Content WordsIt isn't surprising that content words are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and sometimes adverbs. Those are the words that help us form a picture in our head; they give us the contents of our story and tell our listener where to focus his or her attention. We want our listener to be able to quickly grasp the main content of our story, so we make the content words easier to hear by bringing attention to them with added stress.CategoryDescriptionExamples

nounspeople, places, things, and ideasPatty, Seattle, cars, happiness

main verbsverbs without auxilliariesran, swim, thinks

adjectiveswords that describe nounsred, soft, careful

adverbs (except adverbs of frequency)words that describe verbscalmly, quickly, carefully

question wordswords that denote a questionwho, what, where, when, why

negativeswords that negatenot, never

Function WordsFunction words are the words we use to make our sentences grammatically correct. Pronouns, determiners, and prepositions, and auxiliary verbs are examples of function words. If our function words are missing or used incorrectly, we are probably considered poor speakers of English, but our listener would probably still get the main idea of what we are saying. Since function words don't give us the main information, we don't usually want or need to do anything to give them added attention and the words remain unstressed. In addition, sometimes we do things to deliberately push function words into the background... almost the opposite of stressing. This is called reducing.CategoryDescriptionExamples

auxiliary verbsverbs that support the main verbsam, are, has, could, should

prepositionswords that tell relation to other wordsat, on, to, near

conjunctionswords that tie clauses togetherand, so, but, however

determinerswords that give detail to nounsa, an, the, some, any

pronounswords that replace nounsI, it, we, they, he, she

Not very many aspects of English are concrete, and the idea of stressing content words, but not function words, is a generalization and not a rule. Not every content word is said louder or longer, and not every function word is reduced. A speaker chooses exactly which words to stress based on the message he or she is trying to send. What Is a Phrase? (with Examples)A phrase is a group of words that stand together as a single unit, typically as part of a clause or a sentence.

A noun phrase is aphrasethat plays the role of a noun. The head word in a noun phrase will be a noun or apronoun. In the examples below, the whole noun phrase is shaded and the head word is in bold.

I likesingingin the bath. I knowthe backstreets. I've metthe last remainingchief.Compare the three examples above to these: I likeit. I knowthem. I've methim.In these three examples, the words in bold are allpronouns. The ability to replace the noun phrases in the first three examples with a pronoun proves that the shaded texts are functioning as nouns, making themnoun phrases.Like any noun, a noun phrase can be asubject, anobject, or acomplement.Examples of Noun PhrasesNoun phrases are extremely common. A noun with any sort of modifier (including just a number or anarticle) is a noun phrase. Here are some examples of noun phrases: The bestdefenseagainst the atom bombis not to be there when it goes off. (Anon)(In this example, there is a noun phrase within a noun phrase. The noun phrasethe atom bombis theobject of the prepositionagainst. The prepositional phraseagainst the atom bombmodifiesdefense.) I don't havea bankaccount, because I don't knowmy mother's maiden name. (Paula Poundstone)(In this example, both noun phrases aredirect objects.) The best car safetydeviceisa rear-viewmirrorwith a cop in it. (Dudley Moore, 1935-2002)(In this example, the first noun phrase is the subject, and the second is asubject complement.) Only twothingsare infinite,theuniverseandhumanstupidity, and I'm not sure abouttheformer. (Albert Einstein, 1879-1955)

An adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase that tells us something about the noun it is modifying. The head (principal) word in an adjective phrase will be an adjective. In the examples below, the adjective phrase is shaded and the head word (i.e., the adjective) is in bold: The nearby motel offers cheap but comfortable rooms. (In this example, the head adjective starts the adjective phrase.) These are unbelievably expensive shoes. (In this example, the head adjective ends the adjective phrase.) Sarah was fairly bored with you. (In this example, the head adjective is in the middle of the adjective phrase.)Like a normal adjective, an adjective phrase can be used before the noun it is modifying (like in the first two examples above) or after the noun it is modifying (like in the last example). More Examples of Adjective PhrasesHere are some more examples of adjective phrases (with the head adjectives in bold): The extremely tired lioness is losing patience with her overly enthusiastic cub. My mother was fairly unhappy with the service. Her baking always smells very tempting. The consequences of agreeing were far too serious. The dog covered in mud looked pleased with himself.Adjective Phrases Can Be Used Attributively or PredicativelyAn adjective phrase can be an attributive adjective or a predicative adjective.

Attributive Adjective. An attributive adjective is one that sits inside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies. Look at these two examples: The beautifully carved frames are worth more than the painting. (This is an attributive adjective phrase. It sits inside the noun phrase The beautifully carved frames.) The frames beautifully carved by monks are worth more than the painting. (This is also an attributive adjective phrase. It sits inside the noun phrase The frames beautifully carved by monks.)When an adjective appears before its noun, it is very likely to be an attributive adjective. However, an adjective that appears after its noun can also be attributive.

Predicative Adjective. A predicative adjective sits outside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies. Typically, a predicative adjective is linked to the noun it modifies with a linking verb. For example: The curtains look far too long.(This is a predicative adjective phrase. The linking verb is look.) The frames were beautifully carved by monks.(This is a predicative adjective phrase. The linking verb is were.)Examples of Adjective Phrases Used Attributively and PredicativelyLet's look at the earlier examples: he extremely tired lioness is losing patience with her overly enthusiastic cub. (Both adjective phrases are used attributively. They appear inside the noun phrases The extremely tired lioness and her overly enthusiastic cub.) My mother was fairly unhappy with the service. (The adjective phrase is used predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase My mother. The linking verb is was.) Her baking always smells very tempting. (The adjective phrase is used predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase Her baking. The linking verb is smells.) The consequences of agreeing were far too serious. (The adjective phrase is used predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase The consequences of agreeing. The linking verb is were.) The dog covered in mud looked pleased with himself. (In this example, the first adjective phrase is used attributively. It appears inside the noun phrase The dog covered in mud. The second is used predicatively. It appears outside the same noun phrase. The linking verb is looked.)

A verb phrase is the portion of a sentence that contains both the verb and either a direct or indirect object (the verbs dependents). Were going to take a look at what verb phrases are, and then view some verb phraseexamples.Verbs are words that demonstrate an action, like sing, dance, smell, talk, and eat. They serve as a link between the subject of the verb and information about that subject. The information is usually descriptive.In order to show activities that can be done, active verbs are used, while linking verbs describe conditions. She smells the pizza. (active) The wet dog smells awful. (linking) He appears on screen as an actor. (active) Tony appears angry. (linking)Verb phrases take the verb one step further by comprising the verb, plus the complement, object, or adverb. Verb phrases, such as "She was walking quickly to the mall" comprise the verb (walking) and the complement (to the mall).To learn more about verb phrases see Verb Phrase.Verb Phrase ExamplesA verb phrase can be the predicate of the clause or sentence. A verb phrase can also be a phrase that functions as an adverb or adjective and contains a verb and its complements, objects, or modifiers.Phrase Is the Predicate of the SentenceFollowing are some verb phrase examples where the verb phrase is the predicate of a sentence. In this case, the verb phrase consists of the main verb plus any auxiliary, or helping, verbs. Shewas walking quickly to the mall. He should wait before going swimming. Those girls are not trying very hard. Tedmight eatthe cake. Youmust goright now. You cant eat that! My mother is fixing us some dinner. Wordswere spoken. These cards may be worth hundreds of dollars! The teacheris writinga report. Youhave woken upeveryone in the neighborhood.An adverb phrase is simply two or more words that act as an adverb. It can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell how, where, why, or when.Anadverb clausewhich also modifies verbs, adverbs and adjectives; but, an adverb clause also includes a subject and a verb.Adverb Phrases Describing HowExamples: With great regret In dismay Like a monk in meditation As if I care In silence With a song in my heart Like greased lightningAdverb Phrases Describing WhereExamples: At the corner In the world Through the looking glass Over the rainbow Under the sea By the light of the moon Around the sunAdverb Phrases Describing WhyExamples: To understand better For making cookies Since she was getting married So that I wont get lost Lest she forgetAdverb Phrases Describing WhenExamples: In an hour Any time Before next week After they go to bed Never at midnight After the sunset Only two days agoAdverb Phrases in SentencesAdverb phrases can be used in any position in a sentence.Here are adverb phrase examples (shown as underlined) in various places in sentences: Bob noddedas if he understood. Meet meat the mall. Without thinking, he turneddown the road. They must kissbefore sunset.

What Is a Sentence? (with Examples of the Different Types of Sentence)A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

A sentence must contain a subject and a verb (although one may be implied). The Four Types of SentenceThere are four types of sentence. A declarative sentence.A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period / full stop. For example: He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty. (Thomas P Gore) I wonder if other dogs think poodles are members of a weird religious cult.(Remember, a statement which contains an indirect question (like this example) is not a question.) An imperative sentence.An imperative sentence is a command or a polite request. It ends with an exclamation mark or a period / full stop. For example: When a dog runs at you, whistle for him. (Henry David Thoreau, 1817-1862) An interrogative sentence.An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark. For example: Who knew that dog saliva can mend a broken heart? (Jennifer Neal) An exclamatory sentence.An exclamatory sentence expresses excitement or emotion. It ends with an exclamation mark. For example: In Washington, it's dog eat dog. In academia, it's exactly the opposite! (Robert Reich)The Four Sentence StructuresA sentence can consist of a single clause or several clauses. When a sentence is a single clause, it is called a simple sentence (and the clause is called an independent clause). A sentence must contain at least one independent clause. Below are the four types of sentence structure (with their independent clauses shaded: A Complex Sentence.A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. For example: Diplomacy is the art of saying "nice doggie" until you can find a rock. (Will Rogers, 1879-1935) When you're on the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog. (Peter Steiner) A Compound Sentence.A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For example: Cry "Havoc," and let slip the dogs of war. (William Shakespeare, 1564-1616) A Simple Sentence.A simple sentence has just one independent clause. For example: You can't surprise a man with a dog.(Cindy Chupack) A Compound-Complex Sentence.A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clausesand at least one dependent clause. For example: When a dog bites a man, that is not news because it happens so often, but if a man bites a dog, that is news. (John B Bogart)

Coherence and cohesionCoherencemeans the connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion means the connection of ideas at the sentence level. Basically, coherence refers to the rhetorical aspects of your writing, which include developing and supporting your argument (e.g. thesis statement development), synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas. Thecohesionof writing focuses on the grammatical aspects of writing.

One of the practical tools that can help improve the coherence of your writing is to use aconcept map. The concept map is also known as reverse outline since you make an outline of your paper after you have finished the main ideas of your paper. Write down the main idea of each paragraphwhich is called a topic sentenceon a blank piece of paper. Check to see if thetopic sentencesare connected to the thesis statement of your paper or if you have strayed from your main argument. As you repeat this process, it will help you become more aware of how to develop your argument coherently and how to organize your ideas effectively. Here is a concept map template you can use.

Cohesionis also a very important aspect of academic writing, because it immediately affects the tone of your writing. Although some instructors may say that you will not lose points because of grammatical errors in your paper, you may lose points if the tone of your writing is sloppy or too casual (a diary-type of writing or choppy sentences will make the tone of your writing too casual for academic writing). But cohesive writing does not mean just grammatically correct sentences; cohesive writing refers to the connection of your ideas both at the sentence level and at the paragraph level.

Here are someexamplesthat illustrate the importance of connecting your ideas more effectively in writing.

The hotel is famous. It is one of the most well-known hotels in the country. The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel. The hotel spent a lot of money to advertise the event. Because the hotel wanted to gain international reputation. But not many people attended the event.(The connection of ideas is not very good.)The hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region, wanted to promote its image around the world by hosting the latest international dancing competition. Although the event was widely advertised, not many people participated in the competition.(The connection of ideas is better than in the first example.)

The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region. The hotel spent a lot of money on advertising the event since it wanted to enhance its international reputation; however, it failed to attract many people.(The connection of ideas is better than in the first example.)