PRIMARYSIXBASICSCIENCE ANDHEALTHEDUCATIONLESSONNOTES

TERM I.

THEME:THEWORLDOFLIVINGTHINGSTOPIC:CLASSIFICATIONOFLIVINGTHINGS

CONTENTCharacteristicsoflivingthings

THEYFEEDØ Various livingthingsfeedindifferentwaysie

Organism Modeoffeeding Typesof nutritionFungilikeyeast,moulds,mushrooms,puffballsetc

Saprophytically Saprophyticnutrition

Parasitesliketapeworms,hookworms,ticks,lice,mites etc

Parasitically Parasiticnutrition

Plants AutotrophicallyTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight

Autotrophicnutrition

Animals Hetetrophically- SomeHeterotrophicallyanimals

feeddirectlyonalreadymadefoodbyplantsieherbivores,omnivones,carnivores

Heterotrophicnutrition

DIFFERENCES INFEEDINGBETWEENPLANTSANDANIMALSPlants AnimalsTheymaketheirownfoodbythehelpofsunlight(Autotrophically)

Thefeedonalreadymadefoodbyplants(Heterotrophically)

THEYGROW.Ø Whatisgrowth?Ø Itreferstoincreaseinheightandsizeofanorganism.

DIFFERENCESINGROWTHBETWEENANIMALSANDPLANTSAnimals PlantsGrowthoccursequallyonallpartsofthebody Growthoccursonlyatthetipsofrootsandshoots

Ø Reproductionistheprocessbywhichlivingorganismsmultiplyorincreaseinnumbersastheygivebirthtoyoungones(offspring)

MOVEMainly livingorganismslikeanimalsmove(locomote)todifferentplacesforsomereasons.Reasonwhyanimalsmovefrom oneplacetoanother

Ø Tolookforfood(pasture)andwater.Ø TolookforshelterØ Torunawayfrom theirenemies(protection)Ø Tolookformates(formating)Ø Lookingfortheiryoungones.THEYEXCRETEExcretionistheremovalofwasteproductsfrom thebody.

WHYDOLIVINGTHINGSEXCRETE?Togetridofwasteproductsfrom theirbodies.

THEYRESPIRERespirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoreleaseenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapourHowdoorganismsbenefitfrom respiration?Theygetenergy

TYPESOFRESPIRATIONi)Aerobicrespirationisthetypeofrespirationwhichinvolvesuseofoxygenii)Anaerobicrespirationisthetypesofrespirationwhichdoesntinvolveuseofoxygen

THEYRESPONDTOSTIMULIAnimalsandplantresponddifferentlytocircumstancesintheenvironmentforsurvival,examplesofstimulitouch,heat,light,pain,gravity,wateretc

Livingthingsaredividedintofivekingdomsnamely;· AnimalKingdom· PlantKingdom· Prokaryotal(BacteriaKingdom)· Protoctista(singlecelledorganisms)· FungiKingdom

AnimalKingdomCLASSIFICATIONOFANIMALSwhytoclassifyanimals?AnimalsareclassifiedforeasyidentificationForeasystudy.Characteristicsusedforclassifyinganimals

- Externalfeaturessuchascolour,size,shapenumberoflegs,haironthebodyetc

- Theirdifferentmodesofreproduction,respiration and movement

Animalsareclassifiedintotwogroups· Vertebrates· Invertebrates

Vertebrates

Vertebratesareanimalswithabackbone/vertebralcolumn(spine)- Thebackboneprotectsthespinalcord.- Allverterbrateshavean endoskeleton

GroupsofvertebratesVertebratesareclassifiedintofivegroups;

· Mammals· Birds· Reptiles· Fish· Amphibians

Vertebratesarealsogrouped basingonthebodytemperature;i.Warm blooded(homoeothermic)ii. Coldblooded(poikilothermic)

Warm bloodedi) Mammalsii) Birds

Coldbloodedi) Fishii) Reptilesiii) Amphibians

MAMMALSMammalsarevertebrateswhichhavemammaryglandsandsuckleyoungonesonbreastmilk

Characteristicsofmammals· Mammalsarewarm blooded· Mostofthem furontheirbodies· Mostofthem givebirthtolivingyoungones.· Theyfeedtheiryoungonesonbreastmilk

· Theybreathethroughthelungs.· Theirheartsaredividedintofourchambers

Groupsofmammals· Primates(mostadvanced/fingeredmammals)· Ungulates(hoofedmammals)· Carnivorousmammals(flesheaters)· Rodents(gnawingmammals)· Insectivorous(insecteaters)· Pouchedmammals(marsupials)· Flyingmammals(chiroptera)· Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Seamammals(cetaceans)

Primates(fingeredmammals)Thesearethemostadvancedgroupofmammals.Characteristics· Theyhavewelldevelopedbrain· Theyusefrontlimbsforholdingandhindlimbsforwalking.· Theyhavefivefingersoneachhandandfivetoesoneachfoot.· Theyareomnivorousi.e.theyfeedonbothfleshandvegetables.· Theyhavewelldevelopedsetofallthefourtypesofteethi.e.incisors,

canines,premolarsandmolars(32teeth)

ExamplesofprimatesMan,monkeys, gorillas,baboon,bushbaby,chimpanzee,etc.Theterm todescribegorillas,baboons,bushbabies,chimpanzeesisapes

Ungulates(hoofedmammals)Allmammalsinthisgroupareherbivorousi.e.theyfeedonvegetation.Ungulatesaredividedintotwosub-groups

i) Eventoedungulatesii) Oddtoedungulates

EventoedungulatesTheyinclude;Okapi,deer,pigs,cattle,giraffe,sheep,antelopes,hippopotamusEventoedungulatesarefurthersubdividedintotwo;

i) Ruminantsii) Nonruminants

RuminantsTheseareungulateswithfourstomachsandchewcuds.Mostofthem havehornswhichtheyuseforprotection.Examples· Cattle

· Goats· Sheep· Camel

Antelopeetc

Nonruminants· Theseareungulateswhichdonotchewcudbuthaveacompletedentition.· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineswhichtheyuseforprotection

Examplesinclude;Pigs,hippopotamus,warthog.

OddtoedungulatesThenumberoftoesisalwaysoneorthreetoese.g.oneinhorse,donkey,ZebraandthreeinelephantandRhino.

CarnivorousmammalsCharacteristicsofcarnivorousanimals· Theyarestrongmammals· Theyhavewelldevelopedcanineteethfortearingfleshoftheirprey.· Theyhavesharpclawsforholding,killingandtearingtheirprey.· Theyhaveaverygoodspeed,goodsenseofsmell,keeneyesightandgood

hearing,sotheyevenhuntatnight· Theirfeethavesoftpadsthereforetheycanrunaftertheirpreywithout

makingnoise.

Carnivorousmammalsaredividedintotwofamilies;a)Dogfamily— Faceresemblesthatofadogb)Catfamily— faceresemblesthatofacat.

Examplesofthedogfamilyinclude;Domesticdog,hyena,jackal,foxetcExamplesofthecatfamilyinclude;lion,leopard,tiger,cheetah,mangoose,domesticcat.Somecarnivorousarescavengerse.g.hyena,jackal.Gnawingmammals(Rodents)· Thesearemammalswhichhavewelldevelopedincisorsusedforbitingand

chewingpowerfullyandrapidly.· Theydonthavecanines.· Mostrodentsareherbivores(vegetarians)

Examplesinclude;Rats,squirrels,mice,rabbits,hares,porcupines,guineapigsandmoles.Insecteatingmammals(insectivores)· Thesearemammalswhichfeedoninsects.· Theyhaveasensitivesnout forsmellingandstrongclawsfordigging.

· Theyarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.· Examplesinclude;Hedgehog,elephantshrew,Aardvark,antbeare.t.c· Ahedgehogisananimalwithspinesonitsbody.Whenthreatened,itrolls

itselfupintoaball.

Flyingmammals(chiroptera)Batsaretheonlytrueflyingmammals.Theyhaveafoldskinattachedtotheforelimbwhichactaswings.Therearethreemaintypesofbats;

a)Insecteatingbats:Thesearehelpfultomanbecausetheyeatmanyharmfulinsectslikemosquitoes.

b)Fruiteatingbats:-Thesearedangerousbecausetheyeatourfruits.c)Bloodsuckingbats(vampires)theysuckbloodfrom largeanimalslike

horses,cows,buffaloesetc.batsarenocturnali.e.theymoveandhuntatnightandsleepduringday.Theycanfindtheirfoodatnightincompletedarknessbyusingechoesfrom thesoundtheyproduce.

Pouchedmammals(marsupials)Examplesoftheseinclude;Kangaroo,KoalabearandWallabiesMarsupialsarefoundinAustraliaandsouthAmerica.

Egglayingmammals(monotremes)· Thesearethemostprimitiveintheclassofmammalsbecause;· Theyresemblebirdsandreptilesinthattheylayeggsandalsohavebeaks

similartothoseofbirds.· Theyhavecharacteristicsofbirds,mammalsandreptiles.· Monotremesareregardedasmammalsbecausetheyfeedtheiryoungones

onmilkfrom themammaryglandsandforthecaretheygivetotheiryoungonesafterhatching.

· Examplesinclude;theduckbilledplatypusandthespinyanteater(echina)ofAustralia

Seamammals(cetaceans)· Thesearemammalswhichliveinthesea.· Theydonthavegillsbuttheybreathebymeansoflungs· Theyhavealayeroffatsundertheskincalledblubbertokeepthem warm.· Theyhaveahighlevelofintelligencenexttoprimates· Theyhavemammaryglands· Theygivebirthtolivingyoungonesandsucklethem onmilkfrom the

mammaryglands.· Mostseamammalshavefur.Examplesinclude;Bluewhale,Sperm whale,porpoisesseals,dolphinse.t.c

BIRDSCharacteristicsofbirds· Theirbodiesarestreamlinedi.e.pointedatthefrontandback.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithfeatherswhichtheymoulteveryyear.· Theirbonesarehollowi.e.donothavebonemarrow.· Theyhavescalesontheirlegs· Theyarewarm blooded· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirfrontlimbsaremodifiedaswings· Theyhavenoteethbuthavehornybeaks.· Theireyeshavethreelidsthelower,upperandnictatingmembrane.· Theylayshelledeggswhicharefertilizedinternally· Theycarefortheiryoungones.· Manyofthem canfly.

ExternalfeaturesofabirdFeatures,alimentarycanalofabird,reproductioninbirdReferstoP.5(term work)· Feedinghabitsinbirds· Birdshavenoteeth· Theyhaveahornybeak· Theshapeofthebeakvarieswiththetypeofthefoodeaten.

Classificationofbirds· Birdshaveanumberofspecialadaptationfeatures.· Theyaregroupedaccordingtothetypeabeakandfeet(claws)theyhave.· Somebirdsaregroupedaccordingtothetypeoffoodtheyeat.

Someofthegroupsare;· Birdsofprey· Perchingbirds· Scratchingbirds· Swimmingbirds· Wadingbirds· Flightless(walking)birds· Climbingbirds· Scavengerbirds1.Birdsofprey· Theyarecarnivorousbirdsthathuntandkilltheirprey.e.g.rats,fish,mice,

lizard,chickene.t.c· Theyhavestrongeyesighttospottheirpreyevenwhentheyareflying· Theyhavestrongsharp,hookedbeaksfortearingtheprey.· Theyhavestrongsharpcurvedtalons(claws)forgrippingandkillingtheprey.Examplesinclude;Hawks,eagles,secretarybirds,owls,kites,falcons,kingfisher

etc

StructureofthebeakandclawsPerchingbirdsThesearebirdswhichhavethreetoespointedforwardandonetoepointedbackward. Thenatureofthetoestheyhavearesuitableforperchingontreebranches

Typesofperchingbirdsi) Seedeaters

Thesehaveshortstrongconicalbeakssuitableforbreakingupseedse.g.pigeon,doves,weaverbirdsfinchesetc

Structureofthebeakandfoot

ii) InsecteatersTheyhavestoutnarrowbeaksforpickinguptheinsectsfrom thebarkoftrees.Examplesinclude;Sparrows,robbins,swallows,andswift,beeeatersetc.Swallowsandswiftshaveshortandwideopenbeakswhichhelpthem tocatchinsectsevenwhenflying.

iii) Honeysucker/nectareaterThosehavethinlongbeakswhichareslightlycurved.Example,Thesunbird.

Structureofthebeak

FruiteaterThosehavealongstoutbeakforcollectingfruitsExample,HornbillStructureofthebeak

Scratchingbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonseedsandinsectswhichtheyfindbyscratchingtheearth.· Theyhaveshort,strong,firm pointedbeaksforpickingupthingsfrom the

ground.· Theyhavestrongfeetwiththicktoesandbluntnails.· Theycanwalkeasily· Theirbodyisheavyandwingsareweak.Examplesinclude;domesticfowlsi.e.chicken,turkey,guineafowl.

Structureofthebeakandfoot

Swimmingbirds· Theyhavewebbedfeetwhichactlikepaddles· Theyhavebroadbreastbone.· Theirskinhasmanyoilglandswhichproduceoiltoprotecttheirbodyagainst

water.· Theyhavebeakswithsmallcrossplatesonthemarginswhichhelpthem to

sievefoodfrom themud.· Examplesinclude;Ducks,swans,geese,penguins,seagulls,pelicans

StructureofthefoodandbeakFlightlessbirds· Thesearebirdswhichareunabletoflybutcanrunveryfast.· Theyhaveweakandsmallwingscomparedtothebodysize.· Anostrichisthelargestandfastestflightlessbird.ItrunsfasterthanahorseExamplesinclude;Kiwi,penguins,ostriches,emu,rhea,andcassowary.Climbingbirds· Theyhavetwotoespointedforwardandothertwobackwards.· Thisarrangementhelpsthem inclimbingtolookforseedsandinsects.· Theyliveintreesandrunaboutonbranchesoftrees.· Examplesinclude;Aparrot,awoodpecker.

Thestructureofthebeakandfoot

Scavengerbirds· Thesebirdsfeedonrottenfleshkilledbyotheranimals,rottenmeatandfish.· Theyusuallyhavebeakssimilartothoseofbirdsprey.· Theyareusefulbecausetheyclearmostofthedeaddecayingmatterwhich

mayotherwisebeasourceofmanydiseases.Examplesinclude;vulture,crow,andmaraboustorketc

Thewaysinwhichbirdsareadaptedforflying· Theyarestreamlinedtoreducefrictionsothattheycanmovethroughair

easily.· Theyhavehollowboneswhichreduceweightandtheirbackbonesare

fused(joined)togivethem rigidity.· Theyhavestrongattachmentoftheirpowerfulandstrongfrontmuscles

whichareusedformovingwings· Theirforelimbsaremodifiedintowings· Theyhavenopinnatoabstracttheflowofair.· Theyhavegoodeyesighttoseewellfrom longdistancesandjudgethe

distanceaccurately· Theyhaveanictitatingmembranewhichcovertheeyeandprotectthem

againstmovingairduringflight.· Theirbodiesarecoveredwithflightfeathers.· Theyhaveaquickdigestivesystem

NB:somedomesticfowlsareunabletoflyhighbecausetheyhavealotofbonemarrowwhichmakethem heavy.

Advantagesofbirds· Theyaresourcesoffood· Thefeathersareusedfordecorationslike hats,suits,handbagsinstaffing

mattress· Bonesareusedformakingglue.· Somebirdskeptforcustomarypurposelikemakingsacrificesandpaying

dowry.· Theyaresourceofincometofarmers.· Theyattracttourist· Somebirdspollinateflowerslikethesunbirds,theypollinatewhencollecting

nectar.· Somehelptocleanourenvironmentlikethevultures,crowsandmarabou

storks.

Disadvantagesofbirds· Manybirdsdamageourcrops.· Somebirdscauseaccidenttorunwaysattheairport.· Theymakealotofnoiselikeweaverbirds

REPTILESMostreptilesareaviparousanimalsi.e.theylayeggs

Characteristicsofreptiles· Theyarecoldbloodedanimals· Theybreathebymeansoflungs· Theirskiniscoveredwithscales· Theirteetharesimilar· Theyhaveathreechambered hearti.e.twoaauriclesandoneventricle· Theyhavefourlimbswithclawsapartfrom asnake· Theyhaveexternalears.Thetympanicmembrane(eardrum)isusually

situatedbelowthesurfaceofthebody.· Theylayeggswhicharefertilizedinternally.Theshellsofeggsareeither

leatheryorquitehardmadeofcalcium carbonate.· Theyusuallydontlookaftertheiryoungones.

Classificationofreptiles

Reptilesaredividedintothefollowinggroupsi) Snakesii) Lizardsiii) Turtles,tortoises,andterrapinsiv) CrocodilesandAligators

Snakes· Theyhavenolimbs· Theyarecarnivorousanimals· Theireyesarewithouteyelidsbuteacheyeisprotectedbyaimmovable

transparentmembrane· Theyhaveaforkedtonguewhichactsasasenseorganforsmellandtaste.· Theyhavealargenumberofribsandvertebrates.· Theyshed(moult)theirskinafteracertainperiod.· Theirbackwardpointedteethpreventthepreyfrom escapingfrom the

mouth.· Somesnakehavepoisonfangswhichhaveadeepcanalthroughwhich

poisonpasses.· Theribsandlargescalesontheundersideoftheirbodyalsohelpthem to

move.· Theyhideormoveawaywhendisturbed.

ClassificationofsnakeSnakesaregroupedintothreemaingroupsnamely;

· Poisonoussnakes· Constrictors· Non-poisonoussnakes

PoisonoussnakesTheyhavetwolongteethcalledfangsnearthefrontofthemouthtoinjectvenom.ExampleofpoisonoussnakestheCobra(whichbite/spitpoison)

· Mamba(black/green)· Puffudder/nightudder· Viper

Nonpoisonoussnakes· Thesedonothavefangsandthesnakevenom poison.· Theyhavesoliduniform teeth.

ConstrictorsThesetypeofsnakeskilltheirpreybycrushingandsuffocatingthem usingmuscles.Constrictorslicktheirpreytomaketheirsmoothandslippery.

Examplesofconstrictors

· ThePython· Anaconda· Boaconstrictor

Firstaidforthesnakebite· Applyblackstoneontheinjuredparttosuckthepoisonaftermakingcuts· Stayquietandrestthebittenpartsothatthevenom doesnotspread.· Tieabandage/tourniquetbetweentheheartandthebittenparttolimitthe

flowofpoisonedbloodtotheheart.· Cutbetweenthefangmarksandsuckoutthevenom ifyoudonothave

woundsinthemouth.· Takethevictim tothenearesthealthunittoreceiveantivenom injection.Howtotellthatapersonhasbeenbittenbypoisonoussnake.Itleavestwofangmarksonthebittenareathroughwhichsomebloodoozesout.

LIZARDSTheyhavefourlimbsandtailwhichcangrowwhenitscut.Examplesoflizards· Sinks· Geckos· Chameleons· Agamalizards· Monitorlizards· Iguanalizards

Chameleonsareslowmovingreptileswhichprotectthemselvesbychangingcolour.(camouflaging)Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestocapturetheirprey.Theyhatchtheireggsinsidethebodyandlayyoungones

Tortoises,turtles,terrapins· Thesearereptilesthathavehardshellsontheirbacks· Turtlesandterrapinshavetheirfeetmodifiedintoflippersforswimmingin

water.· Tortoisesmovebywalkingusingtheirstronglegs.· Theyalllaytheireggsinsandonthebankofwater.

Diagram showingtortoiseandaturtleNB:tortoisehaveraisedshellswhileturtleshaveflatshells,

Crocodilesandalligators· Theyarethelargestofreptiles· Theyliveinwaterandcomeouttosleepinthesandoftheriverbanks.· Theyhavestrongtailsforswimmingandattackingtheirenemies/prey· Theyhaverowsofteethintheirlongjawsforgrippingtheirprey

· Theyproducebylayingeggswhichareburiedundersandatthebankoflakesorrivers.

DiagramImportanceofreptilestoman· Theyhavegoodskinswhichisformakingdrums,belts,andshoes.· Theirskinscanbesoldastrophiestogetincome/money.· Theyaresourcesoffoodtoman.· Somereptileslikegeckosandlizardshelptoeatinsectvectorslike

mosquitoesinthehouses.· Theyareusedforstudyandresearch· Somelikecrocodilesactastouristattraction.

FISHFishbelongstothegroupofvertebratescalledpisces

Characteristicsoffish· Theyliveinwater· Theybreathethroughgills· Theylayeggswhichhatchintofires· Theireggsarefertilizedbythemalefrom outsidethefemalesbody.Inwater

(externalfertilization)· Mosthavescalesontheirbodyexceptcattlefish.· Theyhavefinsforswimmingandprotection· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyfeedonplantsandanimalsinwater.

Thestructureofthefish

FunctionsofpartsofafishTypesoffishTherearethreetypesoffish

· Bonnyfish· Cartilaginousfish· Lungfish

BonnyfishExamplesofbonnyfishare;Nileperch,Tilapia,herrings,trout,salmons.· Theyhavenoeyelids.· Theyhaveswim bladderwhichhelpstokeepthem buoyantinwater.· Theirgillsareprotectedbygillcoveroroperculum· Theirbodiesarecoveredbyoverlappingscales.

Cartilaginousfish

· Theirskinistoughandshinny· Theyhavegillsslitsinsteadofgillcover.· Theyhavemostlycartilageinsteadofbonesintheirskeletons· Theydonothaveswim bladder.Examplesofcartilaginousfish· Dogfish· Skates· Rays

Lungfish· Theybreathethroughgillsinwaterandbyswim bladderwhengillscannot

supplyenoughoxygen.· Theyliveindirtypools,swampsorrivers.· Theyhavelongandthinpelvicandpectoralfins.· Theyhibernateindryseasons.

ExamplesoflungfishThecommonlungfish/mamba

· Epiceratodus· Diponi

Breathinginfish· Fishbreatheindissolvedoxygeninwater.· Watercontainingoxygenmovesthroughthemouthandpassesoutoverthe

gillswhichabsorbtheoxygeninthewater.· Gillrackerstrapsolidparticlesordirttopreventdamagetothegills.· Thegillbarsarespreadoutthegillstopreventinterlocking.· Gillfilamentsaremanyinordertogivelargesurfaceareatoabsorbalotof

oxygendissolvedinwaterforrespiration.

Diagram

Howisfishadaptedtolivinginwater?· Itsstreamlinedbodyhelpsittomoveeasilyinwater· Finshelpittomoveinwaterandstopitfrom rolling.· Theyhavegillsforbreathinginwater.· Theyhavelaterallinetodetectsoundwaves(hearing)ordanger.· Theirscalesandcolourprovideprotection.· Itsslipperyscaleprotectsitfrom predatorsandhelpsinreducingviscosity

(frictioninwater)· Somehaveelectricorganswhichgiveouthighvoltageofelectricshocktoits

enemy.· Somefishinjectpoisonintotheirenemies.

Usesoffishtoman

· Theyarekeptaspetsinaquarium fordecoration· Theirbonesareusedtomakeglue· Theyaresourcesofemploymente.g.fishmongers.· Theycanbeusedforresearchandlearning.· Someareusedasmedicinee.g.silverfish.

AMPHIBIANSThesearecoldbloodedvertebratesthatcanlivebothinwaterandonland

Characteristicsofamphibians· Theyarecoldbloodedvertebrates· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theyundergoexternalfertilizationi.e.themaleshedsspermsontheeggs

outsidethefemalesbodyastheyarebeinglaidinwater.· Theyhavenoexternalearlobes.· Theireggsareusuallylaidineggspawns.· Theyhavescalelessskin· Theirheartisthreechambered.

ExamplesofamphibiansFrogs,toads,Newts,salamander,axolotis,eftse.t.c

Differencesbetweenafrogandatoad· Frogsmostlyliveinwaterwhiletoadsmostlyliveonland.· Frogshavesmoothslipperyskinswhiletoadshavewartyroughskins.· Toadslayeggsinlongribbonspawnswhiletoadslayeggsinmassspawns.· Frogshavefullywebbedhindfeetwhiletoadshavepartlywebbedfeet.· Frogscanbreathethroughtheirlungsandmoistskinwhiletoadsbreathe

throughtheirlungs.· Tadpolesoffrogsarebrownwhileoftoadsareblack.

Feedinginfrogs· Theyfeedonsmallinsectsandworms· Theyusetheirlongstickytonguestotraptheirprey.

Reproductioninamphibians· Themaleandfemalemate.· Thefemalelayseggsandthemaleshedsspermsoverthem tofertilizethem

(externalfertilization).· Theeggsdevelopandafterabouttwoweekshatchintotadpoles.· Thetadpolesundergoseveralchangestofullydevelopintoanadult.· Thistakesaboutthreemonths.

Diagram toshowlifecycleofanamphibian

INVERTEBRATESTheseareanimalswithoutabackbone.Theyaremulticellular animals.Classesofinvertebrates· Coelenterates· Echinoderms· Sponges· Worms· Molluscs· Arthropods

a)Coelenterates· Theyhavecylindricalbodieswithonlyoneopeningwhichactsasthemouth

andtheanus.· Theyhavestingingcellsonthetentaclessurroundingtheopenings.· Theyliveinwater.

Examplesofcoelenterates· Corals· Jellyfish· Hydra· Seaanemone.

b)EchinodermsThehavespinyskinsandtubefeet.Theypumpliquidintotheirfeettomakethem expand.ExamplesofEchinoderms· Starfish· Seaurchins· Sealilies· Seacucumbers

c)Sponges· Spongesareacollectionofindividualcellsorganizedintoonebodyonthe

seafloor.· Theycannotmoveaboutbutremainstuckontheseafloor.· Theysuckinseawaterandfilterouttinypiecesoffood.· Theybreatheandfeedthroughtheholesintheirbodies.

d)Molluscs· Theseareinvertebrateswithsoftandunsegmentedbodiescoveredbya

protectiveshellormantle.

· Theyliveonlandandinfreshwaterorsaltywater.· Somemollusksdonothaveshellslikeoctopus· Mollusesreproducebylayingeggs.

Examplesofmollusks-Octopusandsquids(thelargestandmostintelligent).Theymovebyjetpropulsion- SnailsandSlugs- Oysters- Cuttlefish- Clams- Mussel

SnailsliveonlandandinwaterTheyfeedonplants,whileothersarecarnivorousSlugsaresimilartosnailsbutdonothaveshells.

Diagram showingsnailsandslugs

E)WORMS· Thesearethin,longandsoftbodiedinvertebrates.· Someliveinsoilorwaterwhileothersareparasiteslivinginsideother

animals· Theybreathethroughtheirmoistskins· Theylayeggs.

Groups/typesofworms· Theyaredividedintothreegroupsnamely;· Segmentedworms(annelids)· Roundworms(nematodes)· Flatworms(platyhelminthes)

a)SegmentedwormsThesearewormswhosebodiesaredividedintoringsorsegments.Theymostlyliveinsoilandwater.Examples· Leeches· Bristleworms· Earthworms· Theyliveinsoilandeatsoilordecayedvegetation.· Theyarehermaphroditei.e.hasbothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans

· Theyhelptoaeratethesoilbymakingtunnelswhichalsohelptoimprovesoildrainage.

· Theyhelpintheformationofhumusinthesoil.

Diagram showingcommonsegmentedworms

b)FlatwormsTheyhaveflattenedandsegmentedbodies.Manyofthem areparasitesofmanandotheranimals.Examplesofflatworms

· Tapeworms· Pondflatworms· Liverflukes

TapewormsfeedondigestedfoodinthesmallintestinesLiverflukessuckbloodfrom animals.Diagram showingcommonflatworms

c)Roundworms· Thesearegroupsofwormswithcylindricalbodies.· Someareparasitesinmanandotheranimalsandplantswhileotherslivein

water.· Theyarepointedonbothends.

Commonexamplesofroundworms· Hookworms· Eelworms· Pinworms· Threadworms· Ascaris

· Hookwormsenterourbodiesbypenetratingthroughtheskinofbarefeet.· Theyfeedon blood.· Bathingordrinkingcontaminatedwater.F)ANTHROPODSTheseareinvertebrateswithsegmentedbodiesandjointedlegs.

Characteristicsofarthropods· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theyhavehardexternalskeletoncalledexo-skeleton(cuticle)· Theycanshedtheircuticlesthroughtheprocessofmoultingifgrowthisto

occur.· Theyhavesegmentedbodies.

Groupsorclassesofarthropods· Myriapods· Arachnids· Crustaceans· Insects

MyriapodsThesearearthropodswithmanyjointedlegs.Theirbodiesaresegmentedwitheachsegmenthavingatleastapairoflegs.Therearetwogroupsofmyriapods1.Centipedes(chilopoda)· Thesehaveonepairoflegsineachsegmentandapairofantennae· Thefrontlegsaremodifiedtoform poisonclaws.· Theyarecarnivorous.2.Millipedes(diplopoda)Thesehavetwopairsoflegsineachsegment.Theycurlorcoiltoprotectthemselvesorproducesbadsmell.

Diagram showingcommonmyriapods

b)Crustaceans· Thesearearthropodswhichhavehardandcrustlikeexo-skeleton.· Theyhavejointedlegs· Theirbodiesaredividedintotwomainpartsi.e.thecephalothoraxandthe

abdomen.· Theybreathethroughgillsortheirskin.

Examplescrustaceans· Crabs· Crayfish· Lobsters· Prawns· Sandhoppers

Usesofcrustaceans· Theyareeatenasfoodbyman.· Someareusedasbaitsinfishingindustry.

c)ArachnidsThesearearthropodswithtwomainbodypartsandfourpairsoflegs.ThetwomainbodypartsarecephalothoraxandabdomenExamplesofarachnidsSpidersTheyhavespecialorganattheendoftheirabdomencalledspinnerettesforspinningtheirwebs.TheybreathethroughlungbooksTheyusetheirwebsformovement,buildingtheirnets,trappingtheirpreyandfindingtheirwayback.Theyreproducebylayingeggs.

ii.TicksandmitesTheyliveontheskinofanimalsTheyfeedonbloodTheyspreadmanydiseasesindomesticanimalse.g.Eastcoastfever,redwater,heartwater,andtyphusfeverinhumans.NB:spiders,ticksandmitesundergoincompletemetamorphosisiii.ScorpionsTheyhavealargetailwithapoisonousstingTheirfrontlegsaremodifiedintopincersTheydonotlayeggsbutgivebirthtoyoungones.

InsectsThesearearthropodswith3(three)mainbodypartsorjointedlegs.

Characteristicsofinsects· Theyhavethreemainbodyparts(Head,thorax,abdomen)· Theheadcontains;compoundeyes,mouthpartsandfeelers.· Thethoraxcarriesthreepairsoflegs,thewings.· Theabdomencontainsthespiracles,ovipositorsandstingsinsomeinsects· Theyhavethreepairsofjointedlegs.· Theyhaveanexo-skeletoncalledCuticles· Theyhaveapairoffeelersorantennae· Theyhaveapairofcompoundeyes· Theyreproducebylayingeggs· Theybreathethroughspiracles.

Diagram showingpartsofaninsect

Functionsofpartsofaninsecti.Mouth partsProboscisisatubeforsuckingfoodininsectslikemosquitoes,houseflies,bees,tsetsefliesetc.Mandiblesareusedforchewingininsectslikegrasshoppers,locusts,cockroaches,beetles,etc

ii.Antennae/feelersTheseareusedassenseorganfortouch,smelldetectingsound(hearing)anddetectingchangesintemperature,humidityandfindingdirection.iii.Wingsforflyingiv.Compoundeyesforseeingv.Halteresinhouseflyforbalancingduringflight.vi.Spiraclesforbreathing

LifecycleofinsectsMetamorphosisThisisacompletechangeinthelifeofaninsectfrom aneggintoanadult.TherearetwotypesoflifecycleininsectsCompletemetamorphosisIncompletemetamorphosis

CompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecycleofsomeinsectswhichgothroughfourstagesofdevelopmentnamely;Eggs— Larva— Pupa— Adult

Examplesofinsectswhichundergocompletemetamorphosis· Houseflies· Mosquitoes· Butterflies· Bees· Moth· Wasps

LifeofahouseflyAdultslayeggsinbatchesof100-150eggsinmanureheap,rottingbodies,exposedfoodorfeaces.Reasonswhyhouseflieslayeggsinmanureheapsorrottingbodies· Toprovidewarmthtoeggssoastohatchintolarvae· Asourceoffoodtomaggots(larvae)afterhatchingTheeggshatchintolarvacalledmaggotsafteraday.

NB:Somefliessuchasbluebottleflyhatchtheeggsfrom insidethebodyandlaymaggots.

· Maggotsfeedondecayingmatter,growquicklyandturnintopupaafter4-6days.

· Thepupadoesnotfeedbutgrowsfrom insidethepupaacasecalledCocoon.· Theadultcrawlsoutofthepupaafterabout4-5days.

Diagram showingthelifecycleofahousefly

Dangers/economicimportanceofhouseflies· Theycarrygermsontheirbody,salivaormouthparts,whichcausethe

followingdiseases;diarrhea,dysentery,cholera,typhoid,trachoma,redeyes.· Theyhelptoreducethevolumeoffeacesinlatrineswhichgetfilledup

quickly.

MOSQUITOESTherearethreemaintypesofmosquitoesnamelyanopheles,mosquito,Culexmosquito,aedes/tigersmosquito.

i.AnophelesmosquitoesFemaleanophelesmosquitoesspreadaprotozoancalledplasmodiawhichcausesmalariainman.CulexmosquitoesspreadFilariawormswhichcauseselephantiasisAedes/tigermosquitoesspreadaviruscausesdenguefeverandyellowfeverinhumanbeings.

LifehistoryofmosquitoesAdultmosquitoeslayeggsinstagnantwater.After2-3daystheeggshatchintolarvacalledWrigglerswhichbreathethroughaspiracleonthetailendcalledSiphon.ThelarvadevelopintopupawhichbreathesthroughapairofspiraclescalledbreathingtrumpetsAfter2-3weeksfrom eggsafullygrownadultcomesoutofthepupa.

Diagram showinglifecycleofanophelesandculexmosquitoes

DifferencebetweenanophelesandculexmosquitoesAnopheles CulexLayseggswithanairfloat LayseggsinraftsThelarvaliesparalleltothewatersurfacewhenbreathing.

Thelarvaliesatanangletothewaterwhenbreathing.

Adultliesinasloppypositionwhenatrest/.

Adultlieshorizontallywhenatrest.

Waysofcontrollingmosquitoes· Drainstagnantwateraroundhomes.· Buryoldfins,brokenpots,orbottleswheremosquitoescanbreed.· Clearallbushesaroundhomeswheremosquitoescanhide· Sprayadultmosquitoeswithinsecticides· Sleepunderinsecticidetreatedmosquitonets.· Keepfishindamsorreservesofwatertoeatmosquitoes larvae· Closedoorsandwindowsearlyintheevening· Applyrepellantsonthebodytodriveawaymosquitoes· Burnmosquitocoilstochaseawaymosquitoes· Planttrees/flowersthatcanrepelmosquitoesinthecompound.

Butterfliesandmoth· Theyundergocompletemetamorphosis· Femalelayseggsmainlyontheundersideoftheleaves· Eggshatchintolarva/caterpillarswhichfeedonleaves· Thelarvaspinsacocoonarounditselfandchangesintopupa/chrysaliswhich

doesnotmoveoreati.e.itisdormantstage.· Whentheadultisfullygrown,itbreaksthepupacaseandcomesout.

Advantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theyhelpinpollinatingflowersoffarmerscrops.· Wegetsilkthreadsfrom thecocoonsofsomebutterflies· Caterpillarsareeateninsomesocietiesasfood.

Disadvantagesofbutterfliesandmoths· Theirlarvae/caterpillarsfeedonleavesofcrops/(croppests)· Caterpillarshavebristlehairswhichcanburnandcauseirritationitchingor

woundsotheskin.

NB:Mostcaterpillarsprotectthemselvesbyuseofpricklyhair.IncompletemetamorphosisThisisalifecyclewhichinvolvesthreestages ofdevelopment,i.e.Eggs— Nymph— Adult(imago)

Theadultfemalelayseggsinthesoilinaneggsac(pouch)

AfterafewdaystheeggshatchintoNymphsAfterseveralchanges/moulting,thenymphdevelopswingsandbecomesafullygrownadult.

Diagram showingincompletemetamorphosis

Examplesofinsectswhichundergoincompletemetamorphosisi.Cockroachesii.Grasshoppersiii.Damselflies ix. Dragonfliesiv Bedbugs x. Auntsv.Termites xi. Aphidsvi.Prayingmantis xii. Fleasvii.Walkingsticksviii.Kaytidis

Protoctistakingdom (singlecalledorganism)· Thesearegroupsofverysimplelivingorganism whicharesingle(celled

unicellular).· Theyhaveanucleusenclosedinamembrane· Theyareneitherplants,fungi,noranimals.· Theyliveinfluids(liquids)orinotherorganismsbecausetheydonothave

protectionagainstdrying.

ExamplesofprotoctistaAlgaeEuglena

a)Algae· Theyhavechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood· Theymostlyreproducebymeansofspores.· Theydonothaveroots,stemsandleaves.· Theyappearindifferentcolourse.g.blue,green,red.· Theygrowonandwithinthesoil,wood,moistrocks.

Examplesofalgae· Spirogyra· Seaweeds· Focus

Usesofalgae· Itisusedasfoodbymanandotheranimalssuchasfish.

· Theyaddoxygentowaterwhichisbreathedinbywateranimals.· Theyareusedinmakingfertilizers

Protozoa· Thesearegroupsofsinglecelledorganismswhichhaveanucleusandthe

cytoplasm.· Theydonothavechlorophyllbutcapturetheirfoodorengulfingusing

pseudopodia· Theyaremicroscopic· Theyarefoundinwaterandonlandindampplacesandinbodyofanimalsas

parasites.· Theyreproducebymeansofpseudopodiae.g.amoebawhileotherbyciliae.g.

paramecium

Examplesofprotozoa· Amoeba· Paramecium· Plasmodium· Trypanosome

Illustrationofamoebaandparamecium

c)Euglena· Thisisaunicellularorganism whichhasbothplantsandanimalfeatures.· Ithaschlorophyllandproducesitsownfood.· Itcanmovefrom oneplacetoanotherveryquicklyforprotectionlikean

animalusingitsflagellum.· Itismicroscopicandlivesinditchesandponds.

FUNGI KINGDOMThesearesimpleorganismsthatlackchlorophyllandexistasamassofthreadscalledhyphae ormycellium.

HOW DOFUNGIFEED?Theyfeedsaprophytically.

- Theyliveasparasitesonotherlivingthingsorondeadanddecayingbody.- Theygrowwherethereismoisture.- Theyreproducebymeansofsporesexceptyeastwhichreproduceby

budding.Commonexamplesoffungi

- Mushrooms- Toadstools- Yeast- Moulds

- PuffballsIllustrationtoshowthestructureofmushroom andfunctionsofeachpart.

Advantagesoffungi- Somefungicausedecayandhelpsinformationofsoil.- Somefungiareeatenasfoodbyman.Egmushroom- Someareusedinmakingmedicineegpenicillium mouldsformaking

penciline.- Yeasthelpinflavouringcheese,formationofbeerandspiritmakingbread

sourceofvitaminBandfermenting tobacco.

Disadvantagesoffungi- Somefungiarepoisonoustoman.- Fungicauseanumberofdiseaseinanimalsringworm ,eczema,athletics

foot,andfinger/toenailformation- Fungicausediseasesinplantseg: potatoblight.- Somefungicausefoodpoisoning

CAREFORANDPROTECTIONOFVERTEBRATESANDINVERTEBRATES- Animalslikehumans,birdsneedcareandprotection.Theycanbecared

throughthefollowingways.- Traintrainableanimals- Treatsickdomesticanimalsandcleanthehousetheystayin.- Gazetteareasforbothdomesticandwildanimalsasgameparksand

gamereservestopreventextinctionandendangeringanimalspecies.- Regularvaccinationofanimals- Enforcingstrictlawsthatgrownpollution,poachinganddestructionofbio

diversity

FORMSOFENERGYWhatisenergy?Energyistheabilityofthebodytodowork.

Energyexistsinthefollowingforms(types)i. Soundenergyii.Heatenergyiii.Lightenergyiv.Mechanicalenergyv.Nuclear(Atomicenergy)vi.Solarenergyvii.Chemicalenergy

viii.Electricalenergy

N.BKineticandphysicalenergyareformsofmechanicalenergy.

SOUNDSoundisaform ofenergythatstimulatesthesenseofhearing(thatenablesustohear)Useofsound

- Forcommunication- Entertainment- Forprotection- Forevidenceincourtsoflaw- Helpstopromoteculturei.e.traditionalfolksongsandfolktales.

TYPES OFSOUNDi. Loudsoundii.Softsoundiii.Highsoundiv.Lowsound.

Sourcesofsound

Naturalsources· Animals· Wind· Storm· Volcaniceruption· Waterfalls· Rainfall

Artificialsources· Musicalinstruments· Vehicles· Aeroplanes

Howissoundproduced?Soundisproducedbyvibration(whenanobjectvibrates)

Whatisavibration?Avibrationisatoandfromotionwhichiscontinuouslyrepeated.

Wayshowlivingthingsproducesound· Humanbeingsproducesoundbythevibrationoftheirvocalcords.Vocal

cordsarefoundinthevoicebox.Whenairpassesoverthem,theyvibrateandproducesound.

· Cricketsproducesoundbyrubbingtheirwingsagainstthehindlegs.· Birdssingbythehelpoftheirringsofcartilagethatvibrate· Beesandmosquitoesproducesoundbyvibrationofwingswhenflapped

rapidly.

TransmissionofsoundHowdoessoundtravel?Soundtravelsinsoundwaves.Ittravelsthroughthefollowingmedia:· Air(gases)· Water(liquids)· Solidmaterials

N.Bsounddoesnottravelthroughvaccum.

Reason:Thevaccum doesnotcontainmatter(molecules)· Thespeedofsoundinairis330m/sec· Thespeedofsoundinwateris500m/s.· Thespeedofsoundinmetals(solids)is4800m/sec

Thereforei. Soundtravelsfastingasesii. Soundtravelsfasterinliquids.iii. Soundtravelsfastestinsolids.

Factorsaffectingthespeedofsound· Temperatures· Wind· Altitude· Heat

EFFECTSOFTEMPERATUREANDWINDONSOUND- Soundtravelsmoreclearlyduringnightwavesmoveclosetotheground.- Atnighttemperaturesarelower (itiscool)- Whenitishot,soundwavesrisehigherabovetheground.- Windcarrysoundfurtherifitisblowingthesamedirection;butifitis

blowingagainstthesounditobstructsFrequencyThisisthenumberofvibrationspersecond. /numberofoscillationsmadebyaparticlepersecond.

PitchThisisthehighnessorlownessof sound./isthesharpnessormildnessofsound.

Anexperimentonpitch.

Whatdeterminesthepitchofsound?· Sizeofavibratingobject.· Lengthofavibratingobject.· Thicknessofthestringproducingsound.· Tension· Frequency

CALCULATIONSONSOUNDNB:Thespeedofsoundinairis330metres/secExamples1. Ifamanheardagunshotafterfourseconds.Howfarwashefrom thefiringpoint?Distance = speed xtimetakenDistance =speedxtimetaken

2= 330m/secx4sec

2330m/secx4sec

21330m x2

= 660metres

2. Ittook3secondstohearechoofamanchoppingwood.Howfarwasthemanfrom achoppingplace?D = S xT

2

D = (330x3)metres2

D = 990D =495m

NB: Wedivideby2becausetherearetwosetsofsoundwavesieorginalwavesandthereflectedwaves(Echo)3. Amootiwasstandingacrossthevalley,whichwas660m awayfrom thecliffifheshouts,howlongwillittaketoheartheecho.

T = D x 2S

2T = 660m x 2

330m/s1

T = (2 x2)second= 4 seconds

4. Okellowasstanding165m awayfrom hisfatherwhocalledhim byclapping.Howlongdidittakehim toheartheclapping?

T = DS

T = 165m330m/s T =

0.5sec

VolumeItistheloudnessorsoftnessofsound. /Isthemagnitudeorintensityofacertainsound.

EchoIsthereflectedsound(thebouncingbackofsoundwaves)Echoisformedwhensoundisreflectedbyanobject.

Usesofechoinnature.· Ithelpsbatstofindtheirwayandlocatefood.· Ithelpssailorstodetectthedepthoftheseaorocean.· Fishermanuseechotolocateshoalsoffishbeforelettingdowntheirnets.· Pilotsuseechosurroundingfrom thickclouds,mountainsetctoavoid

accidents.

DISADVANTAGESOFECHOESINNATUREEchoesaretroublesomeespeciallyinemptyhallsTheycauseirritating soundsand noisetotheearsSoft,poroussurfacesabsorbsound.HowdowepreventechoesIncinemahalls,broadcastingstudiosandconferenceortheatrehallsthewallsarecovered usingsoftboards,thickandheavycurtainsthatabsorbsound.

MUSICALINSTRUMENTSTheyareclassifiedintothree:Stringinstruments

WindinstrumentsPercussioninstruments

Stringinstruments (chordophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationoftheirstringswhenplucked.ThepitchofsoundinstringinstrumentscanbeincreasedbylooseningortighteningthestringsExamples

i. Celloii.Violaiii.Violiniv.Bowharp(Adungu)v.Guitarvi.Lyrevii.Tubefiddleviii.Harp

Windinstruments (Aerophones)Theseproducesoundbyvibrationofairblowninsidethem.Theirpitchisdetermined(increased)byreducingthesizethesmallertheinstrumentthehigherthepitch.Examples· Records Diagrams· Whistles· Trumpet· Panpipes· Fluteetc

PERCUSSIONINSTRUMENTSTheseareinstrumentsthatproducesoundwhenbitten/hit.Theirpitchcanbeincreasedbyreducingthesizeoftheareastruckorincreasingthetightness

Examples Diagrams· Drums· Thumbpiano· Shakers· Xylophone· Cymbals· Shakers· Rattlesetc

Methodsofstoringsoundenergy.Soundcanstored:-a)bywritingmusic (Solfanotation)Thisisaform ofwritingmusicusingsyllablesonstavesb)Recordingsoundcanbestoredonrecordplayersdiscs,compactdiscs,computersetc

Anillustration

Devicesusedtostoresound- Memorycards- VCDs- DVDs- Magnetictapes- Projectors- Taperecorders- Mobilephones- Flashcards- Computerdiscs- Ipods- Film stripsetc

Devicesusedtoreproducesound· recordplayers· radiocassettes· taperecorders· videodecks· Film projectors.· DVDplayers· Computers· Mobilephones· Grammarphone

Waysofreproducingstoredsound.· Re-playing· Singing· Reading

THEMAMMALIANEARThestructureofthemammalianear.

Theearisdividedintothreeregionsnamely:a)Outerearb)Middleearc)Innerear

TheouterearItconsistsof:

i. Pinnaii.auditorycanal

ThepinnerItcollectssoundwaves

AuditorycanalItdirectssoundwavestotheeardrum

ThemiddleearItconsistsofthe:-

i. eardrumii.ossiclesiii.Eustachiantube

EardrumItvibratesandtransmitssoundwavestotheossicles

OssiclesThesearethreesmallbonesfoundintheearnamely;hammerincusandstapes

The workofossicles· Theytransmitsoundvibrationtothecochlea.· Theyamplifysoundwavesintheear

EustachiantubeItequalizesairpressureintheear.

TheinnerearItconsistsof:-· Semicircularcanal· TheCochleas· Auditorynerves

Cochlea:Thisisafluid—filledorganfoundintheear.

Function:itconverts(changes)soundwavestosoundsignals

Semi-circularcanal:Ithelpsinbodybalanceandposture.

AuditorynervesTheysendsoundsignals(messages)tothebrainforinterpretation

Commondiseasesoftheeari. Otitisexternusii.Otitisinternusiii.Earcancer

Commondisordersoftheear· Deafness· Earaches· Earitching.

Usesofwaxfoundintheear- Ittrapsdustandsomeforeignbodiesintheear- Itcleanstheearcanal- Itprotectstheearagainstinfections,waxcontainschemicalsthatkill

germs

Note:Toomuchearwaxcan leadtopartial(temporary)deafnessCAREFORTHEEAR.

i.Usesoftmaterialtocleantheear. Sharpobjectsbreakanddamagetheeardrum.

ii.Haveregularhealthexaminationiii.Removeexcesswaxfrom theexternalearthatcancausetemporary

deafness.iv.Cleanyourearwithclearwaterandsoapregularly.

NB.Partialdeafnesscanbecorrectedbyearsyringing(syringefilledwithwarmwater)

COMPARINGTHEHUMANEARWITHORGANSOFHEARING INOTHERANIMALS

HEARINGINFISHFishuselaterallinetodetectandpickupsoundvibrationsinwater

HEARINGINSNAKES

Snakesdonothaveactualears,buttheyhaveinnerearsystemssuchascochleainmammals.Insnakesthecochleaisconnectedtojawbones,thismakesitsensitivetogroundvibrationsbythehelpofjawbonesconnectedtocochlea.

HEARINGINBIRDSBirdshavearuffoffeatherscalledauricularswhichtheyusetodetectsoundintheenvironment.

Hearingininsects- Someinsectslikemosquitoescollectsoundvibrationsusingtheir

antennae.(feelers)- Otherslikecaterpillars,butterfliesandmothsusesmallhairscalledsetae

foundontheirbodysurfacestopicksoundvibrationsNB: Adultbutterfliesalsodetectsoundvibrationsthroughveinsontheirwings

HearinginamphibiansTherearethreeordersofthelivingamphibians.Theseare

- Theapoda— theleglessandworm liketypesuchascaecilians- Theurodella— thetailedformssuchasmudpuppies,Newtsand

salamanders- TheAnura— thetaillessform suchasfrogsandtoads.

NB: AllamphibianshaveearsThehearingorganforamphibiansiscalledtheamphibianspapilla

THECIRCULATORYSYSTEMTheterm bloodcirculationrefertothemovementofbloodfrom thehearttoallbodypartsBloodcirculationisveryimportantinthefollowingways

- Itsuppliesfoodandoxygentoallpartsofthebody- Itremoveswasteproductssuchascarbondioxideoutofthebodytothe

excretoryorgans,

TYPESOFBLOODCIRCULATIONSINGLEBLOODCIRCULATION

- Itisthetypesofcirculationwhenbloodmovesthroughheartonceeg.infishes.

DOUBLEBLOODCIRCULATION- Itsatypeofcirculationwhenbloodgoestothehearttwicebeforeitgoes

toallbodypartseginmammals.

BLOODBloodisatissuefluidwithsuspendedcellsthatmovesinandaroundthebody.Compositionsofblood

- Redbloodcells(erythrocytes)- Whitebloodcells(leucocytes)

- Platelets(thrombocytes)- Plasma

1.REDBLOODCELL- Thereareabout30millionredbloodcellsinthehumanbody.- Theycontainaredpigmentcalledhaemoglobinthatcontainsiron.- Theyaremadeinredbonemarrowofshortboneslikestemum,scapula,

ribs,vertebraandpelvis.- Theydonthaveanucleus.- Theirfunctionistotransportoxygeninthebody.

ADAPTATIONSOFREDBLOODCELLSTOTHEIRFUNCTION- Theyhavehaemoglobinwhichenablesthem carrymoreoxygenmolecules.- Theyareproduced inlargenumber.- Theyhavenonucleusthatprovidesalargesurfaceareatocarrymore

oxygen.NB:Whenoxygencombineswithheamoglobinitformsoxyhaemoglobin

Thestructureofaredbloodcell.

Note:Theredbloodcellsaredestroyedbytheplasmodiagermsthatcausesmalaria.Sicklecellalsodeformsthenormalshapeoftheredbloodcellshencemakingthem unabletocarrytheirfunction.

WHITEBLOODCELLS- Thesearelargerthanredbloodcells.- Theyhaveanucleusandnohaemoglobin- Theyaremadeinthebonemarrowoflongbones,lymphnodesandthe

spleen.- Theirmainfunctionistofightagainstdiseasegerms

Howdowhitebloodcellsdefendthebodyagainstdiseasegerms?- Byengulfinganddigestinggerms- Producingantibodiesagainstthegerms.

AdaptationofwhitebloodcellstotheirfunctionsIthasanucleuswhichcontrolscellactivitiesIthascytoplasm thathelpsittoengulfgerms.NOTE: TheHIV/AIDSdestroysthewhitebloodcells.

Thestructureofawhitebloodcells

PLATELETS- Aremadeintheredbonemarrow.Theirfunctionistohelp inclottingof

blood.- BloodclottingoccursinpresenceofvitaminKandCalcium

Structureofplatelets

PLASMAThisistheliquidpartofbloodconsistingofthefollowing

- Water- Bloodprotein- Dissolvedfood- Mineralsalts- Urea- Carbondioxide- Hormones

FUNCTIONSOFBLOOD- Itcarriesdigestedfoodandoxygentoallbodyparts- Itcarrieswastewasteproductsfrom thebodypartstoexcretoryorgans.- Ittransportscarbondioxidefrom thebodytissuestothelungs- Itdistributesheattothebody.- Itcarrieshormonestodifferentbodyparts.- Defendsthebodyagainstinfections.

BLOODGROUPSTherearefourbloodgroup.ABABONB : ABisauniversalrecipientwhileOisauniversaldonor

BLOODTRANSFUSIONIsthetransferoftestedandscreenedbloodfrom onepersontoanother.ThescientistwhodiscoveredbloodgroupswasSirKarlLandsteiner.

THEHEARTThestructureoftheheartandfunctionsoftheeachpart

- Theheartisdividedintofourchambers- Theupperchambersarecalledatria(atrium)andthelowerchambers

calledventricles.- Theheartismadeupspecialmusclescalledcardiacmuscles- Themainfunctionoftheheartispumpbloodtoallbodyparts.

OTHERORGANSRELATEDTOTHECIRCULATIONOFBLOOD- Thelungs— itswherediffusionofgasestakesplace.- Thekidneys -filtersbloodtoremoveexcretoryproducts.- Theliver— regulatesbloodsugar

THEDIAGRAM TOSHOW CIRCULATIONOFBLOOD

BLOODVESSELSThisisanetworkoftubestransportingbloodinthebody.Therearethreebloodvessels

- Arteries- Veins- Capillaries

ARTERIES- Arteriesarebloodvesselsthatcarrybloodawayfrom thehearttothe

body.- Theyhavethickwalls- Theyhaveanarrowlumen- Theycarrybloodwithahighpressure- Theydonthavevalves

Diagram showingthewallsoftheartery

VEINS- Thesearebloodvesselsthatcarryblood towardstheheart.- Theyhavethinwalls- Theyhaveawiderlumen.- Theyhavevalvestopreventthebackflowofblood.

STRUCTUREOFAVEIN

CAPILLARIES- Thesearethesmallestbloodvessels- Theyconnectarteriesandveins- Exchangeofbodymaterialstakeplace inthecapillaries.- Theyhave sothinwalls

STRUCTUREOFTHECAPILLARY

DIFFERENCESBETWEENARTERIES,VEINSANDCAPILLARIESArteries Veins CapillariesTheycarryoxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryartery

Theycarryde— oxygenatedbloodexceptthepulmonaryvein

Exchangeofmaterialsbetweenbloodandbodyandbodycellstakesplaces

Theyhavethickandmuscularwalls Theyhavethinandlessmuscularwalls Theyhaveaverythinwallwhichhastinyholesorponesinit.

Theycarrybloodawayfrom theheart Theycarrybloodtowardstheheart TheylinkarteriesandveinsBloodflowsunderhighpressure Blowsflowsunderlowpressure BloodflowsunderverylowpressureTheyhaveanarrowlumen Theyhaveawidelumen TheyhaveanarrowerlumenTheyhavenovalves Theyhavevalves Theyhavenovalves

Increasingthevolumeofbloodincirculation

- Eatingabalanceddiet- Bloodtransfusion- Takingalotoffluidsandtakingironsupplementtablets

DiseasesanddisordersofthecirculatorysystemTheyareclassifiedintothreegroupsnamely.

- Diseasesofblood- Diseasesoftheheart- Hereditarydiseases

Diseasesofblood Diseasesoftheheart Hereditarydisease- Leukemia(bloodcancer)- Hypertension(highblood

pressure)- Malaria- AIDS- Anaemia- Sicklecellanemia- Lowbloodpressure

- Coronaryheartdisease- Heartattack(cardiacarrest)- Heartstroke(cerebrovascular

Accident,CVA)- Heartfailure

- Haemopholia- Sicklecellanaemia

OtherdisordersA)ARTIOSCLEROSOSThisisthehardeningandthickeningofthewallsofthearteries

PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFTHECIRCULATORYDISEASES- Properfeedingieeatingfoodthatmakeabalanceddiet.- Eatingmealsoflow fatcontent- Performingregularphysicalexercises- Goingformedicalcheckup.- Avoidtakingalcohol.

IMPORTANCEOFHAVINGREGULARBODYEXERCISES- Helpthehearttopumpmorebloodtothebody.- Theyreducetheleveloffatsinthebody.- Helptostrengthenthemusclesoftheheart.- Theyreducetheriskofgettingheartdiseases- Jointsbecomesmoreflexible.- Digestionoffoodiscarriedoutquicklyandeasily.- Promotesproperfunctioningofbodysystem- Itmakesthebodyphysicallyfit.

HIV/AIDSANDBLOOD- AIDSiscausedbyHIV- TheVirusdestroysthewhitebloodcellsinthebody.- ThebodybecomesweakandcannotfightdiseasegermsHIVstandforHumanImmuno— deficiency

VirusAIDSstandsforA -Acquired - meansgetfromI - Immune— meansprotectedagainstD -Deficiency— LackofS -Syndrome -Itmeansacombinationofsignsandsymptoms.

HOW HIV/AIDSISSPREAD- Throughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.- Throughsharingunsterilizedsharpobjectswithaninfectedperson.- From mothertochild (MCT)a) atbirthb)throughbreastfeedingc)from mothertounbornchild-Through unscreenedbloodtransfusion

SignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDS- Prolongeddrycough(chroniccough)- Widespreaditchingandskinrash- Prolongeddiarrhoea(chronicdiarrhoea)- Oralthrush -Itisawhitecoatingdevelopsinthemouth- Persistentfever.- Generalbodyweakness- Lossofappetite- Excessivesweatingatnight- Herpezoster(kisipi)

EFFECTSOFHIV/AIDSINDIVIDUAL

a)Lossofimmunityasthevirusdestroysthewhitebloodcells,theindividualisattackedbyseveraldiseases.Thediseasegermstakeadvantageoftheweakenedbody.Thesediseaseswhichattackaweakenedbodyarecalledsecondaryor

opportunisticinfectionsb)Lossofincomec)AIDSleadstodepression,frustrationandworriestoanindividual.d)Anindividualcanbeabandonedbythefriendsduetofearofthe

diseasee)Theinfectionscausesdeath.

FAMILY- SomechildreninthefamilymaybeinfectedwithHIV/AIDS- Reductiononthelabourforceinthefamily- Childrenbecomeorphanswhenparentsdie.

- Lossoffamilyproperty- Familymembersareseparatedwhendifferentrelativestakecareofthem.- ThefamilymayexperienceshortageofbasicneedsincasetheAID

victimsareparents

COMMUNITY- Lossofskilledmanpower- Causeschildheadedfamilies- Breakdownofsocialorder/families.- Shortageofproductivepopulation- Itleadstoloweconomicdevelopment

PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFHIV/AIDS- Abstinencefrom sexuntilmarriage- HavinganHIVtestbeforepeoplegetmarried- Havingonlyonelongsexualpartner- Properuseofcondoms- Bloodscreeningbefore transfusion- Healthwordsshouldwearprotectiveglovestoavoidcontactwithblood- Carryingoutsexeducation inschoolsandhomes

ALCOHOL,SMOKING,ANDDRUGSINTHESOCIETY

ALCOHOLINSOCIETYWhatisalcohol?Alcoholisacolourlessliquidsubstancethatmakespeopledrunkwhentheydrinktoomuchofit.Itiscontainedinmanydrinkslikebeers,winesandspirits.

TypesofalcoholTherearetwotypesofalcoholnamely· Methanol· Ethanol

Methanolisfoundmostlyinhomedistilledalcohol.· Itisverydangerousandpoisonousandmanycauseblindnessordeath.· Itismainlyusedasafuelorforsterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Ethanoliscontainedinallalcoholicdrinksthatareconsumed.· Itcanalsobeusedasfuel.

ProductionofalcoholCommonalcoholicdrinksaremadefrom juicesofbananas,pineapples,sugarcane,maize,millet,sorghum,rice,barley,cassava,potatoes.

Yeastisaddedtothemixtureofwaterandthesefoodsubstancestospeedupfermentation.

Methodsofproducingalcoholi. Fermentationii.Distillation

Fermentationistheprocessbywhichsugarinjuiceisturnedintoalcoholwiththehelpofyeast.- Fermentedfruitjuicesmakewine.- Fermentedstarchmixturefrom grainsorcerealsmakebeer.

Examplesofdrinksproducedlocallybyfermentation- Mwengebigere - from bananas- Malwa(ajon) - from millet/sorghum- Kwete - from cassava/maize- Munanansi - from pineapples- Omurambi - from sorghum-Beer - from oats,barleyand sorghum

Distillation- Thisistheprocessbywhichwegetalcoholfrom fermentation.- Thealcoholinthefermentedjuiceisheatedanditevaporates.- Thealcoholvapouristhencondensedandcollected.

Howdistillationofalcoholisdone.- Crudealcoholisboiledtoproducealcoholvapour.- Thevapouriscondensed togetliquidalcoholwiththehelpofcoldwateras

acondenser.- Theliquidalcoholnowcalleddistillateispassedthroughacoileddelivery

tubeintoacleancontaineri.e.bottlesorjerrycans.- Thedeliverytubeisusuallycoiledtoincreasethesurfaceareafor

condensationofalcoholinthecondenser.(coldwater)

Illustrationonhowdistillationisdone;

Usesofalcohol·Fordrinking· Makingmedicines· Fordisinfectingwounds· Forsaletogetmoney· Usedduringculturalfunctions· Usedinmakingcosmeticsandperfumes· Usedtosterilizemedical instrumentsinhospitals· Usedasafuel· Usedinmakingnailvanishsolutions

Alcoholism isaconditionwhereanindividualdependsonalcoholfornormalfunctioningofthebody.

Alcoholicisapersonwhoisaddictedtoalcohol.

Addictionisaconditioninwhichapersonhasaverystrongdesiretotakealcoholeveryday.

Effectsofalcoholonthecommunity· Mayleadtojobneglectcausinglowproductivity.· Maycausetrafficaccidentsathome,suicidalbehavior.· Highcrimerateinthesocietye.grape,defilement,robberyetc.· Canleadtoincreaseofcertaindiseasesinthecommunitye.gAIDS.· Alcoholicsbecomepublicnuisance.· Nationmayloseveryimportantpeople· Lossofincometaxbaseduetolessproduction.

Reasonswhypeopledrinkalcohol· Idleness· Frustration· Peerpressure· Thedesiretopasstime,withfriends.· Familybackgroundandsocialenvironment· Toshowthattheyarerich.· Peoplescultureinceremonies/celebrations· MisleadingadvertsonT.V,radio,magazines· Toforgettheirproblems.· Influencebypeopleoneadmirese.g.parents,teachersetc.

.

Effectsofalcoholonpeople(immediateeffects)· Slowsdowntheaction(function)ofthebrain.· Peoplewhoarenotusedtodrinkingalotofalcoholvomitwhentheydrinka

lotofit.· Peoplegeteasilyannoyedafterdrinkingalotofalcohol.· Peoplewhoaredrunkbecomeforgetful· Peoplewhoaredrunkloserespectforlaws.· Peoplewhoaredrunklosebalance.

Longterm effects· Lossofappetite· Pepticulcers· Liverdiseases· Leadstoselfneglect· Lossofjobs· Thepancreasmayswell.

· Toomuchandconstantdrinkingmaycausehandtremors

Effectsofalcoholtoafamily· Leadstofamilyneglect· Leadstopovertyinafamily.· Itcausesspouseandchildabuse.· Leadstobadbehavioramongchildren· Itcausesviolenceinhomes.Howtoavoidalcoholism· Avoidbadpeergroups· Neverbelieveinadvertisementswhichpraisealcoholasagooddrink.· Neverdrinkalcoholtoovercomeaproblem.· Joingroupswhosemembersdonottakealcohol.· Engageinactivitieswhichhelpyoutoappendfreetimeproperly.· Takeyourparentsandotherpeopleswarningaboutthedangersofalcohol

seriously.

Ugandalawsonalcohol· Peopleunder18yearsofagearenotallowedtodrinkalcoholinpublicplaces.· Nooneisallowedtodriveavehiclewhenheisdrunk.· Homedistillationofalcoholisforbidden· Nooneisallowedtotransportorsellhomedistilledalcohol.· Publicplacesthatusealcoholicdrinksareallowedtooperateuptoalimited

time.

SMOKINGSmokingisthedrawinginsmokefrom burningtobaccothroughthemouth.

Asmokerisapersonwhosmokestobaccofrequently.Chemicalscontainedintobacco

· Nicotine· Tar

SmokingiseitheractiveorpassiveActivesmokingisthatoneinwhichthesmokertakesinsmokedirectlyfromcigaretteorsmokingpipe.

Passivesmokingisthetypeofsmokinginwhichanonsmokerbreathesinaircontainingtobaccosmoke.

Reasonswhypeoplesmoke.· Topasstime· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Tofeelwarm

· Tofitinapeergroup(peerinfluence)· Tofeelconfident

Effectsofsmokingonthehumanbody· Leadstorespiratorydiseasessuchas;· Lungcancer· Emphysema· Heartattack(coronaryheartdisease)· Pepticulcers· Cancerofthemouthandthroat.

Howtoavoidsmoking·Donotbelieveinadvertisementsaboutcigarettesmoking.·Knowthatthereisnogoodreasonforsmoking·Avoidjoininggroups of smokers.·Keepyourselfbusyforexamplebyreadinganovel,ordoinganyother

meaningfulactivitiessuchasplayinggamesetc.

Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstsmoking.· Keepawayfrom peoplewhosmoke· Neverallowanybodytoconvinceyoutosmoke.· Gathermoreinformationondangersofsmokingfrom healthworkers.· Reportyourfriendswhosmoketotheteachersortheirparentsforadvise.· Likegamesandsportsduringyourfreetime.· Neveruseyourmoneytobuycigarettes.

DRUGSAdrugisachemicalsubstancewhichaffectsthewayonesmindandhowthe

bodyworks.· Itcaneitherhelporharm thebodysystem.· Drugsareeitherinmanufacturedform orrawform· Rawdrugsareeitherintheform ofplantsandanimalpartsorextractsfrom

animalorplants.· Ifdrugsaremanufacturedandtestedinlaboratoriestheyarecalled

laboratorymanufactureddrugs.

Characteristicsoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Theyarecarefullymadeandtested.· Theirstrength,stabilityandpurityisknown.· Theyarethesameforeachquantity.· Theireffectonhumanhealthisknown,· Theyarepackagedandproperlyprotected· Theyarewelllabeled· Theyhaveexpiryandmanufactureddates.

Examplesoflaboratorymanufactureddrugs· Aspirin· Chloroquine· Quinine· Fansidar· Panadol· Coartem· Mabendazole

Characteristicsoftraditionaldrugs.· Theyaremadeofrawplantsandanimals· Theirstrength,purityandstabilitychanges.· Theyareofdifferentquantities· Theireffectsonhumanhealthisnotknown.· Theyarenotwelllabeled· Theyarenotwellpackaged.

Examplesoftraditionaldrugs· Mululunza· Kigagi· Bombo· Eusuk· Asimiri

EssentialdrugsEssentialdrugsaredrugsneededtocareandpreventcommondiseasesaffectingthemajorityofpeopleinanareaorcountry.

Qualitiesofessentialdrugs· Theyshouldbeaffordabletomakethecostoftreatmentmanageable.· Theyshouldbeaccessibleandavailablewheneverneeded.· Theyshouldbeeffectivetocure,preventandcontroldiseases.· Theyshouldbesafewhenthecorrectdosageisused.· Theyshouldhaveasatisfactoryvalueformoney.

Examplesofessentialdrugs· Coughmixture· Chloroquine· Paracetamol· Piriton· Penicillin· ORS

· Tetracyline

DrugprescriptionThisreferstohealthworkerswritteninformationonhowadrugshouldbeused.

Ifadrugistakenwithoutaprescription,thepatientwilleithertakeunderoroverdose.

OverdoseThisisthetakinginofmoremedicinethanisrequired.

Anoverdoseisdangeroustothebodybecauseitcanleadtopoisoningordeath.UnderdoseThisiswhenonetakesfewerdrugsthantherequiredThemajordisadvantageofanunderdoseisthatitcausesdrugresistance.

Advantagesofdrugprescriptions.· Ithelpsthepatienttoknowthecorrectdrug.· Itsdosagerelationtoage,weightanddurationoftreatment· Preventoverdoewhichisharmfulandpoisonoustothebody· Preventsandcontrolsmisuseofdrugs

DrugsofdependenceThesearedrugswhichcauseaddictionafterprolongeduse.Anadditiontoadrugisastrongdiseasethatonefeelsuncomfortablewhenhe/shedoesnotusethedrug.

DrugsofdependencyThisisthecontinuoususeofdrugsonaregularbasisafterthebodyoftheuser.Itcanalsobetheillegaluseofthedrug.Commondrugsofdependency· Marijuana· Khartormiraa· Cocaine· Glue· Aviationfuel· Heroin· Alcohol· Tobacco· Paintthinner.

Drugmis-useThisistheuseofadrugwithoutoragainstthehealthworkersinstruction.

WaysofMis-usingdrugs

· Sharingdrugs· Takingunprescribeddrugs

DrugabuseThisistheuseofadruginawaywhichisharm (dangerous)tothebody.

Whypeopleabusedrugs· Somepeopleabusedrugstoovercomefear· Duetopeerinfluence· Tokeepawakeorsleep· Duetogoodadvertisement· Topasstime· Tofeelwarm· Togetenergy· Toconcentrateonwhattheyaredoing· Togainmoreappetite.

Commonpeoplewhoabusedrugs·

Effectsofdrugsofdependencetoanindividual·Braindamage· Lossofappetite· Insomnia(inabilitytosleep)· Jobneglect· Selfneglect

·Lowimmunitytodisease

Effects tothefamily·Familyneglect· Familyaggressionandviolence· Criminalactslikedefilementandrape· Poverty· Itsetsabadexampletothechildren

Effectstothecommunity· Itleadstoincreasedaccidents· Criminalbehavior· Poorjobperformance

Lifeskillstosafeguardagainstalcohol,smokinganddrugdependency

Whatisalifeskill?Itispersonalandsocialskillthatenablesapersontofunctionconfidentlyandcompetentlyinordertofitinacommunity.

Selfawareness- Knowyourself- Careforyourselftoavoiddrugabuse- Makechoiceswhichyouthinkareconsistentandofvalue.- Avoidassociatingwithwronggroups- SayNotopeopleinfluencingyoutousedrugs

Copingwithstress- Inthissituation,trytobefirm toaproblem andbereadytocontainit.- Trytoacceptpositivepiecesof adviceswithpatience- Dontdrink/smokeasmeansofreducingstress

Selfesteem- Acceptyourselfasyouandbelieveinyourself- Havegooddiscipline- Appreciateyourself- Peerresistance- Avoidbadcompany

Assertiveness- Beopenandgivereasonsforallyourdecisions- Insistonthefactthatwrong thingsarewrong.- Bestraightforwardandhonestwithyourself.

Decisionmaking- Makeachoicewithgoodresults- Baddecisionmayaffectyourlifeinfuture

Leisuretime- Involvingyourselfinmeaningfulactivitiesduringfreetime.

Lifeskillsthatcanhelpyoutoavoiddrugs· Desistfrom badpeergroups· Throughcounselingandguidance· Followgoodmoralsfrom elders.· Spendingleisuretimeconstructivelybyengaginginproductiveactivities.· Readinggoodmaterialwhichisusefultolife.

TERM IICLASSIFICATIONOFFLOWERINGANDNONFLOWERINGPLANTS

PLANTKINGDOMPlantsaredividedintotwogroupsviz:

i. Nonfloweringplantsii.Floweringplants

NON — FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantswhichdontbearflowers.Groupsofnonfloweringplants

· Sporebearingplants· Coniferousplants

SporebearingplantsTheseareplantsthatreproducebymeansofspores.Theyinclude:· Ferns· Mosses· Liverworts· Horsetails

Asporeisasinglecellwhichisabletodevelopintoanewplant.Asporeisprotectedbyasporecase.

FERNS· Havechlorophyllandcanmaketheirownfood.· Haveproperroots,stemsandleaves.· Reproducebymeansofspores,sporesareproduced atthelowersideof

theleaves insporecases.· Theygrowinshadymoistplaces.Diagram

MOSSES· Thesearesmallgreenplantsgrowonhouseroofs,verandah,treetrunks,logs,

rocks,andsoilindampshadyplaces.· Reproducebymeansofspores.· Containchlorophyllandmakesitsownfood.Diagram

LIVERWORTS· Growinwetmoistplaces.· Havechlorophyllandmaketheirownfood.

· Reproducebymeansofspores.

CONIFERS· Thesebearseedsinstructurescalledcones.· Havesmallneedleshapedgreenleaves.· Donthaveflowersbutproducepollenandovulesincones.Examplesinclude;· Pine· Cedar· Fir· Cypress· Cycades· Podo· Ginkgo

Economicvalueofconifers· Giveussoftwoodtimber.· Actaswindbreaks.· Producesoftwoodformakingpapers,matchsticks,ceilingboards.· Earnsforeignexchange.

FLOWERINGPLANTSTheseareplantsthatbearflowersandreproducebymeansofseeds.

Groupsoffloweringplants· Monocotyledonousplants· Dicotyledonousplants.

MonocotyledonousplantsTheseareplantsthatbearseedswithonecotyledon.ExamplesMillet maizeSorghum riceBarley wheatOats

Characteristicsofmonocotyledonousplant· Produceseedswithonecotyledon· Theyundergohypogealgermination.· Havefibrousroots.· Haveleaveswithparallelleafvenation.

DicotyledonousplantsTheseareplantswhichbearseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples:Legumese.g.beans,peas,groundnuts,bambaranutse.t.c.

Characteristicsofdicotyledonousplants· Produceseedswithtwocotyledons· Undergoepigealgermination· Haveanetworkleafvenation· Haveataprootsystem.

Afloweringplantconsistsoftwosystemsi. Rootsystemsii. Shootsystem.

Partsofafloweringplant.Diagram.Functionsofpartsofafloweringplant.Terminalbud— Growingtipoftheplant.Auxiliarybud— growsintobranch,floweretc.Node— Pointonastem wherealeafgrows.Internode:-TheregionbetweentwonodesRootcap:-Protectsthetipofthetaproot.(mainroot)

ROOTSApartofaplantthatgrowsinthesoil.Itdevelopsfrom theradicle.

Functionsofroots· Absorbwaterandmineralsaltsfrom thesoil.· Holdtheplantfirmlyinthesoil.· Somerootsstorefoodfortheplant.· Somerootshelptheplanttobreathe.

Usesofrootstoman· Somearesoldtogetincome.· Somerootsaresourcesoffood.· Somerootsareusedasherbalmedicine.· Someprovidewoodfuel.

ROOTSYSTEMSThesearetwomainrootsystems

i. Fibrousrootsystem.ii.Taprootsystem.

Diagrams

Typesofrootsi. Proproots

Thesegiveextrasupporttoaplantsuchplantsinclude;-maize,sorghum,etc.Diagram

ii.Buttressrootsiii.Claspingrootsiv.Stiltrootsv.Breathingrootsvi.Storagerootse.g.carrots,cassava,sweetpotatoesetc

Withdiagrams

OSMOSISThisisaplantprocesswherefluids(plantnutrientsmovefrom aregionoflowconcentrationthroughasemi-permeablemembrane.Osmosismainlytakesplaceintheroothairsofplants.

Anexperimenttoillustrateosmosis.

STEMSFunctionsofthestem toplants.· Theyholdleavesandbranchesinpositiontogetsunlight.· Holdtheflowerforpollination· Helpintranspiration· Somestemsmakefoodfortheplant.

Functionstoman.· Somearesourcesoffood.· Somearesourcesofincome.· Someprovideherbalmedicine.

· Someareusedforpropagation.· Someprovidetimber.

Typesofstems· Uprightstems.· Creepingstems· Undergroundstems.

Withdiagrams

Reasonswhyplantsclimbothers.· Togetsupport· Toobtainsunlight.

Wayshowplantsclimbothers· Useoftendrils· Useofhooks· Bytwiningorclasping

UndergroundstemsExamplesare:

· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Stem tubers· Corms

BulbsExamplesare;Onions,garlicetcdiagram ofonion

RhizomesExamplesare:turmeric,gingeretc

Stem tubersExamplesare;Irishpotato,whiteyamsetc

CormsExampleiscocoyam

Plantstem propagationThisisthewayplantscanbegrownusingstems.

Examples· Bulbs· Rhizomes· Corns· Stem tubers· Suckers

Withdiagrams

LEAVESThestructureofaleaf,partsandtheirfunctions.Typesofleaves.· Simpleleaves· Simpleserrated· Simpledivided· Simplelobed.

Withdiagrams

Compoundleaves· Bipinnate· Pinnate· Digitate· Trifoliate

WithdiagramsFunctionsofleavestobothplantsandman(animals)

PHOTOSYNTHESISTheprocessbywhichgreenplantsmaketheirownfood.Photo— meanslight.Synthesis— meanstobuildup.

Rawmaterialsforphotosynthesis· Water· Carbondioxide.Conditionsnecessaryforphotosynthesis· Chlorophyll· Water· Sunlight· Carbondioxide.

ImportanceofPhotosynthesis· Ithelpsinfoodproduction· Ithelpstopurifytheenvironmentbyusingatmosphericcarbondioxide

Adaptationsofleavesforphotosynthesis· Haveabroadflatshapetoincreasesurfaceareaforsunlight.· Havethinwallstoallowcarbondioxide· Havestomataforgaseousexchange.· Haveveinsfortranslocation.

TRANSPIRATIONTheprocessbywhichplantslosewateraswatervapourtotheatmospherethoughleaves.Anexperimenttoshowtranspiration.Importanceoftranspiration· Tocooltheplant.· Helpsplantstoabsorbswaterandmineralsalts.· Helpsinrainformation

Factorsaffectingrateoftranspiration· Temperature· Lightintensity· Wind· Natureoftheleaf· Humidity· StomataWaysofreducingtranspiration· Plantsshed theirleaves· Formingalayerofwaxontheleafsurface.· Reducingthesizeofleavestothorns.

REPRODUCTIONINFLOWERINGPLANTSTherearetwotypesofreproductioninplants.Asexualreproduction(Vegetativepropagation)Sexualreproduction.

THEFLOWERThestructureofaflower(Itspartsandfunctions)

POLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigma.

Typesofpollination· Crosspollination· Selfpollination

SELFPOLLINATIONThetransferofpollengrainsfrom antherstothestigmaofthesameflower.

NB:Apawpawundergoesselfpollination.Diagram

Crosspollination:Thetransferofpollengrainsfrom theantherof oneflowertothestigmaofanotherflowerofthesame kind..

NB:AmaizeplantundergoescrosspollinationDiagram

Agentsofpollination· Animals· Wind· Flowingwater

Characteristicsofinsectandwindpollinatedflowers

Wind InsectsHavenonectar HavenectarDullcolouredpetals Bright petalsAlotofpollengrains FewpollengrainsHavenoscent Havescent

Importancesofpollination- Itallowsfertilizationtotakeplaceincrops- Leadstohighyieldsinfarmersharvest.

Usesofflowers- Fordecoration onvariousfunctions- Makingofinsecticide- Perfumemaking- Usedtogetdyes- Sourcesofincomebygrowing/selling- Signoflove.- Signofrespectforthedead.

FERTILISATION

Theunionofamaleandfemalegamatestoform azygote.Afterpollination,pollentubesdevelopreachingdowntheovules.Afterfertlisationintheovary,ovulesbecomeseedsandanovarydevelopsintoafruit.

Diagram

SEEDSAseedisafertilisedovulethatdevelopsintoanewplant.

Classesofseeds· Monocotyledonousseeds· Dicotyledonousseeds

MonocotyledonousseedsThesehaveonecoytledon.

ExamplesDicotyledonousseedsTheseareseedswithtwocotyledons.Examples

Structureofabeanseed

GERMINATIONThedevelopmentofaseedintoaseedling.

Typesofgermination· Epigealgermination· Hypogealgermination

EPIGEALGERMINATIONThetypeofgerminationwherethecotyledonscomeabovethegroundlevel. Itoccursinalllegumes.E.g.beans,peas,G.nuts,etc.

HYPOGEALGERMINATIONThisisthetypeopfgerminationwherethecootyedonsremainbelowthegroundlevel.Itoccursinallmonocotyledonousplantse.gwheat,maize,sorghum etc.

Diagrams

Conditionsnecessaryforgermination· Air(oxygen)· Water(moisture)

· WarmthDifferencebetweendicotsandmonotplants

MONOCOT DICOTHaveonecotyledon HavetwocotyledonsHavefibrousrootsystem HavetaprootsystemsHaveparallelleafvenation HavenetworkleafvenationUndergoeshypogealgermination

UndergoesepigealgerminationFormstruewood.

FRUITSAfruitisadevelopedovarycontainingseeds.Fruitshavetwoscars.Stylestalkandstalkscar.Fruitsprotectseedsandassistindispersal.

Typesoffruits· Succuentfruits· Dryfruits

SUCCULENTFRUITS/JUICYFRUITSThesearefruitswhosepericarpandmesocarpbecomejuicyandfleshyandcanbeeaten.Theyaredividedintothreegroups.·Berries·Drupes·Pomes.

BerriesThesearefruitswithmanyseeds.Thesoftpericarpisdividedintothreelayers.·Epicarp· Mesocarp· Endocarp

Examples· Oranges· Tomatoes· Pawpaw

Diagram ofanorangefruit.

DrupesThesearefruitswihoneseedinsideahardendocarp.Drupeshavethreelayers;· Epicarp· Mesocarp

· Endocarp

Examples· Mangoes· Avacadoes· Coconuts· Palm oil· Cashewnuts.etc

Diagrams

PomesThesearefruitsinwhichthereceptaclebecomesjuicyandmodifiedasafruitwhiletheinnercoreisthepericarp.Examples·Apples· Figs· PearsetcDiagram

FRUITANDSEEDDISPERSALThisisthescatteringofseedsandfruitsfrom parentplantstoanewenvironment.

Importanceofseeddispersal· Preventsovercrowding· Reducescompetitionforlightandnutrients.· Enablesplantstocolonisenewareas.· Thefarmergetsnewspeciesofcrops.

Agentsofseeddispersal· Water· Animals· Wind· Explosivemechanism

Explainthecharacteristicsofeachandtheirdiagrams.

TROPISMTropism isgrowthmovementofplantsinresponsetoastimulus

Astimulusisanychangeintheenvironmentwhichtheplantissensitiveto

KindsoftropismPhototropismThisisgrowthmovementofplantstowardslightegwhenaplantisplacedinthedarkboxwithasmallopeningtowardstheplanttendstogrow

Diagram

GeotropismThisisagrowthmovementofaplanttowardsthedirectofforceofgravityplantrootgrowwardsduetoforceofgravity.

Diagram forillustration

HydrotropismThisisagrowthmovementofsomepartsofcertainplantinresponsetotouchoneside.Thisstimulushelpstwinningplantssuchasbeans,passionfruitsandyamsclimbsbyuseoftendrils,hooks

ChemotropismThisisthegrowthmovementofplantpartstowardsthesourceofchemicalegpollentubesgrowthestyletoreachtheovules

PLANTPROPAGATIONPlant propagation refersmethodsusedingrowingcropsTherearetwobasicmethodsofpropagation

i)Seedpropagationii)Vegetativepropagation

SEEDPROPAGATIONmostfloweringplantsarepropagatedbymeansofseedsegbeans,maize,coffee,mangoetcvegetativepropagation

inthismethodapartofaparentplantisplantedtogiverisetoanewplant.

Partsifplantsusedinvegetativepropagationare:-- Stems- Leaves- Buds

Typesofvegetativepropagation- Naturalvegetativepropagation- Artificialvegetativepropagation

NaturalvegetativepropagationPlants Methodsof

propagationYams(whiteyams) Stem tubersIrishpotatoes Stem tubersGinger RhizomesBanana,pineapple,sisal SuckersPineapples Crowns,slipsisal BulbilsOnions BulbsStrawberry RunnersPyrethrum Split

ArtificialvegetativepropagationThisinvolvesuseofspecialskillandtechniquestoproducehighqualityandhighyieldingcropswhichareresistanttodiseases

Exampleofartificialvegetative propagationa) Stem cutting

Description & Diagram

b) LayeringDescription & Diagram

c) GraftingDescription & Diagram

d) BuddingDescription & Diagram

e) MarcottingDescription & Diagram

ECONOMICVALUESOFPLANTSTOMAN- Plantsprovidefoodtoman.- Plantshelpincontrollingsoilerosion- Plantsareneeded inconstructionandbuildingindustry.- Theyproviderawmaterialsforagrobasedindustries- Agriculturalindustryisasourceofrevenueforgovernment

ANIMALHUSBANDRYAnimalhusbandryisthecareandmanagementoflivestock(farm animals)Examplesoffarm animalsinclude;goats,rabbits,pigs,sheep,cattle,poultry.

KEEPINGCATTLEThisistherearingofcows,bulls,oxen,heifersandbullocks.

Whyfarmersrearcattle· Formeatandmilkproduction· Togetincome· Forprovisionoflabour· Forpaymentofdowryandbrideprice

Importanceofkeepingcattle· Theyprovideuswithmeatandmilk· Theyareasourceofemploymenttofarmers· Bullsandoxenareusedforploughingandtransport· Cowdungisasourceofmanure· Hidesfrom cattleareusedtomakeleather· Bones,hornsandhoovesareusedtomakeglueandanimalfeeds.· Cattleareusedtopaydowryorbrideprice.

Externalpartsofacow

TypesofcattleAtypeofcattlemeansaclassofcattlekeptforaspecificpurpose.

ThemajortypesofcattlekeptinUgandainclude;· BeefCattle· DairyCattle· DualpurposeCattle

TypesofbreedsofcattleAbreedisafamilyofcattlehavingspecificcharacteristics. The typeofbreedofcattlearedeterminedby;colour,size,milkyield,bodyconformationlikeshapeetc.Therearethreetypesofbreedsofcattle,namely;· Localbreeds/indigenousbreeds· Exoticbreeds· Crossbreeds

LocalorindigenousbreedsThesearebreedsthathaveexistedinEastAfricaforlong.TheyarealsocalledNativeBreeds.Examples

· Ankolecow· Boran· Zebu

Advantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theyareresistanttosomediseases.· Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandlittlewater· Theyrequirelesscareandmanagement· Theyproducehighqualitymeatandmilk· Disadvantagesoflocalbreedsofcattle· Theymatureslowly· Theyproducelessproducts(i.e.Milkandmeat)

Advantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theygrowandmaturefaster· Theyproducemoremeatandmilk

Disadvantagesofexoticbreedsofcattle· Theyareeasilyattackedbydiseases· Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.· Theyneedalotofcareandattention.

TypesofcattleTherearethreetypesofcattlenamely;· Beefcattle· Dairycattle· Dualpurposecattle

· Worktype(draughtcattle)

BeefcattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforbeef(meat)production.

Characteristicsofbeefcattle· Theygrowfast· Theyhaveablock(rectangular)shape· Theyhavesmallheads· Theyhaveshortlegswithlongbroadbacks.

Examplesofbeefcattle· Shorthorn· Galloway· Hereford· Aberdeenangus· AmericanBraham· Charolais· SantaGertrudis

Diagram ofabeefcattleasseenfrom aboveandaside.

Seenfrom aside Seenfrom above

DairycattleThesearecattlekeptmainlyformilkproduction

Characteristicsofdairycattle· Theyaretriangularinshape· Theyproducealotofmilk· Theyhavewellsetlegstosupporttheirweight.· Theyhaveplentyofspacebetweentheirhindlegs.· Theyareusuallydocile(calm)· Theyhavesmallnecksandwidehindquarters.

Examplesofdairycattle

a)Friesian b)BrownSwissc)Guernsey d)Ayrshire

Diagram ofadairycowasseenfrom aboveandaside

Seenfrom above Seenfrom aside

DualpurposecattleThesearecattlekeptforbothmeatandmilkproduction.

Examples1.RedPoll 2.MilkingShorthorn3.Sahiwal

Work(draught)cattleThesearecattlemainlykeptforprovidinglabouronafarm (ploughing,transport).Theyareusedtoploughsoil,pullcarts,etc.

DifferencesbetweenlocalandexoticbreedsofcattleLocalBreeds ExoticBreedsTheyhavedifferentcolours Theyhavespecificcolours.Theymatureslowly. Theymaturequickly.Theyproducelessmeatandmilk. Theyproducemoremeatandmilk.Theyneedlesscare. Theyneedalotofcare.Theyaremoreresistanttodiseases. Thearelessresistanttodiseases.Theycansurviveonpoorpastureandwater.

Theyneedgoodpastureandwaterallthetime.

BreedingofcattleBreedingisthekeeping(maintaining)ofinheritedcharacteristicsincattle.Suchcharacteristicsinclude;colour,growth,diseaseresistance,milking,longevity,(abilitytolovelong).

Typesofbreeding

1.InBreeding 2.Linebreeding3.OutBreeding 4.Crossbreeding5.Upgrading 6.Selectivebreeding

InBreedingThisisthematingofverycloselyrelatedanimals(suchasbrothersandsisters).

AdvantagesofinbreedingItmakesgoodcharacteristicsinthefamilyofanimalsstrong.

DisadvantagesItleadstoproductionofpoorquality.Itcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.

LineBreedingThisisthematingofcloselyrelatedanimals(suchascousins).Linebreedingcanleadtoinheritanceofbadtraits.

OutBreedingThisisthematingofdistantlyrelatedanimals.Outbreeding bringsgoodqualitiesthatmaybedisappearinginabreed.

CrossBreedingThisisthematingofunrelatedanimalsofdifferentpurebreeds.(e.g.Matingexoticbreedswithlocalbreeds).Theoffspringsaftercrossbreedingarecalledcrossbreeds.Crossbreedshavebetterperformancethantheirparentsorrelatives.

UpGradingThisistheimprovementofqualityofonebreedbyusingabreedofsuperiorqualityseveraltimes.

SelectiveBreedingThisisthematingofselectedgoodbreedsinaherd.Badorpoorbreedsinaherdaresoldoffforslaughter.

Typesofservice/inseminationTherearetwotypesofinsemination;

a)NaturalInseminationb)ArtificialInsemination

NatureInseminationThisisthedepositingofspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem byamaleanimal.

Typesofnaturalinseminationa)Handmatingb)Pasturemating

HandmatingThismeansbringingabulltomatewithacowonheat.

PastureMatingThismeansallowingabulltomovewithcowssothatitmateseasilywiththoseonheat.

Advantagesofnaturalinsemination· Afarmerdoesnotbothertolookforanexpertinseminator.· Itischeapforafarmersincesemenisnotbought.· Thebullnoticesthecowsonheateasily.· Animalsonheatenjoythefeelingofsex.

Disadvantagesofnaturalinsemination· Controllingveneraldiseasesisdifficult.· Smallcowscanbeinjuredbybigbulls.· Transportingabullifnonisaroundisexpensive.· Inbreedingiseasilypracticed.ReproductionincattleReproductionistheabilitytoproduceoffspringsandincreaseinnumber.Theremustbeamaleandafemaletomateandproduceyoungones.

MatingMatingisthesexualunionofthemaleandfemaleanimals.Duringmating,serving(insemination)takesplace.Aheiferisreadyformatingattheageof18months.Whenacoworheiferisreadyformating,itshowssignsofheat.

Heatperiod oroestrusperiodThisisthetimewhenafemaleanimalisreadytomatewithamaleanimal.

OestruscycleThisisaperiodwhenafemaleanimalcanconceiveifitmates.Signsofheat· Thecowmountsothercows.· Thecowallowsothercowstomountit.· Thecowlosesappetitetograze.· Mucusdischargefrom thevulva.· Slightriseinthebodytemperatureofacow.· Thevulvaswellsandchangesfrom pinktored.· Thecowurinatesfrequently.· Thecowbecomesrestlessandmoosallthetime.

· Milkproductioninlactatingcowdrops.· Threeweeksaftertheperiodofservice,ifthecowshowsnomoresignsof

heat,wesayithasconceived.

ArtificialinseminationThismeansdepositingspermsintothefemalereproductivesystem ofacowusingssyringeoraninseminatinggun.

Advantagesofartificialinsemination· Itcontrolsveneraldiseases.· Itischeapertobuyspermsthanbuyingabull.· Itpreventsinjurytosmallcows.· Semenfrom agooddeadbullcanbeusedtoimprovebreeds.· Inbreedingiscontrolled.· Wastagesofsemenisminimized

Disadvantagesofartificialinsemination· Itrequiresanexperttocarryitout.· Storingsemenisdifficult.· Itmaynotgivegoodresults.· Afarmermaynoteasilynoticethecowonheat.

Thereproductivesystem ofacow.Diagram

UsesofeachpartVulvaItreceivesandguidesthepenistothevagina.Itprotectsandcoversthevagina.VaginaItreceivesspermsandpassesthem totheuterus.Itisabirthcanal.

CervixItprotectsthefoetusduringpregnancybyclosingthecervix.

OvaryItproducesmatureova(eggs)

Itproduceshormoneswhichcontrolsthesexualcycle.

OvaThesearefemalereproductivecells.Theyfusewithspermstoform azygote.

UterusItiswhereimplantationtakesplace.Itprovidesasuitableenvironmentforimplantationtotakeplace.Oviduct(fallopiantube)Itiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Itpassesafertilizedeggtotheuterus.

Thereproductivesystem ofabullUsesofeachpart· Testes· Theyproducesperms.· Theyproduceahormoneresponsibleforpubertyandsexualdesire.This

hormoneiscalledtestosterone.

UrethraItpassesurinetothepenisItpassesspermstothepenis.

Sperm ductsTheycarryspermstotheurethra.

PenisItdepositsspermstothevagina

TestesTheyhelptomanufacturesperms

EpididymisItstoressperms.

ProstateglandsandseminalvesiclesTheyproducesementhroughwhichspermsswim.

ScrotumThisistheoutercoveringofthetesticles.Itprotectsthetesticles.Itregulatesthetemperatureofthetesticles.FertilizationinacowFertilizationistheunionofmaleandfemalegametestoform azygote.Agameteisareproductivecell.

ThefemalegameteiscalledOvumThemalegameteiscalledaSperm.

Diagram ofasperm andanOvum

Sperm Ovum

Afterfertilization,thezygotedevelopsintoanembryo.Theembryodevelopsintoafoetusandfinallyintoacalf.

Zygote Embryo Foetus Calf

Theembryoisattachedtotheuteruswallthroughtheplacenta.

ImplantationThisistheattachmentofthefoetustothewallsoftheuterus.Therefore,Implantationtakesplaceintheuterus.

GestationperiodThisisthetimebetweenconceptionandgivingbirth.Thegestationperiodofanin-calfis270-280daysorninemonths.Anin-calfisacowthatispregnant.

SignsofpregnancyAcowdoesnotgoonheat21daysafterservice.· Theuterusenlargesinthesecondandthirdmonthafterconception.· Theudderenlargesandfillswithmilk.· Thecervixclosesduringpregnancy.· Themovementoffoetuscanbeseenorfeltafter7months.

DryperiodThisisthetimewhenalactatingcowisleftwithoutmilkingitinpreparationtogivingbirth.Acowisdriedsixtosevenweeksbeforecalving.Duringthedryperiod,thein-calfisfedonfoodsrichinprotein.

SteamingupThisisthefeedingofanin-calfonfoodsrichinprotein.Itisnormallydoneduringthelasttwomonths.

Whysteamingup/advantagesofsteamingup· Itencouragesthefoetustogrowhealthy.· Itbuildsacowsbodyinpreparation forcalving(parturition)· Itincreasesthemanufactureofcolostrum.· Itpreventslowbirthweight.· Itprolongsmilkletdown.

CalvingorparturitionThisistheactofgivingbirthincattle(cows).

Signsofcalving· Thevulvaswellsandbecomesred.· Thecowliesdownmostofthetime.· Theudderandteatsbecomeswollen.· Theamnion(orwatersac)comesoutanditbursts.

ColostrumThisisthefirstyellowishmilkgotfrom acowwhichhasjustgivenbirth.

Usesofcolostrum· Ithasallfoodvalues.· Itopensupthedigestivesystem ofacalf.· Itbooststheimmunityofacalfsinceitisrichinantibodies.· ItimprovesacalfssightsinceitisrichinvitaminA.

CattlemanagementonafarmTherearevariouswaysofcattlemanagementonafarm.Theseinclude;1.Numbering 2.Dehorning/Disbudding3.Hooftrimming 4.Castration5.Dehorning 6.Spraying7.Dipping 8.DustingNumberingThismeansputtingamarkorlabelonthebodyofanimals.Numberingenablesfarmerstoidentifyanimalseasily.

Waysofnumberinga)Branding b)EarNotchingc)Eartagging d)Numberlacinge)Eartattooing f)TailBobbingg)Grueling

EarnotchingThisisthecuttingoftheedgeoftheearsofanimalswithmarks.

Diagram

EarTaggingThismeansfixingtagswithnumbersontheearofanimals.

Diagram

NumberinglacingThisistheputtingofawoodenoironpieceofplatearoundtheneckofanimals.

Diagram

EartattooingThismeansputtingpermanentmarkontheearsofanimalsusingplierscarryingnumbersonthem.

Diagram

TailbobbingThismeanstrimminglonghairontheanimalstail(switch).

N:BCowsarenotusuallydockedi.e.tailsarenotshortened.

GruelingThismeanstrimminglonghairaroundtheanusandgenitalparts.

Dehorning/disbuddingThisistheremovalofhornbudsfrom thecalfshead.

Materialsusedfordehorningi) Dehorningironii) Chemicalssuchascausticsticks.

Advantagesofdehorning· Itmakesanimalseasytohandle.· Itreducestherisksofinjuriesamonganimalsandpeople.· ItincreasesspaceintheKraal/Manyanimalscanbekeptinasmallspace.· Hooftrimming· Thismeanscuttingoffovergrownhoovesofanimals.

Advantages

Itreducestheriskofinjuriesamongcattle.Itreducestheriskoftransmissionofdiseases.

CastrationThisistheremovalof testiclesfrom amaleanimal.

MethodsofcastrationTherearethreemethodsofcastration;

i) OpenOperation(opencastrationorSurgery)ii) Closedoperation(closedcastration)iii) Useofaloop(Rubberring)

OpenoperationThisistheremovaloftesticlefrom amaleanimalbyusingasharpknifeorbladetoslitthescrotum.

Diagram

ClosedoperationThisisthecrushingofsperm ductsbyusingaburdizzowhichhasbluntpincers.

Diagram ofaburndizzo

Usesofaloop· Thismeanssqueezingsperm ductsusinganelasticrubberband.· Whenthesperm ducts,(spermaticcords)andbloodvesselsarebroken,the

testesshrinkanddie.

DiagramAdvantagesofcastration· ItpreventsthespreadofSTDsamongcattle.· Castratedanimalsbecomehumble(docile)andeasytohandle.· Castratedanimalsfattensformorebeef.· Castratedanimalsgrazewithfemaleswithoutdisturbingthem.· Itpreventsinbreeding

· Itpreventspoorbreedssincebullswithpoorbreedsarecastrated..

DisadvantagesofcastrationCastratedanimalsmaylosealotofbloodanddie.Woundsmaybecomesepticandcausepainanddeath.Animalsaredeniedtherightofmating.

DewormingThismeansgivingdrugstodomesticanimalsandbirds.

Whydeworm?Toremoveendoparasitesfrom thebody.Methodsofdeworming

1.Drenching2.Dozing

DrenchingThismeansgivingliquidmedicinetoanimals.Drenchingcanbedoneusingadrenchinggunorabottle.

Diagram ofadrenchinggun

DozingThismeansgivingsolidmedicinetocattle(animals)Thesolidmedicineisinform oftabletsorcapsules.

SprayingThisistheremovalofectoparasitesonthebodyofananimalbysprinklingacaricidesusingaknapsacksprayerorsprayrace.

DustingThismeansapplying thebodyofanimalswithpowderedchemicalstokillectoparasites.

DetickingThisisthepickingofticksfrom theskinofanimalsusinghands.

DippingThismeansmakinganimalstoswim throughwatermixedwithacaricides inadiptank/pool.

Diagram ofadiptank

RemovalofextrateatsThismeanscuttingextrateatsfrom theudderofacow.Thereshouldbeonlyfourteats.

MILKINGThisistheremovalofmilkfrom theudderofacowthroughteats.

MilkletdownMilkletdownistheflowofmilkfrom theudderofacow.

TypesofmilkingTherearetwotypesofmilkingnamely;

a)handmilkingb)MachineMilking

HandmilkingHandmilkingisthedrawingofmilkfrom theudderofacowbysqueezingteatsusinghands.Handmilkingisalsocalledfullhandmilking.

MachinemilkingThisistheuseofamachinetodrawmilkfrom theudderofacow.Thepartsofamilkingmachinemustbewashedtoavoidmilkcontamination.

Diagram illustratingmachinemilking

Preparationformilking· Assemblethemilkingequipment.· Cleanallthemilkingequipmenttomakethem ingoodworkingorder.· Putthecowinamilkingplaceandtiethehindlegswitharope.· Givethecowsomefeedstokeepitbusyandrelaxedduringmilking.· Washtheudderandteatstoencouragemilkletdown.

· Washyourhandsclean.· From eachteat,drawoneortwostreamsofmilkthroughastripcuptodetect

thepresenceofmastitisinmilk.· Ifthecowhasmastitis,bloodstainswillbeseeninmilkdrawnthroughastrip

cup.· Acowwithmastitisshouldbemilkedlast.· Aftermilking,washthemilkingplaceandequipmentusingdisinfectants.

STRIPCUPThisisaninstrumentusedtodetectthepresenceofmastitisinmilk.

Diagram ofastripcupLACTOMETERThisisanequipmentusedto;

a)detectthepresenceofwaterifadded inmilkb)detectthepresenceoffatsinmilk.

Alactometerisaclosedweighedtubegraduatedtomakethelevelofnormalmilk.

Howalactometerworks· Alactometerisdippedinacontainerhavingmilk.· Ifwaterhasbeenaddedtomilkorfatshavebeenremoved,itwillnotget

enoughsupporttofloatandthereforeitwillsinkdeeper.Diagram ofalactometer.

PreservingmilkMilkisagoodenvironmentforbacteriatomultiply.Itshouldthereforebepreservedforfutureuseotherwiseitwillgobad.

Methodsofpreservingmilk1.Sterilization 2.Refrigeration3.Boiling 4.

Sterilization/pasteurization· Thismeanskillinggermsinmilkbymaximum boilingfollowedbycoolingand

boiling.· Itisalsocalledpasteurization.· Theheatingkillsgermsandquickcoolingpreventsbacteriafrom entering

milkandmultiplyinginit.· ThismethodwasnamedafterLouisPasteur,aFrenchScientistwho

discoveredthatmilkgoesbadbecauseofbacteria.

RefrigerationThismeansputtingmilkinarefrigeratorwheregermscanteasilyandquicklymultiplybecauseofverylowtemperature.

BoilingThismeanskillinggermsbyboilingmilkfrom timetotime.

HomogenizingThisisawayoftreatingmilksothatfatsarebrokenandthencream ismixedwiththerest.Homogenizingisnotawayofpreservingmilk.

Productsfrom milkButter Cheese creamGhee Yoghurt

CASEINANDWHEYThisisthepartleftafterbutterhasbeenremovedfrom milk.Caseincanbeusedasarawmaterialformakingshinnypaper.

WheyThisistheliquidpartleftaftersourmilkhasformedcurd.Wheycanbeusedasasourcetoaccompanyfood.

ExamplesofprocessedmilkWholemilk SkimmedMilkPasteurizedMilk FortifiedMilkCondensedMilk

HOUSINGONAFARMUsesofhousingonafarm· Houseskeepfarm produce· Houseskeepfarm records.· Housesstoreanimalfeeds,utensilsandfarm toolsfarm (equipment)· Housesareusedasmilkingshadesforanimals.· Housesareusedastreatingplacesforanimals.

TypesofhousesonafarmTherearetwotypesofhousesonafarm.Theseare;

a)Semi-Permanenthousesb)Permanenthouses

Semi-PermanenthousesThesearehousesmadefrom simplelocalmaterials,(mud,reeds,cowdung,grass,poles,nails)Examplesinclude;Kraalsandbyres.

PermanentHousesThesearemadefrom strongdurablematerialssuchastimber,bricks,concrete,

ironsheets.

RoofinghousesonafarmRoofingfarm housesdependsonavailablematerials.Thecheapestform ofroofingisusinggrass,bananafibres,bambooorstraws.

Advantagesofthatching· Itprotectsanimalsfrom badweather.· Itpreventswaterfrom enteringthehouse.· Itischeapinconstruction.

Disadvantagesofthatchingusinggrass· Thatchingmaterialscaneasilycatchfireandburnanimals.· Materialscaneasilyrot.· Thatchcaneasilyleakifnotwelldone.

FENCINGAfenceisabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsusedtodividelandintoplotsorpaddocks.Fencingmeansputtingabarrierofliveordeadmaterialsonlandtodivideorseparateitintosizeablepieces.

Typesoffences· Naturalfences(liveFences)· Artificialfences(deadfences)

NaturalFencesTheseareplantedplantsalongboarders(margins)oflandtobefenced.Examplesofplantsusedtomakenaturalfencesinclude;bamboo,sisal,cypress,conifers,hedges,thornyplants,tatropa,cedar(x-mastree)

ArtificialfencesThesearefencesmadeoutofdeadmaterialsExamplesofmaterialsusedinclude;chainlinks,barbedwire,wirenets,concrete,bricks,treatedpoles,nails.

Importanceoffencing· Naturalfencesactaswindbreaks.· Naturalfencesmaintainsoilfertilitybyaddinghumus.· Fencingcontrolsthespreadofdiseasesbycontrollinganimalmovements.· Fencingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Fenceskeepoffintruderssuchasthievesandwildanimals.· Fencespreventthestrayingofanimals.· Fencesmakecullingeasy.· Fencesmakeseparationofanimalsaccordingtoage,sex,type,sizeand

healtheasy.

PASTUREPastureisanopengrasslandonwhichanimalsgraze.

TypesofpastureTherearemainlytwotypesofpasture,namely;

a)Naturalpastureb)PreparedPasture

NaturalpastureThisispasturethatgrowsbyitself.Itiseatenbyanimalsinitsrawform.

Examplesofnaturalpasture.a)Kikuyugrass b)Guineagrassc)Nandigrass d)Elephantgrasse)Guatamalagrass f)Alfaalfa

PreparedpastureThisispasturemadeoutoffoddercrops.Foddercropsarecropsgrownforfeedinganimals.

Examplesofpreparedpasture· Silage· Hay· Cloves· Milletcrops· Desmodium

Importanceofpasture· Pastureisusedforfeedinganimals· Pastureaddshumustothesoil.· Itprovidesbeddingmaterialsforanimals· Itprovidesthatchingmaterialsforhouses· Leguminouspasturesfixnitrogeninthesoil.

Thedigestivesystem ofacowUsesofeachpartMouthForchewingfoodbytheactionoftheteeth.Itpassesfoodtothegullet.

GulletItpassesfoodtotherumen

Rumen(pouch)Tostorefoodtemporarilybeforeitisreturnedtothemouthforchewing.ItiswherefoodisfermentedItisthelargestofthefourstomachsReticulum (honeycomb)Bacterialactioncontinueshere.Foreignbodiesareretainedhere.OmasumItchurnsandgrindsfoodintofineparticlesWaterisabsorbedherealso.Abomasum (truestomach)Digestionbyenzymestakesplacehere.NB;from abomasum totherectum,digestionisthesameasinnonruminants.

TypesoffoodstuffsRoughagesConcentratesAdditives

RoughagesTheyincludehay(driedgrass),silages(preservedgreenpasture),greengrass,pasture,legumes,straws,maizestalks.

ConcentratesTheseincludecereals,oilyseedsandlegumes.

SupplementsTheseincludeproteinsandvitaminsaddedtofeeds.

AdditivesThesearedrugs,flavoursandhormonesaddedtofeeds.

Note:MaintenancerationsThesearefeedsgiventoanimalstosustaintheirusualfeeds.

ProductionrationsTheseareextrafeedsgiventoanimalsforproductionofeitherbeeformilk.

SaltsupplyAnimalsaregivensaltinorderto;

a)stimulatemilkproductionb)controlsomediseasessuchasmilkfever.

IntakeThisistheamountoffoodeatenbyananimal.CATTLEPRODUCTS· Meat· Fats· Hides· Bones· Cattledungandurine· Milk· HornsandhoovesGRAZINGGrazingistheproperuseofgrasslandbyanimals· Systemsofgrazing· Herding/freerange/opengrazing· Rotationalgrazing· Zerograzing

HERDINGThismeanslookingafteranimalsastheygrazebyaherdsman.Theherdsmanguidesanimalstogoodpastureandwater.

Advantagesofherding· Animalseatavarietyoffeeds.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Animalsarenoteasilystolenbecausetheyareeasilyandcloselywatchedby

aherdsman.

Disadvantages· Animalscaneasilygetdiseasesandparasites· Animalsmaystrayanddestroycrops.· Animalsarelikelytostarveifthelandissmall.· Animalsarelikelytoovergrazethepasture.

ROTATIONALGRAZINGThisisamethodofgrazinginwhichanimalsgrazeononeportionofpastureatatime.Therearethreemethodsofrotationalgrazing;

i) Paddockingii) Stripgrazingiii) Tethering

Paddockgrazing· Thismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallfencedplots.· Thesmallfencedplotsarecalledpaddocks.· Theanimalsareallowedtograzeinonepaddockforafewweeksbefore

theyaremovedtoanotherpaddock.

Illustrationofpaddockgrazing

Drinkingwaterforanimalsisfoundinpaddocks.

Advantagesofpaddockgrazing· Paddockgrazingallowsproperuseofpasture.· Itgivesthefarmertimetodootheractivities.· Manureisevenlydistributedonthefarm.· Paddocksbreakthelifecycleofticks.· Itgivesgrasstimetogrowback.· Itcontrolsovergrazing.

DisadvantagesFencingpaddocksisexpensivePaddockingrequiresabigpieceofland.

STRIPGRAZINGThismeansgrazinganimalsonsmallplotsseparatedbyatemporarywire.Thewiresometimescarriessmall(low)current(electricity)thatcontrolsthemovementofanimalsinselectedpastureareas(strips).Animalsgrazeinonestripatatimeuntiltheyhavegonethroughthepastureandbacktothefirststrip.

Illustrationofstripgrazing

Advantagesofstripgrazing· Pastureiswellused.· Parasitesanddiseasesareeasilycontrolled· Itrequireslesslabour

DisadvantagesMaintainingstripsisexpensive(costly)Itisonlysuitableforfewanimals.

TETHERINGThisisthetyingofanimalstoapegortreeusingarope.

Theanimalstetheredcanbemovedtoanewplacewhennecessary.

Advantagesoftethering· Itischeaptomaintain· Itdoesnotrequiremuchattention· Animalsdonoteasilydestroycorps· Animalsdonotgetastray.Disadvantages· Animalslackbodyexercises· Animalsmayberestrictedononetypeofgrass.· Ropesmayeasilystrangleanimals· Replacingropesduringtherainyseasoniscostly.· Itissuitableforfewanimals.· Animalsmaybeeasilystolen· Animalsmaybeeasilykilledbywildanimals.

ZEROGRAZINGThismeanskeepinganimalsinaspecialbuiltstructure.Waterandfoodareprovidedtoanimals.

Requirementsforzerograzing· Awellconstructedshade· Astore· Afeedingtrough· Awatertrough· Workers· Gardenwherefoddersisgrown· Chaffcutterforcuttingfoddercrops.

Illustrationshowingzerograzing

Advantagesofzerograzing· Feedsarewellused.· Collectingmanureiseasy· Sickanimalsareeasilyidentifiedandculled· Manyanimalsarekeptinasmallarea.· Animalshavelesschancesofgettingdiseases.· Animalsgrowfatandproducemoremeatandmilk.Disadvantagesofzerograzing· Constructingthestructureiscostly.· Feedshavetobegrownorbought.· Cleaningthebuiltstructuredailyistiresome.· Spreadofdiseasesiseasyincaseofoutbreak.

CATTLEDISEASESANDPARASITESCattlediseasesareclassifiedaccordingtotheircausativeagents(germ)andmethodofspread.Therearethreemaincausativeagents(germs)namely;· Bacteria· Viruses· Protozoa

Signsofsicknessinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalisdullandhasroughhaironthebody.· Theanimalcoughsandsneezes· Thereisdiarrhoea.· Theanimalhasdifficultyinpassingouturineanddung(faeces)· Thereisriseinbodytemperatureandpulserate.· Theanimallosesappetiteforfood(pasture)

Causesofsicknessofdiseasesinanimals· Diseasesinanimalscanbecausedbylackofsomenutrientsintheanimals

diet.· Dirtyenvironmentanddirtyfood.· Physicalinjurieslikecutsandwounds· Infectiousbygerms.

Signsofgoodshealthinanimals(cattle)· Theanimalfeedswelli.e.havegoodappetite.· Theeyesarecleanandbright.· Theanimalwalkssteadily· Thenoseiscoldandwet.· Thehairissmoothandshining· Theanimalsearsarewarm andalert.· Urineanddung(feaces)ispassedoutwithoutdifficulty.

Waysroutesofdiseaseinfectioninanimals· Directcontactwithsickanimals· Directcontactthroughfoodandwater.

Typesofcattlediseases· Bacterialdiseases· Thesesarediseasescausedbybacteria

ANTHRAX· Thisiscausedbybacillusanthracisbacterium.· Itisanacuteinfectiousdiseasewhichattackscattle,sheep,goats,pigsand

humans.

Signsandsymptoms· Oozingoutofdarkbloodfrom naturalopening· Deathwithin24hours· BlownupstomachwhenanimaldiesPreventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Carcassoftheanimalshouldbecompletelyburntorburied.· Donotopenthecarcassofanimalsthataresuspectedtohavediedof

anthrax.· Nevereatmeatofanimalssuspectedtohavediedofanthrax.· Vaccinateanimalseveryyear.· Reportsuspectedcasesofanthrax.

MASTITISItisaninfectiousbacterialdiseasethataffectsthemammaryglands(teatsandudder)ofcattle,sheep,goats,bitchesandhumans.

Signsandsymptoms· Milkturnswateryorthickclotswithbloodandpusinit.· Theudderandteatsswell.· Thecowrejectsmilkingandsuckingbythecalf.· Theaffecteduddergetsdeadandgivesnomilk.· Deathoftheanimalmayresult.

Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycaseswithantibiotics· Milkoutteatsandmassagewithwarm water.· Ensuregoodhygienewhenmilking· Usedisinfectantswhenmilking· Usetherightmilkingtechniques

CalfscourItisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Attackspiglets,calves,kids,andhumans.

Signsandsymptoms· Profusesharpsmellingdiarrhoea· Dullnessandlossofappetite.· Slightriseintemperature· Suddendeathincalvesandpigletswithblownupandhardstomachs

Preventionandcontrol· Strictcleanlinessmustbeobservedincalfpens,kraals,pigstysetc.· Avoiddampwetconditions

· Treatinfectedcaseswithantibodies.

BlackquarterItisanacuteinfectiousdiseasecausedbybacteria.Itattacksruminantssuchascattle,goats,andsheep.

Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Shivering· Lossofappetite· Lameness· Musclesareswollenandpainful

Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimalsearly· Neveropencarcassofanimalthatshowssignsofblackquarter· Burnorburydeadanimals

PNEUMONIAItisaninfectiousdiseaseofthelungsItiscausedbyvarioustypesofbacteriaandviruses.

Signsandsymptoms· Difficultbreathingandcoughingduetocongestionofbronchioles· Nasaldischarge· Lossofbodyweight· Theanimalisreluctanttomovedullandsleepy.· Lossofappetite· Theanimalstemperaturemaybehighorlow.

Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesofpneumoniawithantibiotics· Keepbuildingwellventilated,warm,andclean· Providesoftfeedsandwater.

Footrot· Itiscausedbybacteriaoffusiformisgroup.· Itattackshoovesofallhoofedanimals.Thisdiseaseisusuallycommon

duringwetweather.

SignsandsymptomsHoovesofanimalsswellmakingthem lame.Partsofhoovesmaycontainpusandsmell.

Preventionandcontrol· Treatearlycasesoffootrotwithantibiotics.· Trim affectedhoovesproperlyandisolatetheanimal· Provideanimalswithfootbatheveryweek.· Routinetrimmingandexaminationofthefeet.

BRUCELLOSIS· Itisaninfectiousdiseasecausedbybrucellaabortusbacteria.Itaffects

cattle,goats,sheep,andman.· Itisspreadthroughfoodcontaminatedwithdischargefrom infected

animals.

SignsandsymptomsAbortioninanimalsfollowedbybrownishdischargefrom thevaginaThetesticlesswellThereisstillbirthsincowsTheplacentaremainsintheuterus(womb)

Preventionandcontrol· Cullandslaughtertheinfectedanimal.· Vaccinateallyoungfemalesespeciallycattle.· Donttouchabortedfoetuswithbarehands.· Milkfrom infectedanimalsshouldbeboiledfirst.

Contagiousbovinepleuro-pneumoniaItiscausedbybacteriadischargefrom thenosesofinfectedanimals

PreventionandcontrolCullandslaughterallinfectedanimalsImposequarantineincaseofanoutbreak.Earlyvaccinationoftheherd.Thediseasehasnotreatmentyet.

TUBERCULOSIS· Itisachronicinfectiousdiseasecausedbymicro-bacterium Tuberculosis.· Itisspreadthroughinhalationofthebacteria.

Signsandsymptomsoftuberculosis· Lossofappetiteatadvancedstages· Coughinganddecreaseinmilkproduction

PreventionandcontrolPracticinggoodhygieneCullandslaughterinfectedanimals.

VIRALDISEASESThesearediseasescausedviruses,mostviraldiseasesare;

Rinderpest(Capitalletters)· Itisahighlyinfectiousdiseasecausedbyvirus.· Itattacksthemembranesofthealimentarycanal.· Itcankilllargenumberofanimals.

Signsandsymptoms· Highfever· Severedullnessandlossofappetite· Seriousdiarrheawithbloodstainedcowdung.· Themuzzles,noseandmusclebecomehotwithfastbreathing.· Rapiddehydrationresultinginemaciationwithsunkeneyes.

FOOTANDMOUTHDISEASEThisisanacutecontagiousdiseaseofruminantssuchascattle,sheep,goatsetc.itattacksthemembranesofmouthandcoronet.

Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetiteforpasture.· Serioussalivationinthemouth· Lamenessduetowoundsonthecornet.· Painfulblistersaroundthemouth,udderandbetweenthehooves.· Emaciation· Reducedmilkyield.

Preventionandcontrol· Vaccinateanimals· Affectedanimalsshouldbeslaughtered· Applicationofquarantine.

NairobisheepdiseaseThisisanactiveviraldiseaseofsheepandgoats.Itistransmittedbythebrownearandbontticks.

Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature.· Diarrhea· Nasaldischarge· Rapidbreathing· Abortioninewes.

Preventionandcontrol· Notreatment· Controltickstopreventthedisease.

PROTOZOANDISEASESThesearediseaseswhicharemostlyassociatedwithbloodsuckinginsectsandticksexamples;Nagana(trypanosomiasis),Eastcoastfever,Redwater,Heartwater.

REDWATERItiscausedbyaprotozoatransmittedbybrowneartick. Itattackscattle,goatsandsheep.

Preventionandcontrol· Isolatesickanimals· cullandslaughterthesickanimals· Addcoccidiostatinfeedsandwater.

Signsandsymptoms· Hightemperature· Constipationanddullness· Animalbecomesanaemic· Animallickssoil· Presenceofredbloodpigmentsintheurine.· Swollenlymphnodes.

Preventionandcontrol· Tickcontrolbysprayinganddipping· Injectanimalswithant-babesiadrugs.· Somerespondwithtetracyclineantibiotics.

EASTCOASTFEVERItisaseriousprotozoandiseasespreadbyboththered-leggedandbrownearticks.Itattackscattleonlyespeciallythecalvesarevulnerable.

Signsandsymptoms· Thereisrapidriseintemperature· Swollenlymphnodesespeciallyalongthedelap.· Thereisgeneralbodyweakness.· Difficultyinbreathing.

Preventionandcontrol· Burningareasaffectedwithticks.· Fencingfarmstopreventstrayanimals.

· Sprayinganddippinganimalsregularly.· Controlledgrazing· Smearinganimalswithacarcides· Detickingbyhands· Antibioticsandsulphurdrugsareusedtocontrolsecondaryinfections.

ANAPLASMOSIS(GALLSICKNESS)· Itiscausedbyaprotozoan· Itistransmittedbytheblueticks.

Signsandsymptoms· Theanimalgetsconstipation.· Bloodinurineanddung(feaces)· Theanimalbecomesanaemic· Thetemperaturemayfall.

NAGANA(TRYPANOSOMIASIS)· Itisaninfectiousprotozoandiseaseofanimalssuchascattle,goats,dogs

andhorses.· Inman,thediseaseiscalledsleepingsickness.Itistransmittedbyatsetsefly

andcausedbyagerm calledTrypanosoma(e.g.t.Virax,t.congolese,t.bruscei)

Signsandsymptoms· Fever,dullnessandlossofappetite· Anaemiaandemaciation· LickingofsoilbyAnimals· Swollenlymphnodes· Runningeyeswhichleadstoblindness.· Deathmayoccurafterseveralweeks.

Preventionandcontrol· Clearbushestocontroltsetseflies· Spraywithinsecticidestokilltsetseflies· Usingtsetseflytrapstokilladulttsetseflies· Treatusingdrugssuchasethidium.

NB;Tsetsefliesbreedinswampyandfrostedareas.Theydonotlayeggsbuthatchtheyoungonesinthebodyanddepositthem.

HEARTWATERItisaprotozoandiseasespreadbyticks(itisatickbornedisease)itattackscattle,sheepandgoats.

Signsandsymptoms

·Highfeverandlossofappetite·Animalmovesincircles·Animalsbecomerestlessandplacestheheadagainsthardobjects.·Whenitfalls,thelegskeeppeddlingintheair.

REDWATER

Cattleparasites· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatlivesonanotherlivingorganism and

obtainsitsfoodfrom it.Or· Aparasiteisalivingorganism thatdependsonanotherlivingorganism for

food.· Theorganism onwhichaparasitedependsforfoodiscalledahost.· Aparasiteeatsfoodmadeforthegrowthanddevelopmentofthehost.

TypesofparasitesParasitesaregroupedintotwonamely;

i) ExternalParasites/Ectoparasitesii) InternalParasites/Endoparasites

ExternalParasitesExternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveoutsidebodyofthehost.Examplesare;ticks,tsetseflies,mites,lice,jiggersetc.

InternalParasitesInternalparasitesareparasitesthatliveinsidethebodyofthehost.Theyliveinmuscles,intestines,liveretcexamplesofinternalparasitesare;tapeworms,roundwormsandliverflukes.

Effectsofparasitesofcattle· Pestsliketicks,tsetseflies,mitesandfleassuckbloodfrom thehostleading

toemaciation.· Somepestsspreaddiseasestoanimalse.g.Nagana,Eastcoastfever,red

water.Etc.· Somepestscausedamagetotheskinofthehostmakingitoflowquality.· Somepestscausediscomfortandirritationtothehost· Someparasitessuckfoodandbloodfrom hostmakingitmalnourishedand

unhealthy.

Preventionandcontrolofcattleparasites.· Someofthem canbecontrolledbydippingandsprayingcattlewith

acqricides· Clearbushesandusetsetseflytrapstocontroltsetseflies.

· Draingrazingareastocontrolliverflukes.· De-worm animalswithde-wormingdrugs.· Keepanimalsawayfrom pastureswhicharefrequentlycoveredbyfloods.· Usedoublefencingofgrazingareasandkraalstocontrolticks.· Burnalltheoldpasture.· Practicerotationalgrazing

RequirementsforstartingalivestockfarmTostartafarm,afarmerrequiresthefollowing;a)LandThisistheplacewherethefarm islocated.itisusedforgrowingpasture,buildinghousesetc,thelandmaybebought,inheritedfrom parents,rentedorhired.b)CapitalThisreferstothemoneyandallthebuildingsequipmentsandmaterialsandtostartafarm.Capitalmaybeadonation,borrowedfrom abankinheritedfromsalesofpropertyormonthlyearnings.c)LabourReferstoallthepeoplewhoperform thedifferenttasksontheafarm.Thefarmerdoesnothavealltheskillsandtimeforeverythingonthefarm.Hemayemployworkers,hirelabourers,orusefamilymembers.d)ManagementThisreferstoorganizing,planningandguidingtherestoftheworkerstocarryouttheirdutiesinamoreorganizingwayandmakethefarm profitable.Thefarmermaymanagehim/herselforemployothers.e)MarketBeforestartingafarm,oneshouldensurethatthereismarketforthefarmproductssuchasmeat,milk,eggs,hidesetc.

f) FarmThesearewrittenaccount/documentsoftheactivitiesofthefarm.

IMPORTANCEOFKEEPINGFARM RECORDS· Tohelpthefarmerknowwhetherheismakingprofitsorlosses.· Forfairassessmentoftaxes· Toenablethefarmertomakedecisions· Incaseafarmerdieswithoutwritingwill,ithelpsthefamilymembersto

sharepropertyequally.· Toenablethefarmerknowthehistoryofthefarmer.· Helpsthefarmertoplanandbudgetforthefarm.

TYPESOFFARM RECORDS· Breedingrecords:Theseincludereproduction,birthordeathrates.· Productionrecords:Theseshowyieldsofvariousfarm producee.g.eggs,

milk,meatetc.Healthrecords:Theseincludewhenandwhichanimalsweresick,whattreatmenttheygotorwhichonestocull.

· Labourrecords:Theseincludethenumberoffarm labourers,typeofworktheydoandtheirwages.

· Fieldoperationsrecords:Thesearerecordsofalldifferentactivitiescarriedoutonthefarm ploughing,harrowing,plantingetc.

· Marketingrecords:Theseincludewhere,when andwhatpricesvariousproductsweresold.

· Inventoryrecords:Thisisarecordofallthethingsafarmerownsandthecashvaluesofeachitem.

· Incomeandexpenditures:Thesearerecordsofallthesalesandpurchasesofthefarm business.

· Feedingrecords:Theseshowtheamountoffeedsbought,consumedandmethodsoffeeding.

PRACTICESWHICHHARM CATTLEANDOTHERDOMESTICANIMALSATHOME

- Beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Nottreatingsickanimals- Dehorning- Castration- Branding

INTHEFIELD- Over beatinganimals- Overworkinganimals- Notgivinganimalsadequatefeeds- Improperdisposalofpolythenebags

IN TRANSIT- Overloadinganimals- Transportinganimalswhensomelegsarehangingoutofvehicles- Overtyinganimalsduringtransportation.

INTHEABATTOIR- Slaughteranimalsbrutally- Killinganimalsbybangingtheirheadswithhammer,axeorironbars- Handlinganimalsrudelywhengoingtoslaughter

RESOURCESINTHEENVIRONMENTAresourceissomethingorobjectwhichisusedforcertainpurpose.Someresourcesaregotfrom non-livingthingswhileothersaregotfrom livingthings.

Typesofresources

1.NonrenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcantbereplacednaturallyoncetheyareusedup.

Examplesare:i)Mineralsoresii)Crudeoil(petroleum)iii)Coal

2.RenewableresourcesTheseareresourceswhichcanbereplacednaturallybeforetheygetexhausted(usedup)

Examplesare:i)Soilii)Wateriii)Thesuniv) Air(wind)v) Plantsvi) Animals

Resourcesfrom nonlivingthingsAnonlivingthingisonewithoutlife.

Example· Soil· Water· Airandwind· Rocksandminerals

a)SoilSoilisanaturallayerwhichcoverstheearthssurface.Soilisarenewableresource.

Howissoilusedasaresource?ItisusedforgrowingcropsSoilisusedforbuildinghouses inoursocieties

b)WaterWaterisarenewableresourcewhenusedcarefully.

Howwaterisusedasaresource?· Waterhelpsplantstogrow· Waterisusedtoturnturbinesforhydro-electricpowergeneration.· Waterhelpstodissolvefoodforeasyabsorptioninthebodyofanimals.

c)AirandWindBotharerenewableresourcesAirisamixtureofgasesWindismovingair.

Howwindisuseful· Windturnswindmillstoproduceelectricity· Winddriveswindmillstodrawwaterfrom theunderground· Windhelpsinwinnowingofharvestedcrops.

d)SunItisarenewableresource

Howthesunisusedasaresource· Thesunprovidessunlightenergytogreenplantstomakestarch.· Thesunprovidessolarenergythatgivesoutheatandlightenergytoman.· ThesunhelpsourbodiestomakevitaminD· Thesunhelpsingenerationofsolarelectricity.

RocksandmineralsAmineralisanythingthatoccursnaturallylikearockintheearth.Theyarenon-renewableresources.

Examplesofminerals· Crudeoil(petroleum)· Chalk· Clay· Copper· Gold· Tinetc

Mineralsarenon-renewableresources.N.B:Mineralsfrom whichmetalsaregotarecalledores.RocksArockisasubstancemadeupofmineralstightlypackedtogethertoform asolid.

Typesofrocksi) Igneousrocksii) Metamorphicrocksiii) Sedimentaryrocks

IgneousRocksThesearerocksformedwhenmagmapoursoutsidetheearthaslavaand

solidifiesTheyaregenerallyhardandimpervious.Examples· Basalt· Granite· Quartz

SedimentaryRocksThesearerocksformedfrom brokenparticlesofsandclayandmudsettingindifferentlayers.(strata)atthebedsofwaterbodieslikeseas,lakes,riversetc.Sedimentaryrocksaresoftandporous.Examples· Sandyrocks· Limestoneetc

FOSSILS· Fossilsareremainsofplantsandanimalsburiedunderground many

thousandsofyearsago.· Theyarefounddeepinsidetheearthinsedimentaryrocks.· Theseremainsareusuallyofbonesorteethofanimalsandroots,leavesor

stemsofplants.· Sometimestheremainsareofmouldofawholebodye.g.ofafish.

Usesoffossils· Fossilshelpgeologiststodeterminetheageofaplaceorrock.· Fossilshelpgeologiststoknowhowdifferentplantsandanimalshave

existedandchanged.· Fossilshelptotellhowlandlookedbefore.· Fossilsshowushowandwherethedifferentsedimentaryrockswereformed.· Fossilshelptotellwhattheanimalorplantlookedlike,whatitate,whereit

livedetc.

Importanceofrocks· Rocksform soil,whichisimportanttooursurvival· Rocksmakegoodmaterialsforbuildingandroads.· Theytellusabouttheearthshistory.· TheycontainmanyvaluablemineralsALLOYSAnalloyisamixtureoftwoormoremetalsAlloy Combination UsesBrass CopperandZinc - Decoratingornaments

- Makingwires,tubingcasesforbullets.

DentistAmalgam GoldandCopper,gold,copperandmercury

- Makingcoins.

Solder LeadandTin - JoiningmetalsBronze CopperandTin - Usedforornaments,bells,statuesSTEELSteelconsistsofCarbondissolvediniron.Differentalloysaremadefrom steel

Examplesofalloysmadefrom steeli) Manganesesteel

ItisamixtureofsteelandmanganeseThisisaverytoughalloy.Itisusedwherefrictionmaycauseweare.g.inrailwaypoints.

ii) NickelsteelItisamixtureofnickelandsteelThisalloydoesnotrust.Itisusedformakingcookingandkitchenutensilsandcutlery.

iii) StainlesssteelItisamixtureofcobaltandsteelThisalloyisusedtomakepermanentmagnetsbecausetheyretaintheirmagnetism overalongperiod.

Whyarealloysmade?· Tomakethemetalharder· Tolowerthemeltingpointofthemetal.· Tomakethemetalmoreresistanttocorrosioni.e.wearandtear· Toincreasetheelectricalresistivityofmetals.

FUELSAfuelisanythingthatburnstoproduceheatandlightenergy.

Examplesoffuels· Firewood· Charcoal· CrudeOil(Petroleum)· Coal

· Firewoodandcharcoalarerenewableresourceswhilecrudeoilandcoalarenon-renewableresources.

· Coalwasformedfrom marshyvegetablesandplantswhichlivedlongagoandwereburiedundergroundbutduetoheatandpressuretheychangedtocoal.

· Coalisburnttogetthermalelectricity.· CrudeOil(petroleum)isrefinedthroughtheprocessoffractionaldistillation.· Theproductsafterrefiningcrudeoil(petroleum)are;Petrol,dieseland

kerosene.· Theseproductsareburnttoproduceheatandlight.

· Petrolanddieselareusedtorunengines.· Oilwasformedfrom animalsremainswhichburiedundergroundlongago

andwerechangedtocrudeoilduetoheatandpressure

Resourcesfrom livingthings.· Alivingthingisonewhichhaslife.· Livingthingsincludeplantsandanimals.· Mostoftheresourcesfrom livingthingsarerenewableresourcesoncethey

arelookedafterproperly.

Howareplantsusedasresources?· Someplantsgiveusnaturalplantfibreslikecotton,sisal,juteandlinen.· Cottonandlinenareusedtomakeclotheswhilesisalandjuteareusedto

makeropes.· Someplantsareusedasherbalmedicinetocurecertaindiseases.· Someplantsareeatenasfoodbymanandotheranimals.

Howareanimalsusedasresources?· Someanimalslikemerinosheepprovidewool,usedtomakeclothes,suits,

blankets,carpets,curtains,bedsheetsetc.· Silkwormsprovidesilkusedtomakedifferenttypesofcloths.· Somedomesticanimalsprovideskinsandhidesusedtomakebags,shoes,

belts,etc· Cattleprovidehornsandhoovesusedtomakeglue.· Beeshelptopollinatefarmerscrops,providehoneyandbeewax.· Someanimalslikeoxenanddonkeysprovidelabour.

Conservationofresources· Conservationistheprotectionandpropermanagementofresourcesinour

environment.· Bothrenewableandnon-renewableresourcesneedtobeconserved.· Resourceslikeforests,wildlife,water,soil,rocks,mineralsneedtobe

conserved.· Conservationofresourcesisdonetokeepthem doerfutureuse.

Conservingrenewableresourcesi) Conservingrenewableresources

· Wildlifereferstoanimalsandplantsinourenvironment.· Manykindsofanimalshavedisappearedfrom earthandtheyareextinct.· Otheranimalsareabouttodisappearandwesaytheyareendangered.· Animalsmaybecomeendangeredorextinctbecausetheyarekilledfortheir

skins,horns,tusks.· Someplantshavealsobecomeendangeredorextinctduetotheincreasing

demandforwoodandlocalmedicine.

Advantages(importance)ofconservingwildlife· Somemammals,plantsandbirdsareasourceoffoodforman.· Someanimalsandbirdsarevaluedasculturalheritagebysomecountries

andclans.· Plantsarehomesofmanyanimals,birdsandinsects.· Treesorforestshelpintheformationofrainfall.· Mammals,birdsandtreesspeciesearnforeignexchangeforthe

governmentthroughtourists.· Plantsimprovetheatmospherebybalancingtheamountofcarbondioxide

andnitrogen.· Plantsprovideshadetomanandotheranimals.

Howtoconserveandprotectwildlife.· AnimalsareprotectedbylawintheirhabitatthroughtheUgandaWildlife

Authority(UWA).· Ahabitatisanaturalenvironmentorhomeofaplantoranimal.· UgandawildlifeAuthorityisadepartmentwhichisresponsibleforwildlifein

Uganda.· Theanimalsarebeingtakencareofinnationalgameparksandgame

reserves.· Banningthesellingandbuyingofwildlifetrophieshelpstoreducetheir

beingkilled.· Fishescanbeconservedbycontrolledfishing.· Somerareanimalsshouldbecaughtandlettobreedinwildlifeeducational

centre.

Conservingnonrenewableresources· Soilerosionshouldbecontrolled.· Soilshouldbekeptfertilebyusingmanureandfertilizers.· PlasticwasteslikebrokenJerrycans,polythenepapersshouldberecycled.· Vehiclesindangerousmechanicalconditionsshouldberepairedtoconserve

fuel.· Petroleum productsshouldbeusedwiselytopreventfurtherexploitationof

oil.

Conservingthenaturalvegetation· Overgrazingshouldbediscouragedbecauseitcausessoilerosion.· Bushburningshouldberestrictedtocertainareas.· Overstockingisdangerousbecauseitleadstoovergrazing.· Thegovernmentshouldlimitpopulationgrowthbecausemorepeoplemeans

morelandtobedestroyedforhousingandagriculture.· Cattlefarmersshouldpracticerotationalgrazingwhichlatercausessoil

erosion.· Afforestationshouldbepracticed.· Swampsandwetlandsshouldbedeclaredrestrictedareas.

HARVESTINGRESOURCESThisisthecollectionofmaterialsfrom theenvironmentforthepurposeofusingthem

a)Harvestingnon— livingresources- Obtaining sandfrom dryriverbeds:scoopingitwithspades and

machinery- Miningsandfrom theground

Harvestingminerals- Bymining- Fossilfuelinglikeoil- Bydrilling

Harvestingenergyfrom thesunEnergyfrom thesunisknownassolarenergy

- Itcanbeharvestedinthefollowingways- Usesofsolarpanels- Useofsolarcookers- Useofsolardriers- Useofsolarheaters

NB:Solarpanelstrapsunlightandconvertitintosolarelectricity

Solarheaters + cookerstrapraysfrom thesunandchangesintoheatenergyHarvestingwaterWaysofharvestingwater

- Itcanbecollectedfrom roofsusingtanksandbigdrums- Rainwaterflowingonthegroundisdirectedintodams.- Watercanbedrawn from wellsandbroughttothesurfaceusingwind

lossandelectricpumps.

Harvestingenergyfrom air- Windcanbetrappedandusedtodrivewindmills- Itcanbetappedusingsailtodrivesailboat+dhows

HarvestinglivingresourcesPlantsresource

- Handpickingripecoffeeberries,cottonballs- Pluckingtealeavesfrom teaplants- Readymaizecobsareharvestedbyhands- Bycuttingsisalleaves

Harvestingwood- Bypollarding- Bycoppicing

- Bylopping- Byselectivefelling

PollardingItisthecuttingoffofthetoppartofatreeforuse.

Diagram

CoppicingItisthecuttingoffofthemainpartofthemainpartofthetreestem leavingthestumptogiverisetonewshoot.

Diagram

LoppingThisisthecuttingofthesidebranchforuseDiagram

Harvestinganimalresourcesa)MeatAnimalsareslaughtered,skinnedandmeatcutofffrom thecarcass.b)SkinsandhidesAnimalsareslaughteredandskinscarefullyremovedfrom thecarcass.c)HornsThe hornsarecutorsawn offwiththe sawfrom theheadoftheslaughteredanimalsd)Milkitisobtainedbymilkingusingeitherhandsormachinesd)Honey:itisextractedfrom honeycombs.

THEENVIRONMENTWhatis environment?Environmentreferstoallthingsthatsurroundman.Thesethingscanbeairwater

,plantstemperature,fuel,peoplebuildingetc.COMPONENTSOFENVIRONMENTTheenvironmentiscomposedofthefollowing

- Water- Land(soil)- Air(wind)- Plants

- Animals- Temperature- Mountains(hills)- Minerals- Sun

TYPESOFENVIRONMENTEnvironmentisdividedintotwotypes:-

Biologicalenvironment (Abiotic/nonphysicalenvironment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsiflivingthingsegplantsandanimals

Physicalenvironment (abiotic environment)Thisisthetypeofenvironmentwhichconsistsofnon— livingthingsegmountains,lakes,rivers,temperature,wind (air)vapour.

FOODCHAINAfoodchain isthewayhoworganismsinanenvironmentgettheirfood.Intheenvironment,plantsmaketheirownfoodandarecalledproducers.Theorganismswhichdependonfoodmadebyplants(producers) arecalledconsumersareconsumersConsumersaredividedintothefollowinggroups

PrimaryconsumersTheseareorganismswhichfeeddirectlyonproducerseggoats,cattle,rabbits,sheepetc

SecondaryconsumersTheseareorganism whichfeedonprimaryconsumersegfoxes,dogs,lions

TertiaryconsumersTertiaryconsumerswhichfeedonsecondaryconsumerseg.leopards, manbirdsofpreyetc.NB:Inafoodchain,organism likefungiandbacteriahelpinreducingfoodtoitscomponentparts(decay/rot)arecalleddecomposersThesunisthemainsourceofsunlightenergyinafoodchainfrom whichenergyflows tootherorganism intheenvironment

IllustrationofafoodchainProducer— primaryconsumer— secondaryconsumers— Tertiaryconsumers— plantsgrasshoopers— lizard— Hawks

AFOODWEB

Afoodwebisamorecomplicatedinterrelationshipofhoworganism inanenvironmentobtaintheirfood.Afoodwebinvolvesmanyorganism inanecosystem howtheygetfoodfrommanyotherlivingthingsIllustrationofafoodweb

EcosystemAnecosystem isthecommunityoflivingthings(organisms)inahabitatplusthenonlivingpartintheenvironment.

AhabitatAhabitatisahomeofalivingorganism intheenvironment

DEGRADATIONDegradationisthewayoflowering(spoiling)thequality,stabilityandusefulnessof aresource.

EnvironmentdegradationIstheloweringthequality,stabilityandusefulnessof resourcesintheenvironment

Typesofenvironmentdegradation- Soil/landdegradation- Degradation/deforestation- Wetlanddrainage- Air/atmosphericpollution- Waterpollution- Wildlifedestruction(degradation)

CausesofenvironmentaldegradationTherearetwomaincausesofenvironmentaldegradationa) Humanactivitiesb)Naturalcauses

HUMANACTIVITIESTHATCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATIONa)Mining/quarryingb)Constructionandroadworkc) Poorwastedisposald)Badagriculturalpracticesegbushburning,overgrazingetc

NATURALCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATION- Soil erosion/leaching- Silting- Hurricanes- Tornados

- Whirlwind/whilpools- Earthquakes- Hailstones- Landslides- Floods- Tsunamis- Volcaniceruptions- Globalwarning

a)Soil/landdegradationThisisthedestruction/loweringthequalityorusefulnessoflandbyhumanactivitiesornaturalcauses.

LeachingIsaprocessthroughwhichmineralsaltsornutrientssinkdeeperintothesoillayerswheretheycannotbereachedbyplantsItiscausedbytoomuch rain.

Soilerosion:Isthewashing/blowing awayoftopsoilbyagentsoferosion.

SiltingIstheprocessbywhichfinesand,mudorotherthingsarecarriedintothewaterbody.

Causesofsilting- Soilerosion- Cultivationnearwatersources- Allowinganimalstodrinkfrom waterbodies- Swampdrainage- Burning/destroyingvegetationintheswamp

Effectofsilting- Itdestroyshabitatforanimalsthatlive liveinwater- Lowerwaterleveland sodriesoutwaterbodies- Destroyssourceoffoodforfishandotheraquaticanimals- Killsfishofotheranimalsandplantsinwater- Destroyseggsoffishandotheraquaticanimals.

DeforestationDeforestationisalsocalleddevegetaioniecuttingdownlargenumberoftrees/plantwithoutreplacingthem.

Causesofdeforestation- Populationgrowthleadingtoneedforlandforsettlement,farmingand

recreation

- Industrialization(developmentof industriesinanarea)- Wildfires/bushburning- Clearingforestsforfirewood,charcoal,buildingpolestimberetc

Effectsofdeforestation- Itleadstoreductionofrainfallcausing drought/desertification- Lossofhabitatfordifferentplantsandanimalspecies- Soilerosionleavinginfertilesoils- Siltingofwaterbodies.

WetlandAwetlandisanyareawhichhaswaterandgrowingvegetationthroughouttheyear

Examplesofwetlands- Swamps- Marshes- Bogs- Lakesandrivers

Importanceofwetlands- Theyarehabitatstomanyplantandanimalsspeces- Theycontrolfloodsbysuckingthewater- Theyfiltermuddywaterbytrappingtheimpurities- Theyregulatetheclimatebyinfluencingthetemperatureandhumidity- Theyprovidewater- Theyprovidewaterfordomesticandindustrialuse.- Theyaresourcesoffoode.g.fish- Theyproviderawmaterialsforarlandcraftse.g.clay,papyrusetc- Theyaresourcesofbuildingmaterials

POLLUTIONPollutionistheadditionof harmful(dangerous)chemicalsintotheenvironmentPollutiontakesplacenaturallyorthroughhumanactivities.

CAUSESOFPOLLUTION- Wastegasesfrom industries- Industrialwaste/chemical- Exhaustfumesfrom vehicles- Oilspillsfrom shipsintheocean- Chemicalsprays- Nonbio-degradablewastesegpolythene,glassplasticsetc

- Smokefrom burningtyres,oilorbushes- Dust

TYPESOFPOLLUTIONa) Airpollution - causedbysmokeandfumes/poisonousgases.b)Soilpollution— causedbyagricultural sprays,industrialwaste,refuseetcc) Waterpollution -Bysilt,oilspills,refuse,humanwasteandindustrialwaste washedintoit.d)Noisepollution— Duetotoomanyvehiclesorindustriesintheenvironmentloudmusicetc

EFFECTSPOLLUTION- Poisoningofsoilandwaterbychemicalwastesdumpedonthem.- Deathanddisappearanceofbiodiversity(varietyofplantsandanimals

livingthings)- Outbreakofdiseaseintheenvironment- Lossofsoilfertilityleadingtopooryields- Formationofacidrainsduetogasesfrom industriesandvehiclesasthey

dissolveinrain.- Destructionofhabitatsformanyplantsandanimals- Lessproductionofplantssuchasfibers,timbersfruitsandother

constructionmaterialsCONTROLANDPREVENTIONOFPOLLUTIONINTHEENVIRONMENT

- Usesofalternativeenergysourceeg.biogas,naturalgas,solarenergy,windpower,hydroelectricity

- Ensureproperdisposalofdomesticsandindustrialwastes- Educatingpeopleaboutthedangersofpollution- Usinggoodmethodoffarming

RESPIRATORYSYSTEMWhatisrespiration?Respirationistheprocessbywhichthebodyusesfoodandoxygentoproduceenergy,carbondioxideandwatervapour.Respirationtakesplaceinbodycells.Theby-productsofrespirationare;

i) Carbondioxideii) Watervapour

BREATHINGBreathingisthetakinginandoutofair.Oritmeanstheconstantexchangeofgasesbetweenanorganism andthesurroundings.Therespiratoryorgansinmanarethelungs.

Therespiratorysystem

· Thisdealswiththeuseofoxygeninthebody.· Lungsaretherespiratoryorganssituatedineithersidesofthechestcavity.· Lungsarecoveredinamembranecalledpleuralmembrane.· Fluidthatlubricatesthelungsandribsandsoreducefriction.· LungsareprotectedbythepartofthebraincalledRibcage.· Theribsareheldinpositionbytheintercostalmuscles.· Inthelowersideofthelungsisadiaphragm thatseparatesthechestcavity

from theabdomen;

Thestructureofthelungs,partsandtheirfunctions.

Typesofbreathingi) Expiration(breathingout)exhalation.ii) Inspiration(breathingin)inhalation.

Functionsofpartsofthebreathingsystemi. Thenose

Itcontainsmucuswhich/thatwarmsandmoistensairbeforereachingthelungs.ItcontainshairlikestructurescalledCiliathattrapgermsanddirtthatmayenterthenose.

Whathappenstotheairinthenose?Airisfiltered(cleaned)warmedandmoistened.

Whathappenstotheairinthemouth?Nomucustomoistenandwarm air.Nociliatofilterairbytrappinggermsanddirt.

ii. Thetrachea(windpipe)Ithasanepiglottisthatprotectstheopeningofthetracheawhenswallowingfood.Epiglottispreventschoking.Airentersintolungswhichcontainsthevoicebox.Insidevoiceboxarevocalcordswhichhelpinproducingsound.Tracheacontainsringsofcartilagethatpreventsitfrom closingandpreventssuffocation.Theexchangeofgasestakeplaceintheairsacs.

iii. TheairsacsThisiswheretheexchangeofgasestakesplacebydiffusion.

AdaptationsofairsacstotheirfunctionTheyhavewallstoalldiffusiontakeplace.Theyaresurroundedbyanetworkofcapillarieswhichbringcarbondioxideandtakeoxygen.

Theyaremanyinnumber.

Thestructureofthevillus

Compositionofairbreathedinandout.Typeofair Inspiredair ExpiredairOxygen(O2) 21% 16%Carbondioxide(CO2) 0.03% 4%Nitrogen(N2) 79% 79%Watervapour Less More

Whathappensduringinspiration(inhalation)· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsincreases.· Diaphragm andintercostalsmusclescontracts.· Ribsmoveupwardsandoutwards.· Thelungsincreaseinvolume

Whathappensduringexpiration/exhalation?· Thevolumeofthechestandlungsdecreases.· Thediaphragm andintercostalsmusclesrelax.· Ribsmovedownwardsandinwards.· Thelungsdecreasesinvolume.

Diseasesthatattackthebreathing/respiratorysystem.Tuberculosis BronchitisInfluenza AsthmaDiphtheria PneumoniaEmphysema WhoopingCough

Habitsthatimprovetheworkingoftherespiratorysystem· Avoidingsmoking· Havingregularphysicalexercises.· Goodfeeding/nutrition· Eatfoodwithlowandfat· Keepawayfrom dustyplacesetc.

DisordersoftherespiratorysystemChokingHiccupSneezingetc

RESPIRATIONINRELATIONTOFOODANDOXYGEN- Respirationisthechemicalburningoffoodinthepresenceofoxygenin

ordertorelease(produce)energy- Waterandcarbondioxidearereleasedasbyproducts.- Respirationtakesplaceinthebodycells- Food + oxygen carbondioxide

+ water + energy (ATP)(Starch)

Types ofrespirationAerobicrespirationIsrespirationwhichusesoxygen.AnaerobicrespirationItisatypeofrespirationwhichtakesplaceinabsenceofoxygenandinwhichfoodsubstancesareonlypartlybrokendown.Itproduceslacticacidinanimalsandalcoholinparts.Itoccursinmusclesduringexercise.

SCIENCEPRIMARYSIXTERM III-2016

SCIENCEATHOMEANDCOMMUNITY

WATERWaterisacolourlessliquidsubstancemadeupofhydrogenandoxygengases.Thesegasesareintheratioof2:1(H2O)

Sourcesofwater· Rainwater· Artesianwells· Hotsprings· Streams,lakes,rivers,swamps,ponds,oceans,andseas.

Propertiesofpurewater· Itiscolourless· Itiswithoutsuspendedmatterlikegerms.· Ithasnosmell· Purewateristasteless· Purewaterboilsat100oC(212oF)andfreezesat0oC(32oF)atsealevel.· Purewaterformslather(foam)veryeasily)withsoap.

Usesofwatertothebody· Watermakesuppartofbloodasplasma· Helpstodissolvethedigestedfoodforeasyabsorptioninthebody.· Maintainstheshapeofbodycells.· Coolsthebodyinform ofsweatwhenitevaporates.· Helpsinformationofbodyfluidssuchastears,saliva,urine,sweatetc.

Otherusesofwater· Fordomesticusee.g.cooking,washingetc· Fordrinkingbyman,mammals,andbirds· Forirrigationinagriculture· Usedinindustriesforcooling,washingmachinesandrawmaterials.· Usedtogeneratehydro-electricity· Usedbyplantsforphotosynthesis

Preparationofsafewaterfordrinkingi. BoilingWhenwaterisheated,itboils,toatemperatureof100oC(212oF)thistemperaturekillsgerms.

ii. FilteringThisistheprocessbywhichacleanorsterilizedpieceofclothorlocalwaterfilter.

Examplesofsolidimpuritiesfilteredaredirt,soil,stones,leaves,animalswastesetc.

NB:Filteredwaterisnotsafefordrinkingbecauseitmaybecontainingsomegerms.

iii. TreatmentofwaterTreatmentofwateriswhenchemicalsareaddedtokillgermsinit.Examplesofchemicalsusedtotreatwaterare;chlorine,waterguardandaquasafe.

AdvantagesofchemicalsusedinwatertreatmentThechemicalskillgermsinwater

Disadvantagesofusingchemicals· Theyareexpensive· Theydonotmakewaterclear· Theyaddsomesmellandtastetowater.

DECANTINGDecantingisamethodofremovinglargeparticlesofobjectsfrom water.

Decantingisdonebypouringwaterslowlyfrom onecontainertoanothersothatheavilyparticlesareleftbehind.Inthismethod,thethreepotsystem isusedtopurifythewater.

WATERIMPURITIESImpuritiesarecontaminantsorforeignobjectsinwater.Waterimpuritiesmakeitunsafeforuse.Impuritiesmaybesolubleorinsolubleorganic.

InorganicimpuritiesItconsistsofdissolvedmineralsaltswhichmakewaterunsafetouse.

OrganicimpuritiesTheseincludebacteria,fungiandprotozoaothersmaybedeadplantmaterialssuchasleavesandgrass.Examplesofwaterimpurities

- Humanwastes- Animalwasteslikeurine,dung- Herbicides- Insecticides- Siltfrom erosion

CLEANINGCLOTHESATHOMEOnemainuseofwaterathomeistowashclothes.ThisalsocalledlaundryStepusedincleaningclothesathomeSorting

- Itinvolvesselectingandputtingclothestogetheraccordingtocolour,intensityofdirt,natureofthefabric,useofclothesetc.

SoakingItistheputtingclothesinsoapywaterforsometime.Importanceofsoakingclothes

- Ithelpstoloosendirtanddissolvestains- Itsavestimeduringwashingasitalittleefforttoremoveit.- Itsavesagainsttearandwearduetoconstantrubbingwhilewashings.

WashingItistheremovalofdirtusingwateranddetergentRinsingClothesareputincleanwater.Ithelpstoremoveallsoapywaterfrom theclothes.WringingItinvolvessqueezingexcesswateroutoftheclothesNOTE:Woolenclothesshouldbedriedwithoutwringingbecauseitmayloosenthefabricandmakesthem tolosetheirshape.

DryingSomeclothescanbedriedoutcompletelyunderthesun.IroningIthelpstoremovecreasesfrom thewashedclothesandbringthem totheir

originalform

ACCIDENTSANDFIRSTAIDWhatisanaccident?Anaccidentisasuddenhappeningthatcauseharm tothebody.Accidentscantakeplaceanywhere.Theymayhappenathome,school,placeofwork,wherewegoforprayers,onthepitchetc.

FirstaidThisisthefirsthelpgiventoacasualitybeforehe/sheistakentohospital.acasualityisapersonwhohasgotanaccident.

BurnsThesearebodyinjuriescausedbyheat.

Typesofburns1.Burns2.Scalds

BurnsandscaldsBurnsareinjuriescausedbydryheat.

Causesofburnsa.Hotmetalsb.Hotflatironc.Acidsd.Glowingcharcoale.Hotcharcoalstovef. Fire

DegreeofburnsBurnsandscaldsaredescribedusingtheworddegreetotellhowseveretheyare;Therearethreetypesofdegreesofburns.Theseare;

a)Firstdegreeburnsb)Seconddegreeburnsc)Thirddegreeburns

FirstdegreeburnsTheseareminorburnswhichdonotform blisters.Ablisterisaraisedskinwithaliquidunderneath.TheskinistenderforseveraldaysTheskinisunbroken.

FirstaidPuttheburntareaincoolwaterimmediatelyaftertheaccident.

Why?Toreducethetemperatureoftheburntpart.N.B;Firstdegreeburnsneednodressing.

SeconddegreeburnsTheseareburnswhichform blisters.Theyareseverethanfirstdegreeburns.

Signsof seconddegreeburnsa)Blisterareformedb)Unbrokenblisters

FIRSTAIDIftheblisterisbroken,washtheareawithcleanwaterandsoap.Covertheskinwithabandageorcleancloth.

NB;Itisnotgoodtobreaktheblisterbecauseitmayleadtoinfectionofthewoundbygerms.Fats,oil,coffee,herbsordungshouldneverbeputontheburnbecausetheycancauseinfection.

Sugarshouldnotbeputontheburnbecauseitattractshouseflieswhichbringgermstothewound.Thevictim oftheseconddegreeburnsshouldbegivenplentyoffluidstodrink.

ThirddegreeburnsThereareburnswhichcausedeepburningoftheskin.Theskinisburntdeeplyanditappearsshinnywhite.a)Theskinisburntdeeply

FIRSTAIDPuttheburnareasincoolwater.Encouragethecasualitytodrinkalotoffluids.NB:Patientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsshouldbegivenalotoffluidstodrink.

Why?Theylosealotoffluidsthroughtheburntskinbyevaporation

Preventionofburnsandscalds· Useheatinsulatorstohandlehotobjects.· Cookingfrom raisedplaces· Keeppetroleum productsoutofreachofchildren.· Donotallowyoungchildrentocook.· Refilllanternsorlampsafterputtingthem off.· Teachchildrenthedangersofburns· Tellchildrentoplayawayfrom fireplaces.

FeverandconvulsionsFeveristheconditionofthebodywhenitstemperaturegoesbeyondthenormal.Thenormalbodytemperatureis37oCor98.4oF.Feverisnotanillnessbutasymptom ofmanyillnessessuchasmalaria,typhoid,measles,etc

EffectoffeverItcanleadtoconvulsions

ConvulsionsTheseareuncontrollablejerkymovementsofthebody.Convulsionscanbestoppedifthediseasecausingthem istreated.

Firstaidforconvulsions· Removealltightclothesfrom thebodyofthevictim.· Putanobjectinthemouthofthevictim tostophim from bitingthetongue.· Givethevictim plentyofcolddrinksafterrecovery.· Takethepatienttohospital

FirstaidforfeverCarryouttepidsponging(coldcompress).Awetclothisputontheforeheadorchestofavictim.CautionDonotuseverycoldwaterbecauseitleadstoconvulsions.

FaintingItisthelossofconsciousnessforashorttime

MaincauseoffaintingReducedsupplyofbloodrichinoxygenandfoodtothebrain.

Conditionsthatcanleadtofainting· Anxiety· Heavybodyexercises· Extremesorrow(sadnews)

fear

· Prolongedhunger

FIRSTAID· Putthevictim inopenair.· Removetightclothingsaroundtheneckandchesttoenablethevictim get

enoughoxygen.· Raisethelegsofthevictim higherthanthehead.

Why?Toallowbloodflowfastertothebrain.Dontallowthevictim tobeovercrowded

DROWNINGThismeansdyingasaresultofhavinglungsfilledwater.Drowninghasnofirstaidsincethevictim dies.

NeardrowningItistemporarylossofbreathduetohavingoneslungsfilledwithwater.Apersonwhohasnearlydrownedhasonlyfourminutestolivethereforeafirstaidermustbeveryfasttosavehislife.

FirstAidRemovethevictim quicklyfrom waterShoutforhelpLiethepersononhisback.Carryoutmouthtomouthbreathing(kissoflife)

Howtocarryoutmouthtomouthrespiration· Makethevictim tolieonhisback· Tilttheheadbackwardsandkeephismouthopened· Removeanyobjectstuckinthemouth· Pressthevictimsnostrilswithyourfingerstoclosethem· Putyourmouthdirectlyintothemouthsothatthechestrises.· Stopabittolettheairoutandblowagain· Repeatthismanytimes(about15timesinaminute)· Continuethestepsuntilthevictim canbreatheagainbyhimself.· Placetheheelsofyourhandsbetweenthenavelandtheribsofthevictim· Makeaquickstrongpushforwardintotheribcage.

Howtopreventneardrowning· Acquireswimmingskills· Alwaysemptybathtubs· Coveringallseptictanks· Puttingonalifejacketwhentravelingonwater.· Fencingpitsthatbuildersusedtotrapwater

· Donotallowchildrentogonearwatersourceswithoutadults· Donotallowbabiestoplayinbasinsfullofwater.

Commondrowningplaces· Swimmingpool· Ponds· Streams· Lakes· Wells· Seasandoceans· Bathtubs

NosebleedingThisistheflowofbloodfrom thenose.

Causes· Overinhalationofdryair· Overblowingoronesnosewithcold· Takingfoodsonesbodyisallergicto.· Takingmedicationsforalongtime(aspirin,garlic,ginger)· Overinhalationofdryairdriesthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandtheybreak.· Overblowingthenoseoverstrainsthebloodvesselsinthenostrilsandthey

break.· Takingaspirin,garlic,andgingerpreventsnormalbloodclottingandinstead

thintheblood.

FirstAid· Letthecausalitysitandbendforward.· Squeeze theuppersideofthenostrils.· Encouragethecausalitytobreathethroughthemouthtopreventover

strainingthebloodvessels.· Keeptheheadofthevictim higherthantheleveloftheheart.· Puttheicewrappedinatowelonthenoseandcheck

Why?Tomaketheliningofbloodvesselsinthenostrilsmoist.NB:donotmakethecausalitytoleanbackbecauseitallowsbloodtoflowbacktothethroatwhichmaycausevomitingorirritation.

Prevention· Keepingthenostrilsmoist· Takingcitrusfruitssuchasorangesandlemonstostrengthentheliningof

bloodvessels.· Takingfoodsoneisnotallergicto.

ForeignbodiesAforeignbodyisanyunwantedmatterthatentersthebody.Aforeignbodymayenterthebodythroughthe;

· Nose· Mouth· Anus· Eye· Ears· Vagina

ExamplesofforeignbodiesInsectsSmallstonesSeeds(coffee,berries,beans,g.nuts)DirtyordustSoil

ForeignbodyintheeyeObjectsthatenterintheeyeinclude;dust,smallinsects,soil.

FirstAidWashtheeyewithplentyofcleanwater.Usethecornerofasoftpieceofclothtoremovetheforeignbody.Takethevictim totheoculist.

ForeignbodyintheearExamplesSmallinsectsSmallseedsSmallstones

FirstAid· Makethevictim sitandbendtheheadtooneside.· Ifitisaninsect,pourcleanwaterintheearfortheinsecttofloatandcome

out.· Flashlightattheentranceoftheeariftheforeignbodyisaninsect.· Takethevictim tothehospital

ForeignbodyinthenoseForeignbodiesinthenoseinclude;

· Smallinsects· Smallseeds· Smallstones

FirstAidTellthevictim toblowhisnosehardandfast.

Takethecasualitytothehealthworker.

ForeignbodyinthethroatForeignbodyinthethroataremainlylargepiecesoffoodorsmallbone.Foreignbodyinthethroatleadtochokinganddeath.

Firstaid· Givethevictim anumberofsharpblowsintheback· Wrapyourarmsaroundhiswaistandpressthebellyupwardsstrongly.· Ifthevictim isunconscious,liehim onhisbackandmakeseveralsudden

pushesonthebellyusingheelsofyourhands.· Itthepersondoesnotbreathe,trymouthtomouthbreathing.· Takethevictim tohospital· Ifthevictim issmallerthanyou,turnhim overyourfoldedlegandgivesharp

blowsattheback.

Preventingaccidentscausedbyforeignbodies· Chewfoodproperly· Donottalkorlaughwheneating· Keepbeads,button,coins,andseedsoutofreachofchildren· Puttingonglasseswhilemovingonmotorcyclesandbicycles· Teachchildrennottoputseeds,coins,stones,andsoilintheireyes,nose,

ears,andmouth.

PoisoningPoisonisanysubstanceoncetakenintothebodydamagesbodyorgansorcausesdeath.

Wayspoisoncanbeintroducedintothebody· Throughfood· Throughair· Throughanimalbites(snakes,rapiddogs)· Throughinjections· Throughswallowing(orally)

CommonhouseholdpoisonsParaffin herbicidesRootpoison JikPetrol InsecticidesWormcides DieselAcaricides Drugs(Aspirin/chloriqune)

Signsofpoisoning· Rapidbreathing· Feverandsweating

· Feelingthirsty· Mentalconfusion· Comma· Vomiting· Lossofbalance

FirstAidGivethecasualityalotoffluids(freshmilk).

Why?TodilutepoisoninthestomachMakethepersonvomitincaseitsnon-corrosivepoison.

Howtomakethepersontovomit· Placingthefingerinthemouthorthroat.· Givethevictim watermixedwithsoap· Rushthevictim tothehospital

NB:Ifthecausalityhastakenparaffin,petrol,orbleach(Jik),donotmakehimvomit.

Why?Itcausesmoredamagetothestomachandgullet.

Preventingpoisoning· Keeppetrol,paraffinoutofreachofchildren· Keepdrugsoutofreachofchildren· Followthedoctorsprescription· Buydrugsfrom recommendedpharmacies· Disposeexpireddrugs.· Avoiddrugsmisuse

TheABCtechniquefollowedbeforegivingfirstAIDA-AirwayB-BreathingC-Circulation

TOPICALQUESTIONS1.Mentionthemainreasonforgivingfirstaid2.Distinguishburnsandscald.3.Howisthecauseofburnssimilartothatofscalds?4.Whyshouldaburnthandofavictim bedippedincoolrunningwater?5.Whyisitnotadvisabletobreakblistersontheskin?6.Howdoheatinsulatorspreventburnsandscalds?

7.Definefever.8.Listdownthemaineffectoffever.9.Explainthefirstaidyoucangiveapersonwhohasfever.10.Howwouldyouhelpapersonwhohasconvulsion?11.Whatisfainting?12.Statethemaincauseoffainting?13.Howdoesdrowningdifferfrom neardrowning?14.Whyshouldpatientsofsecondandthirddegreeburnsbegivenalotofdrinks?

15.Giveonedifferencebetweenfirstdegreeburnsandthirddegreeburns.16.Whyisitnotgoodtomakethevictim whoisnosebleedingtofaceup.17.Howdoesaforeignbodyinthethroatcausechoking?18.Whywouldyougiveplentyofdrinkstoapersonwhohastakenpoison?19.Whyisitdangeroustomakeapersonwhohasdrunkparaffintovomit?20.Mentiononewayofpreventingpoisoningathome.

SANITATIONDefinition:Sanitationisthegeneralcleanlinessofaplacewherewelive.

Waysofmaintainingsanitation· Constructionoflatrinesortoiletsforproperdisposalofwastes.· Diggingrubbishpitsandprovidingdustbinsforproperdisposalofhousehold

refuse.· Slashingbushesaroundthehomes.· Drainingawayallstagnantwatertodenymosquitoesbreedingandprotecting

watersources.

ConstructingalatrineortoiletAlatrineispitduginthegroundwherehumanexcretaisdeposited.

UsesoflatrinesTheykeepfaecesandurinewherevectorscannotbringthem toourfood.

Typesoflatrinesi) Pitlatrineii) Toiletsiii) Potties

PitLatrinesQualitiesofawellbuiltlatrine· Itshouldbe5to7metresdeep· Thefloorshouldbestrongenoughtostandonandsmoothtosweepand

clean.· Itshouldhaveaholebigenoughtoallowfaecesandurinetopassandsmall

enoughtopreventchildrenfrom fallinginside.

· Itshouldhavespiralwallsanddoorstoprovideprivacytotheuser.· Itshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.NB:Coveringcontrolsbadsmelland themovementoffliesiscontrolled.· Itshouldbeconstructed10metresawayfrom themainhouseand30metres

from thewatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltbelowthewatertableorsourcetoavoidcontamination.

Siteofapitlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresfrom alivinghousetopreventfliesfrom

carryinggermsontofood.· Itshouldbeatleast30metresawayfrom awatersource(watertable)to

preventfeacesandurineseepingintowatersourceandcontaminateit.· Itsinkingrainyseasons· Shouldnotbebuiltabovethewatertabletopreventthefeacesandurine

goingintoandcontaminate.

TypesofPitlatrinei) Ordinarypitlatrineii) VIPlatrines

OrdinarypitlatrineItiscommoninvillagesItshouldhavealidtocoverthehole.

TheVIPlatrineItisaspecialtypeofalatrinewithaventpipetotakeoutsmellandascreenontoptotrapflies.

ImportantfeaturesofaVIPlatrine· Ventpipe:itletsoutbadsmell.· Screenontop:trapsflies· Spiralshapedwallsnodoorsforfreecirculationofair.· Ithasnolidtoletinair

HowtoconstructaVIPlatrine· Itshouldbeatleast10metresawayfrom anyschool,house,kitchen,and

otherbuildings· Itshouldbe30metresawayfrom anywatersource.· Itshouldbebuiltonsolidgroundandnotinvalleysorswamps.· Digapitofabout5-10metresdeepCoverthepitinanyofthefollowingways;i.Usestrongpolesofhardtimbersii.Metalbarsiii.Buildahouseontopofthepitfixanetorscreenontopoftheventpipe.

Placethepipeinitshole.

HowtomaintainaVIPlatrine· Thefloorshouldbesweptorwashedifitscemented.· Washorremoveanyfeaces,insects,cobwebsanddustfrom wallsand

cornersoftheroof· Trim grassandbushesaroundthelatrine· Whileusingalatrine,makesurethatthefeacesgodirectlyintothehole.· Cleanwithanysofttissueorleaves· Washyourhandswithsoapafterusingthelatrine.

Toilets(waterclosetsystem)Thisisabowlshapeddeviceusedfordisposinghumanwaste,whichisflushedawaythebowlbywaterfrom atank(cistern).

ComponentsofaflushtoiletsystemPartsinclude;i. Atankthatstoreswaterforflushingii.Aseatwithacoverforsitting.iii.Apipethattakeswaterfrom thetanktothebowlandanotherthattakesitto

septictank.iv.Aseptictank,anundergroundstorageholeforhumanwasteandwastewater

from kitchenandbathroom (i.e.Sewage)Thewastematerialsintheseptictanksarecalledsewage.Sewagefrom septictanksmaybecarriedawaybypipes(sewers)for

treatmenttomakeitlessharmful.Wherethereisnopipesystem,itiscarriedusingvehiclescalledcesspool

emptiers.InUganda,collectionandtreatmentofsewagefrom homesandinstitutionsis

donebyNationalwaterandsewagecorporation(NSWSC).v.Theleveriseitherpulledorpushedtopreleasewaterduringflushing.Flushtoiletsarecommonlyusedincities,townsandotherplaceswherethereis

pipedwater.

Advantages· Canbeputinsidethehouseandvehicles· Theyareeasytoclean· Theyareuserfriendly,evenyoungchildrencanusethem.

Disadvantages· Theyareveryexpensive· Theyrequirealotofwatertofunction· Theyareonlyusedwherethereispipedwater.· Theycaneasilygetblockedifhardobjectsareputinit.

Howtomaintainflushtoilets

· Keeptheseatclean,donotsteporurinateinthem.· Flushtoiletsafteruse.· Useonlysofttissueortoiletpaperaftercleaningyourself.· Donotusethetoiletwhenitisblocked.

THEREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMGrowthisanincreaseinsizee.g.changesfrom larvatoadult.Developmentreferstogrowinggraduallyandbecomingmoremature.

ReproductionThisistheprocessbywhichalllivingthingsmultiplyandincreaseinnumber(becomemany)i.e.giverisetonewoff-springs(youngones)tocontinueagenerationofthespecies.

TypesofreproductionTherearetwotypesofreproduction

i) Asexualreproductionii) Sexualreproduction

ASexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwherenoreproductivecells(gametes)areusedtoproduceyoungones.

ExamplesofasexualreproductionVegetationpropagationinplantse.g.budding,grafting,layering,marcoting,stemcutting,sulkers,bulbscrown,slips,leaves,androotcutting,celldivision,binaryfissioninsinglecelledanimalse.g.Amoeba,bacteria,paramecium.

SexualreproductionThisisthetypeofreproductionwhichinvolvesjoining(fusing)ortworeproductivecells,maleandfemalegametes.Theunion/fissionofamalefemalegametesiscalledfertilization.Thenucleiofthetwocellsuniteandform aZygotedevelopsintoanewindividualorfoetus.Inanimals,themalereproductivecells(gametes)arecalledspermsandareproducedbythereproductiveorganscalledtestes.ThefemalereproductivecellsarecalledOvaandareproducedbytheovaries.

HermaphroditesTheseareanimalsthatcontain(have)bothmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans(TestesandOvaries)onthemselves.E.g.earthwormsandsnails.

TypesoffertilizationTherearetwotypesoffertilization

i) Externalfertilization

ii) Internalfertilization

ExternalfertilizationThisiswherethefemalelayseggsandthemalepoursspermsonthem outsidethemothersbodytofertilizethem e.g.fishandamphibians.

InternalfertilizationThisiswheneggsarefertilizedinsidethemothersbodyaftermating.

HumansexualreproductionDiagram showingthecrosssectionofthefemalereproductiveorgans(system)

ThefemalereproductiveorgansandtheirfunctionsTheOvary:therearetwoovaries.Oneontheleftandanotherontheright.Ovariesproduceova(ovum)thefemalereproductivecells.Oviduct(fallopiantube):itisthetubedowntheuterus(womb)from theovary.Itisthepassageforanovum totheuterus.Thisiswherefertilizationtakesplace.Uterus(womb):itisabaglikestructureinsidewhichthefoetusorZygotegrowsfrom.Cervix:Thisisaringofmusclewhichhelpstoclosethelowerendoftheuterustothevaginatherebyprotectingit/foetusfrom externaldamage.

Thestructureofgametesi) Femalegamete(anOvum)ii) Malegamete(sperm)

Thestructureofmalereproductiveorgan

FunctionsofpartsofthemalereproductiveorganScrotum:itisasacorbagthatenclosesandprotectsthetestes.Testes:theseareglandsthatproducethemaleseminalfluidscontainingsperms;Theylieoutsidetheabdominalcavitytomakethem havelowertemperaturethanthenormalbodytemperatureformaximum productionofsperm;Theystartproducingsperm cellsduringadolescencefrom age11-16yearsEpididymis:itisalongcoiledtubewhichstoresandthencarriessperms.Sperm duct:Itisanextensionoftheepididymisanddeliversthespermstotheurethrawherethey passandgoout.Prostrategland:produceafluid(seminalfluid)whichhelpstoneutralize(make

harmless/theacidinurineintheurethra.Italsokillgermswhichareinsperms.Seminalvesicles:itstoresexcesssperms.Erectiletissue(penis):itisaspongytissuewhichwhenfilledwithblooditerects(stands)toejaculatesperms.

OvulationThisiswhenmatureovaarereleasedfrom theovary.Anovaryreleasesanovum everymonthi.e.thereleaseofovaisdonealternately.

MenstruationThisistheperiodicreleaseofbloodfrom uterusasaresultofraptureoftheuteruswallswhenfertilizationhastakenplaceThishelpstowashandcleantheuterusinpreparationtoreceiveafoetus.NB:Thefirstmenstruationcalledmenarebestartsingirlsbetweentheageof9-15years.Thelastmenstruationperiodendataround45yearsandiscalledmenopauseNormalmenstruationtakes3-4days.Ittakesplaceafterevery28daysifallconditionsarenormal.Itmaybeinterruptedbyconception,strongfever,oranyabnormalitiesinthebody.

Careduringmenstruation· Topreventinfectionandavoidgerms,diseases,onemustbeclean.· Usesanitarymaterialssuchastampax, tampons,always,cotton.· Visithealthworkersincaseabnormalitiesarenoted.

Fertilization· Fertilizationtakesplaceintheoviduct/fallopiantube.· Immediatelyafterfertilization,thezygotemovestotheuterus.· Thezygoteattachesitselfontotheplacentawiththehelpofanumbilical

cord,thisprocessiscalledimplantation.· Theplacentasuppliestheembryowithfoodnutrientsandoxygenatthesame

timeitremoveswasteproducts.· Theumbilicalcordtransportsfoodtothefoetusandwasteproductsfrom the

foetustotheplacentatobecarriedawaybyblood.· Theperiodofpregnancyfrom conceptiontobirthiscalledgestationperiod

andlastsfor9monthsinhumans.· Developmentofthefoetustakesplaceintheuterus.· Theammoticfluidactasshockabsorberandprotectthefoetus.· Theamnion/amnioticmembraneprotectsthebodyandhadthefluids.

Thestagesofdevelopmentare;Fertilization - Zygote - Foetus -babyDiagram showingdevelopmentofthefoetusinuterusSexdetermination

Sexofachildisdeterminedbychromosomesfoundonthegametes/sexcells,thereareXandYchromosomesXXchromosomesareforgirlsandXYforboys.SpermscarryXXandXYchromosomes

Signsofpregnancy(goodandBad)· Morningsickness· Vomitingandnausea· Swollenlegs· Generalbodyweakness· Swollenbelly· Frequenturination· Fasterbreathing

Requirementsofanexpectantmother(pregnantmother)· Gooddiet(balanceddiet)forpropergrowthofthebaby.· Shouldavoidtakingdrugsliketobaccoandalcohol.· Shouldvisitantenatalclinicformedicalcheckupandadvice.· Shouldrakevaccineagainsttetanus(texonustoxed)· Enoughrestandsleep.· Wearmaternitydressestohavecomfort· Perform lightphysicalexercises

BIRTHANDLABOURAfterninemonthsofpregnancy,themotherwillgointolabourandproduceachild.Thisiscalledgivingbirthorparturition(childbirth).Labourreferstotheeffortofchildbirthshownbycontractionsoftheuterus.

Whatmakesababyafterbirthcry?Itisduetosuddenchangeintemperature(environmentchange).Cryinghelpstostartthenormalfunctioningofthelungsi.e.breathingstartsatbirth.NB:incaseababyfailstocry/breatheartificialbreathingshouldbedoneimmediately.Singlechildbirth:thisiswhenonechildisnormallyborntomother.Multiplebirth:thisiswhentwoormorebabiesarebornatthesametime.Twin:whentwobabiesarebornatthesametimebythemother.

TwinsIdenticaltwinsThisiswhenonefertilizedovum dividesnormallyandgrowsintotwoseparatebabies.IdenticaltwinsareusuallysamesexAlltheirphysicalaspectsarethesame.

Siamesetwins

Thesearetwinswhosebodyremainedjoined/fusedatonepoint.

FraternaltwinsThisiswhentwoovaarereleasedandfertilizedandthendevelopintotwinsfraternaltwinsarenotalwaysthesamesex.

MultiplebirthIftherearethreeormoreovareleasedandfertilizeditresultsintomultiplebirth.

ExamplesofmultiplebirthsTriplets:ThreechildrenarebornQuadruplets:Fourchildrenareborn.

BirthControlContraceptionThisisamethodofavoidinggettingmanychildrenyoucannotcareforproperlyi.e.havingthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhenyouwantthem.

FamilyplanningThisistheuseofbirthcontrolmethodstogetthenumberofchildrenyouwantandwhentohavethem infamily.

ChildspacingThisistheprovisionofenoughtimebetweenthebirthofthedifferentchildreninfamily.

Functionsoffamilyplanningassociation· Iteducatespeopleaboutchildspacing· Educatespeopleaboutqualityoflifewhenchildrenarefew· Providespeoplewithfamilyplanningcontraceptives.

Reasonswhypeoplehavemanychildren· Ignoranceoffamilyplanningmethods.· Highinfantmortalityrare· Traditionalpracticesandvalues(customs)· Prestigeorfameandsecurity.

ProblemsofhavingmanychildrenIfafamilyhastoomanychildren,therewillbe;

· Inadequatefinancialresources.· Lackofenoughfoodforthechildren· Pooreducationforchildren· Lackofpropermedicalcare· Highinfantmortalityrare

· Motherssicknessasaresultofhavingtoomanychildrene.g.miscarriage,maternalanemia,fatigue,lowbirthetc.

Howtoavoidinfantmortalityrate(death)· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases.· Participatinginhealthcareservicese.g.healtheducation· Practicefamilyplanning.

Advantagesoffamilyplanning· Immunizationagainstinfantkillerdiseases· Itreducesriskofseriousdiseaseandmaternaldeath.· Itreducescasesofabortion/miscarriages· Itimprovesthehealthandwellbeingofthefamily.· Controlspopulationgrowth.

MethodsofbirthcontrolTherearetwomethodsusedforbirthcontrolnamely;

i) NaturalMethodsii) Artificialmethods

Naturalmethods· Abstainingfrom sex· Withdrawal/pullingoutbeforereleasingspermsduringsex· Bedseparationbycouples· Prolongedbreastfeeding· Themucusmethod(testingJell)· Usingcalendarormoonbeads.

Artificialmethods· Useofcondoms· Useofcontraceptivepills· Birthcontrolinjectionse.g.injectaplan,· Intrauterinedevicese.g.coils,spirals,diaphragm.· Useofjelliesandfoams· Sterilizationbyvasectomyinmenandtubeligation· Usingnorplant

MYTHSANDMISCONCEPTIONABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIONHEALTH

- Amyth isatraditionalbeliefthatisnottrue- Misconceptionsarefalseideasorbeliefs

Mythsandmisconceptions TruthFamilyplanningcontraceptivemakewomenpermanentlybarren

Whenawomanfeelssheshouldbecomepregnant,shejuststopsusingthecontraceptivesandbecomepregnantagain

Familyplanningincreasesteenagepregnancy Instead teenagersareprotectedagainstunwantedpregnanciesandSTDs /STIs

Useofcontraceptivecauseshighbloodpressureandkillswomenduringbirth

Oncethewomenuse therightdrugsasadvisedbythetrainedworker.Complicationsarereduced

Useofcontraceptiveleadstoproducingbabieswithabnormalitiessuchashavingoneeye,earbeingblindorlame

Thisisnottrue

Familyplanningisagainsttheteachingofthechurch Atleastthechurchsupportsthenaturalfamilyplanningmethod.

Contraceptivesmakewomentoloosehairontheheadandgrowbeards

Thereisnoscientificproofaboutthis

ChangesduringadolescenceandpubertyAdolescenceAdolescenceisaperiodofdevelopmentchangesbetweenchildhoodandadulthood.Apersonatthisstageiscalledanadolescent.

PubertyThisistheperiodofphysicalmentalandsexualmaturityi.e.whenbecomesayoungadultcapableofproducing.Changesinadolescentsatpubertyarecalledsexcharacteristics

Therearethreetypesnamely;i) Primarysexcharacteristicsii) Secondarysexcharacteristicsiii) Emotional/psychologicalsexcharacteristics

Primarysexeducation(Basic)Thisinvolvesthedevelopmentofsexualorgansforreproduction.

PrimarysexcharacteristicsinboysPenisandtesticlesenlarge(increaseinsize)Thetesticlesstartproducingsperms(boysbeginexperiencingwetdreams.Internalorgansbeginproducingfluidlikesemen.

PrimarysexcharacteristicsingirlsThickeningofuteruswallsMenstruationbeginsOvariesdevelopandstartreleasingeggs(ovulationstarts)

Secondarysexcharacteristics(physical)Theseinvolvethephysicaldevelopmentofthebodyparts.

Secondarysexcharacteristicsinboys

· Voicebreaksanddeepens· Hairgrowsondifferentpartsofthebodye.g.penis,armpits,chest,aroundthe

mouthandanus.· Bonesandmusclesenlargei.e.aboybecomesmuscular.· Sweatglandsbecomemoreactive.

Secondarysexcharacteristicsingirls· Breastsenlargeandlookstenderandattractive· Sweatglandsbecomeactivemakingthefacelooksmooth· Thehip(pelvis)enlargeandagirlputsonalotofweight.

AIDSTheterm AIDSstandsfor;AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromesAcquiredmeansgotfrom outsidethebodyImmunemeansprotectedagainstorsafefrom disease,thebodyisalwaysprotectedbywhitebloodcells.DeficiencymeanslackorshortageorAIDSvirusdestroyswhitebloodcellsandthebodyhasshortageorshem.Syndromesmeanacollectionorgroupofdiseasesandsignswhichshowthepresenceofadisease.AIDSisapatternofdiseasesymptomswhichattachanddestroywhitebloodcellsleavingthebodyunprotectedagainstinfections.

CausesofAIDSAIDSiscausedbyaviruscalledHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus)commonlycalledAIDSvirus.

TransmissionofAIDSvirus· AIDSviruscanonlysurviveinthehumanbody.· Thediseasecanbespreadwhenbodyfluidsofaninfectedpersongetinto

contactwith thatofthehealthyperson.· Bodyfluidscanbeexchangedinthefollowingways;· Sexualcontactswithaninfectedperson.· Bloodtransfusionfrom aninfectedperson.· Sharingorusingsharpcuttinginstruments· From aninfectedpregnantmothertohernewlybornbabyatbirth.· From themothertothebabythroughbreastfeeding.

AIDSviruscannotspreadby;· Normalshakingofhands· Bitesfrom mosquitoesandbedbugs· CaringforAIDSpatients· Sharingcutleryandcookingutensils

· HuggingorembracingAIDSpatients· Cleaning,washingbeddingsandclothingofpeoplewithHIV/AIDSSignsandsymptomsofHIV/AIDSSigns· ThemajorsignsofAIDSare;· HerpeszosterlocallycalledKisipiwhichinflamestheskinmakingitappear

asscalded.· Chronicdiarrhoeawhichmaylastformorethanaweek· Suddenlossofabout10%ofthenormalbodyweight.· SkincancerwhichisalsocalledKaposisscarcomer,itcausesitchingand

leadstoscratchingthatleavesblackspots.· Swollenlymphglandsespeciallythoseoftheneckandarmpits· Oralthrushwherebythetongue,gums,lips,andinsideofthemouthplusthe

alimentarycanal· Chroniccoughwhichlastslong.

Symptoms· Tirednesswithoutanypropercause· Generalbodyweakness· Persistentfeverwhichisonandoff· Lossofappetite

PeoplewhoareatriskofgettingHIV/AIDS· Sexuallyactivepeoplebetweentheagesof15-45years· Rapeanddefilementvictims· Longdistanttruckdriversandtraderswhooftenhavecasualsexwhenaway

from theirmarriedpartnersforalongtime.· Prostituteswhosellthemselvesforsextomanypartners.· Barattendants.

EffectsofAIDS/HIV· ThesearemanyeffectsofHIV/AIDSoninfectedperson,familyand

community.· Theysufferpersonalpainfrom thedisease.· Thefamilyspendsalotofmoneyontreatment,careandfeeding.· Theyarestigmatizedorisolatedinthesociety.· Lossoffamilyincomeifthebreadwinnerdies.· Manychildrenareorphanedandbecomechildparents.

PreventionandcontrolofHIV/AIDS· ThereiscurrentlynocureagainstAIDS,sopeopleneedtoguardthemselves

againstthediseaseby;· ABCapproach· Havingonefaithfulsexualpartner· Abstainfrom sexualintercourseuntilmarriage

· AvoidpracticeswhichinvolverisksofgettingAIDSliketattooing,earpiercing.· Useofcondomsduringsex.· Screeningbloodbeforemarriageandtransfusion· Sterilizingmedicalinstruments.· Disposingsyringesandneedlesafteruse.

HowcanwemanageAIDSpatients· PeoplewithAIDSneedsupportinmanyways..· Eatingabalanceddiet.· Joingoodsocialgroupstorelaxandavoidheavywork.· Shouldgiveupbadhabitslikesmokinganddrinkingalcohol

DISORDERSOFTHEREPRODUCTIVESYSTEM· Impotenceistheinabilityofamanspenistobecomestifforerect· Lowsperm count· Istheinabilityofthetestestoproduceenoughsperms· Penilecancer· Thisisthegrowthofabnormalcellsthatform onthepenis

EnlargementoftheprostateglandsThisdisorderiscommoninelderlymenover50yearsofage

FibroidsTheseareswellingscalledcyststhatdeveloponthewalloftheuterus.

EctopicpregnancyThisisaconditionwhenafertilizedeggimplantsitselfintheoviduct

OvariantumoursThesearemassesofabnormalcellsthatform ontheovary

Cervicalcancer (cancerofthecervix)Thisistheconditioninwhichthecervixdeveloptumours

Inflammationoftheoviduct.· Counseling,isaspecialform ofcommunicationthroughwhichapersonis

helpedtocontrolhis/herfeelingsbyacounselor

Typesofcounseling· Pre-HIVantibodytestcounseling· Pest-HIVantibodytestcounseling· CounselingHIV/AIDSpatients

Importanceofcounseling

· ItpreventsAIDSvictimsfrom committingsuicide· Avoidsspreadofthediseasetoothersknowingly.· Toencouragepeopletocontinuetolivelongeranduseful.

OrganizationinUgandathatofferscounselingservicesInUganda,therearemanygovernmentalorganizationswhichoffercounseling.TASO:TheAIDSSupportOrganization.Italsoprovidefood supplementsfoodforpatients.AIC:AIDSInformationCentreACP:AIDS ControlProgrammeofministryofhealth.ItalsoprovidesHIV/AIDStesting.

Gonorrhea· Itisavenerealdiseasecausedbyabacterium calledgonococci(sing

gonococcus)· Itisspreadthroughunprotectedsexualintercoursewithaninfectedperson.

Signsinmen· Painwhenurinating· Dischargeofpusfrom thepenis· Painfulswellingonthetesticles· Rashandsoresonthegenitalareas

Signsinwomen· Slightpainwhenurinating· Sometimesverypainfulmonthlyperiods.· Vaginaldischargeofsmellypus· Paininthelowerabdomen.

Signsinbabies· Redandswolleneyes· Puscomesoutofthebabyeyes· Blindness.

Effectsofgonorrhea· Itleadstopermanentdamageofmaleandfemalereproductiveorgans.· Leadstosterilityinbothmenandwomen.· Causeblindnessinbabies.· Blockstheurethramakingurinationdifficultandpainful.

Controlandpreventionofgonorrhea· UsingtheABCformulaforpreventingAIDSandotherSTDs.· A-Abstainfrom sexualintercourse· B-Befaithfultoyourpartner· Condomsshouldbeusedduringsexualintercourse

· Seekearlymedicaltreatment· Stopplayingsexuntilyouarecompletelytreated.

SyphilisSyphilisisachronicanddangerousvenerealdiseasecausedbyabacteriumcalledSpirochereItisspreadbyhavingsexualcontactwiththeinfectedperson.

Signsandsymptomsvarywithstages· Painfulsorescalledchancreappears2-5weeksafterinfection.· Insecondstageanumberofsignsandsymptomssuchassoresinmouth,

throat,itchingskin,rashesappear.· Inthethirdstagethebacteriacauseheartdisease,paralysis,blindnessand

insanityormadness.PreventionandcontrolofsyphilisItispreventedbypracticingABCapproachInfectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately

Otherurinarytractinfection· Pelvicinflammatorydiseases(PID)· Infectedpeopleshouldseeadoctorimmediately· Itaffectstheabdominalandpelvicarea.

EpididymisSeriousinfectionoftheepididymisleadingtoswellingtendernessandpaininthetesticles.

GenitalherpesThesearesores(inflammation)ofthegenitalscausedbyviruscalledherpessimplex.

TrichomoniasisVaginalisItiscausedbyprotozoacalledtrichomonasThediseasecausesinflammationofthevagina

GenitalwartsThesearesoresinthesexualpartsandaroundtheanus.Theyarecausedbyavirus.

HydrocellItisanincreaseinquantityoffluidsinthesacaroundthetestisandepididymis.

OrchitisInflammationofthetestisduetoinjuryorinfectionoftuberculosis

CandidasisItisalsocalledthrashandiscausedbyafungus

SterilityInabilityofamantoimpregnantawomenorawomanfailingtoconceiveLymphglandcomaThisreferstoenlargelymphnodesspreadbysexualcontact.

UrethririsAdiseasethatcausetheurethratobecomesoreandswollen.

Prevention· UsingABCapproach· Seekingmedicalattention· Personalhygieneespeciallyofthegenitals.

PIASCYMESSAGESABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTIVEHEALTHPIASCY STANDSP — PresidentialI— IntitiativeonA — AidsS— StrategyforC — CommunicationtotheY— YouthThefollowingmessagesarepassedtousthroughPIASCYactivities

- Abstainingfrom sexuntilmarriage- LearnhowHIVistransmitted- HIVdamagestheimmusesystem- PeoplelivingwithHIVandAIDSneedcareandsupport- TestingforHIV- Managingmenstruation- Youneedtounderstandhowyourbodychangesatpuberty- SexuallytransmittedinfectionsmakeiteasierforHIVinfections- SayNotosexforgifts- Lifeskillshelpstoprotectyoufrom HIV.- Usingviolencetogetsexiswrong- YouhavetherighttosayNotoforcedmarriages.- SayNotobadtouches- Choosetodelaysex

- Avoidriskyplacesandriskybehaviours