. Beethoven As I Knew Him. Fn. by Donald McCardle. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966, 260.
18. Czerny, Carl, On the Proper Performance of all Beethoven's Works for the Piano. ed. Badura-Skoda, Paul. Wein: Universal Ed., 1970.
19. Malloch, William, "Toward a New (Old) l'llinuet," Opus, I (August 1985), 15.
20. Nottebohm, Gustav, Beethoveniana, 2 vols. Leipzig: Rieter-Biedermann, 1872; 1877, 357.
21. Rosenblun, Sandra, Performance Practice In Classic Piano Music. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1988, note no. 154, 475.
22. Czerny, Proper Performance.
23. Ibid.
24. Beethoven, Ludwig van, Impressions of his Contemporaries. New York: Schirrrer, 1926, 90.
25. Rosenblun, Performance Practice, note no. 159, 330.
26. rl,emperley I Nicholas I "Tempo and Repeats in the Early 19th Century," Music and Letters, 47 no. 4 (1966), 323-36.
73
27. Ludwig van Beethoven, The Nine Symphonies, The London Classical Players, Roger Norrington, EMI Hc~ords Ltd. CDS 749852 l/2/4, 1987-1989.
28. Thayer, Alexander. Life of Beethoven: Vol. II. Ed. by Elliot Forbes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967, 286.
29. Lipnan, Samuel, "Cutting Beethoven Do.vn to Size," Commentary, 89 no. 2 (February 1990), 53-57.
30. Wagner, Richard, ~ein Leben. Munich: Paul List Verlag: 1963, 210-211.
31. Wagner, On Conducting, 34-37.
32. Ibid., lll.
33. Weingartner, Felix, On Conducting. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1906. One is also reminded of Beethoven's notation in the score of the finale of String Quartet, Op. 135: "Muss ist sein? Es muss sein." (Kennan, Joseph, The Beethoven Quartets. New York and London: 1967, 362.)
34 • Ibid. , 13.
35. Krehbiel, Edward Henry, Review of the New York Musical Season 1887-1888. New York and London: Novello, t.--wer, 18~136-..:137.
36. Weingartner. On Conducting, 35.
37. Kolisch, Rudolph, '":Cempo and Character in Beethoven's Music: Part I," Musical Quartelj_y, 29 no. 2 (April 1943), 169.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid. I 180.
41. Ibid., 182.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid. I 183.
44. Newman, WilliamS., Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way. New York and I.ondon: W.\'V. Norton and Co., 1988, 90.
45. Ibid., 91.
74
46. Newman later incorporated this into his book: Beethoven on Beethoven published in 1988.
47. Tem}?erley, Nicholas, "Tempo and Repeats in the Early 19th Century," Music and Letters, 47 no. 4 (1966), 323.
48. Ibid. I 332.
49. Moreover, Smart and Norrington may have the exact same total time, but if Smart did one movement twice as fast as Norrington a~another twice as slow, the performances would be radically different, though the total time was the same.
50. Stadlen, Peter, "Beethoven and the Metronane," Music and Letters 48 no. 4 (October 1967), 330.
51. Beethoven, Ludwig van. Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, Ed. by Ernst hulenburg Ltd., London, 1960; Collected Ed. Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig.
52. Stadlen. Beethoven and the Metronorre, 341.
53. Ibid. , 331.
54. Ibid., 348.
55. Fallows, David, Performance Review in Musical Times, Vol. 119, (July 1978), 617-618.
56. l~x Rudolf, "'rhe Tempo Indications in Beethoven 's Symphonies, " Journal of the Cond_uctor 's Guild of the Am2rican Symphony Orcnestra League, I/l (May 1980), 3.
57. Ibid. I 4.
58. Ibid., 5.
59. Ibid., 13.
60. Stadlen, Peter, "Beethoven and the Metronane," Sounding_§_, 65 no. 9 (1982), 40.
61. Ibid.
62. Only Stadlen and Willy Hess rnention the probability of Beethoven's deafness as a possible factor in his metronomizations of his symphonies and they question if his visual perception was adequate to assign the proper markings.
63. Ibid., 50.
75
64. Ibid., 51.
65. Stadlen believed if quavers were substituted for crochets, then the 108 could be halved, thus explaining Furtwangler 's tempo of 54 (which will be further illustrated in Chapter VI.)
66. Ne\VIllan, Beethoven on Beethoven, 24-25.
67. Ibid., 25.
68. Ibid., 26.
69. Ibid., 29.
70. Ibid., 30.
71. Malloch, William, "Toward a New (Old) JVlinuet," Opus, I (August 1985), 15.
72. Ibid.
7 3 . Sa 1 zman, Eric, "The Authentic Beethoven , " Stereo Review, 54 no. 5 (May 1989), 126.
74. Taruskin, Richard, "Beethoven Symphonies: The New Antiquity, " Opus, 4 (October 198 7) , 32.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid. I 33.
77. Ibid. I 43.
78. Ibid.
79. Hess, Willy, "The Right Tempo: Beethoven and the Metronane," Beethoven Newsletter, 3, no. 1 (1988), 16-17.
80. Norrington, ?erformance Notes from Recording, 33.
81. Zander, Benjamin, "Did Karl get it wrong?," Musical Americ~, 109 no. 4 (1989), 67.
82. Rothstein; "Jolly Roger," 31.
83. Stevens, Denis, review of Beethoven's "Eroica" Symphony. In Musical America, (September 1988), 53.
84. Rudolf Kolisch; "Tempo and Cha.racter," 177.
76
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