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Principles of Evolution
5-23-16
Chapter 18 section 1
Announcements:
• Quiz 5 (last quiz!!!) is on Wednesday
– Topics: biotechnology (chapter 17.1) and principles of evolution (chapter 18.1)
Learning Goals for Today:
• Discuss the theory of evolution
• List some of the evidence that Darwin used to formulate the theory of evolution
• List some of the data used to support the theory of evolution
• Predict how a population may change over time
Evolution: what is it?
• Book definition of evolution:
– the change over time in the characteristics of a population
• A population consists of all the individuals of one species in one location
– Micro- : An increase in the frequency of the gene for dark wings in beetles from one generation to the next
– Macro- : The extinction of all dinosaurs
Pre-Darwin and Wallace:
• All organisms were created simultaneously (by a creator)
• They did not change
Greek philosophers:
• Plato (427–347 B.C.) each object on Earth is just a temporary reflection of its divinely inspired “ideal form”
• Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) increasing complexity of organisms indicates their perfection in the “Ladder of Nature”
Humans
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles and amphibians
Whales and porpoises
Fish
Squids and octopuses
Lobsters, crabs, etc.
Snails, clams, etc.
Insects, spiders, etc.
Jellyfishes, sponges, etc.
Higher plants
Lower plants
Inanimate matter
What got people thinking that organisms could change
• 18th century: world exploration revealed more species than anticipated
• Naturalists including Georges-Louis Leclerc noticed that each geographical location had its own group of species, even when environments were similar
• Some species in the same location were similar but different in some aspects
• Having different sets of species in the same location was inconsistent with the idea of fixed and unchanging forms
How could this change (evolution) happen?
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) proposed inheritance of acquired characteristics – Due to use or disuse of different parts
• “use it or lose it”
– These modifications are passed to offspring
Theory unsupported for genetic inheritance
Is supported for cultural/behavioral characteristics
Dude,
step off!!
According to Lamarck
• Mid 1800s – Explanations for the concept of evolution
• Both did expeditions in the tropics
• Charles Darwin (1831 to 1836, S. America, Australia, and Africa)
• Alfred Wallace (Brazil, 1848 to 1852; Malay Archipelago, 1854 to 1862)
Modern Perspectives
Published 28 years after the expedition in The Beagle began
Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle and Darwin
Voyages of Wallace and Darwin
Australia America Darwin (and Wallace) noticed:
Similar organisms on different continents
Found in similar environments
Appear to have similar roles
Darwin’s Finches, Residents of the Galápagos Islands
Beak size corresponds with food preference
Idea: changes in food supply leads to selection for or against specific beak shapes
For example, seed-eating finches had stronger, thicker beaks for breaking seeds, and insect-eating finches had spear-like beaks for stabbing their prey.
Darwin noticed that different, yet related, animal species often occupied different habitats within a local area.
Armadillo Glyptodon
Darwin notices fossil organisms that resembled modern organisms
Darwin noticed that species were changing
• Darwin wanted to explain the biological diversity he observed in a scientific way
• As he traveled, Darwin noticed three distinctive patterns of biological diversity: (1) Species vary globally, (2) species vary locally, and (3) species vary over time.
Idea of natural selection
• Exploration of new lands revealed a staggering diversity of life – Discovered vast numbers of new species
– Early explorers often took naturalists along to catalogue the plant and animal life they found
• Darwin: naturalist on the Beagle
• Wallace was a naturalist too but he worked independently
– Idea of “survival of the fittest” explains changes in populations
Natural selection
• Successful reproduction of individuals with favorable traits that survive environmental change because of those traits
• Leads to evolutionary change
• Fit = has more babies that survive
How Does Natural Selection Work?
• Darwin (and Wallace) proposed that life’s diverse forms arose through the process of descent with modification (evolution)
– Individuals in each generation differ slightly from the members of the preceding generation
– Over long time periods, small differences accumulate to produce major transformations
LaMarckian and Darwinian views
Four postulates of evolution –Variation in phenotype
• Postulate 1: Individual members of a population differ from one another
Fig. 14-6
• Postulate 2: phenotypic differences can be passed on from parents to offspring – must be heritable
Phenotypes must be heritable
More offspring are produced than are able to survive
• Postulate 3: In each generation, some individuals in a population survive and reproduce successfully but others do not
• Postulate 4: Individuals with advantageous traits (phenotypes) survive and leave the most offspring, process known as natural selection
Survival of the fittest because of natural selection
What is natural selection?
• Unequal survival and reproduction of organisms with different phenotypes, caused by environmental forces
Natural selection modifies populations over time
• Natural selection acts on individuals within a population; however, it is the population that changes over time
– Over generations, the population changes, as the percentage of individuals inheriting favorable traits increases
Adaptation
• A heritable trait that helps the survival and reproduction of an organism in its present environment
– The webbed feet of platypuses are an adaptation for swimming
– The snow leopards’ thick fur is an adaptation for living in the cold
– The cheetahs’ fast speed is an adaptation for catching prey
How does natural selection happen: step by step?
• A population with genetic/phenotypic variation
1. A change occurs in the environment
2. Well-adapted individuals leave more offspring than do poorly-adapted individuals
3. Genetic frequencies within the population change
How Natural Selection Works
How Natural Selection Does Not Work
• Adaptation has nothing to do with effort
• Natural selection does not give organisms what
they “need”
• An advantage must be heritable in order for it
to be passed on to offspring
Worksheet on natural selection
Support for the Process of Evolution
• Fossils provide evidence of evolutionary change over time
• Comparative anatomy gives evidence of descent with modification
• Embryological similarity suggests common ancestry
• Modern biochemical and genetic analyses reveal relatedness among diverse organisms
Modern whales
0
40
45
50
Basilosaurus
Dorudon
Rhodocetus
Ambulocetus
Pakicetus
Mill
ion
s o
f ye
ars
ag
oFossils Provide Evidence for Whale
Evolution from Land Mammals
Fig. 14-7
The Evidence for Natural Selection
• Fossil record
• Transitional fossilsCaudipteryx – 125 mya
Reptiles birds
Archaeopteryx – 145 mya
The Evidence for Natural Selection
• Fossil record
• Transitional fossils
Tiktaalik – 375 mya
Water land animals
Lobed-finned fish
salamander
The Evidence for Natural Selection
• Fossil record
• Transitional fossils
Modern toothed whales
Rodhocetus swam withan up-and-down motion. 47 mya
Ambulocetus probably walked on land. 49 mya
Pakicetus attocki lived on land. 55 mya
Land back to sea
Divergent evolution
• Sometimes, evolution gives rise to groups of organisms that become tremendously different from each other
• When two species evolve in diverse directions from a common point, it is called divergent evolution
Comparative anatomy (homologous structures) is a result of divergent evolution and provides
support for common ancestry
Pterodactyl
Bird
Bat
Dolphin
Seal
Dog
Sheep Shrew
humerus
ulna
metacarpals
phalanges
radius
carpals
Human
GRASPINGRUNNINGSWIMMINGFLYING
Bones in the appendages share the same overall construction
Vestigial Structures: evidence of loss of once important structures (divergent evolution),
“evolutionary baggage”
These vestigial bones are similar in
structure to those of the salamander
but serve no function; all three animals
inherited the bones from a common
ancestor
The bones of a salamander’s hindlimb
function in support and locomotion
(c) Boa constrictor
(b) Baleen whale
(a) Salamander
Shrunken to the point that they no longer constitute a survival-reducing burden.
The Evidence for Natural Selection
• Comparative anatomy
• Vestigial structures – relics of the past
The Evidence for Natural Selection
• Pseudogenes• “Dead” genes
• Products of divergent evolution
• Example: Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) synthesis
Convergent Evolution gives rise to analogous structures
• Similar traits (“analogous structures”) evolve separately, but in similar environments
• Similar selection pressures
• Example: Placental mammals vs marsupials
Wolf
Thylacine
Flying squirrel
Flying phalanger
Niche Burrower
Mole
Lesser anteater Ring-tailed lemur Ocelot
Spotted cuscus
Numbat
Marsupial mole
Anteater Climber Glider
Marsupial
mouse
Australian
Marsupials
Placental
Mammals
Nocturnal
Insectivore
Grasshopper
mouse
Stalking
Predator
Chasing
Predator
Tasmanian
quoll
Convergent Evolution
North America
Asia & Australia
CactusEuphorbia
Analogous Structures: similar function but unrelated, product of convergent evolution
Fig. 14-10
All vertebrate embryos look similar –homologous traits in embryos provide
evidence of a common ancestor
At one point all possess gill slits and a tailWhich is the lemur, pig, human?
Lemur pig human
Homologous biochemical and cellular features - Evidence for common ancestry
• Shared features of all cells
– DNA as a genetic blueprint
– RNA, ribosomes, and approximately the same genetic code for translation
– same set of 20 amino acids to build proteins
– ATP to transfer energy
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
humanmouse
Cytochrome c gene is highly conserved between species
Natural Selection - conclusions
• Natural selection is not random
• Traits are produced by chance
mutations
• The traits that persist in a
population are those that
work best in the organism’s
environment