present challenges and future directions for the field of learning disabilities* margo a....
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Present Challenges and Future Directions for the Field of
Learning Disabilities*
Margo A. Mastropieri
* Paper presented at the 14th Annual World Congress on LD, Burlington, MA, October 28, 2005
Challenges Are Great High Stakes Testing Demands
Difficulty level Tests vary Standards vary
RTI Issues Learning Issues Instructional Issues
Testing Issues
High Stakes Tests Represent a single measure of
performance Selected at the state level Administered annually
Test-taking Skills Less well developed in students with LD
Released 3rd Grade Reading Virginia High Stakes Test Items
3 pages with text and questions 486 words 14 words per sentence 1.29 syllables per word Readability: Grade Level Scores
6th grade with Fry 5th grade with Flesch-Kincaid
Difficulties with Test-Taking Skills
Understanding and interpreting novel formats
Focusing attention appropriately Select first answer they see
Using elimination strategies Using time wisely Error avoidance Deductive reasoning strategies Using separate answer sheets Passage independence
Test-Taking Skills: Passage Independence
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35
40
45
50
55
60
65
% correct
independentreading
teacher read
AverageLD
Students with LD Less likely to employ an appropriate strategy Less likely to employ an appropriate strategy
effectively More likely to be confident in their answers, but
less likely to be correct More likely (52% vs 24%) to choose a "decoy":
blind o blink o nibble o leaned
Students with LD
For incorrect answers:
89% didn't refer to passage 40% had not read all distractors
Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: Grade 3
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
% pass
English Math History Science
All Students
Studentsw/Disabilities
Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: Grade 8
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30
40
50
60
70
80
90
English Math History Science
All Students
Studentsw/Disabilities
Virginia High Stakes 2004 Data: End of Course
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
English Algebra I WorldHistory
EarthScience
All Students
Studentsw/Disabilities
Standards Issues
How are the cut-off scores for passing set?
Failure to pass a test may mean .. Failure to be promoted to next grade level Failure to graduate from high school with a
standard diploma Decision to drop out of school based on
failure of high stakes tests
Federal and State Standards Federal and State Standards
Variability among States
Gov. Jeb Bush says that Gulfport Elementary School did so well academically last year it is a due for a state bonus check of roughly $40,000.
President George W. Bush says Gulfport Elementary School has performed so poorly that its parents must be allowed, less than a week before school begins, to pull their children out.
Regents Math A Exam required for graduation Last year 61% passed This year 37% passed
Result State will loosen testing
requirements!
Response To Intervention (RTI) Issues
What is RTI? What are good models of RTI
How many Tiers will be required? I, II, III, and IV?
Operationalize the Tiers Tier I, II, III and maybe IV
Describe how the classroom looks What is the teacher doing? What are the students doing? How many teachers are in a room with a specified number of
students per grade level per curriculum area K-12? What do the instructional methods and materials look like? What do the “tests” look like? What is the record keeping system? Who monitors the system? Who has the ultimate decision making power in this system?
How will the roles of teachers and diagnosticians change given the significant
demands for implementing RtI?
Unclear presently what the actual demands of RTI will look like Where are the models besides a few selected
sites? Unclear roles teachers will have
Deliver scientifically based instruction , administering CBM, interpreting data, placing students into tiers and teaching in small groups with different instructional methods and materials and CBM, etc.
Major shift in general education teachers role
Who is responsible to ensure procedures are implemented with fidelity – special
education or general education?
Unclear General or Special Educators?
Diagnosticians?
How will issues of consistency of decision-making be assured from school to school, district to district, and state to state?
Unclear – no clear answers provided Standards issues remain across K-12 Current federal and state variability
Learning and Instructional Challenges
Pace Content coverage Abstractions
represented Learning from
texts Demand for broad
shallow verbally based knowledge
Inclusion and access to the general ed curriculum
No longer an IEP
Class size and make-up issues
N = 30, 12 have IEPs, 7 at risk
Textbooks and Access to the General Ed Curriculum Increase in difficulty with grade level Discrepancy between reading level of
students and readability of textbooks (Kinder, Bursuck & Epstein, 1992)
Breadth vs Depth of Coverage Unfriendly nature of textbooks (Armbruster &
Anderson,1988)
Introduction of large number of vocabulary words (Yager, 1983)
Readability, Comprehensibility and Density Issues
In most polymers, like polyethylene and cellulose, the monomers are all identical. In other cases, such as proteins, different monomers may be combined. Although the amino acid monomers that make up proteins appear to be very different, each one has an amino functional group and an organic acid functional group, so the monomers all link in the same way, forming a "backbone" of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms. A polymer with three amino acids is called a tripeptide. (Tocci & Viehland, 1996, p. 257)
Previous page equals 15% of the space of one page of an
848-page book
Reading level for passage: 15th grade
Students take annual state wide SOL on text and content covered in class in May
What Do We Have to Do? Deliver vast amount of content very
rapidly
Unclear whether all standards will be met
Use what has research documented as best practices for students with LD
Samples of Ways to Address Challenges
Peer Mediation Strategy Use
Text comprehension Mnemonic strategies
Peer Mediation + Strategy Use Enhance Concreteness in Verbal
and Conceptual Learning
Peer Tutoring + Comprehension Strategies in World History (LDRP, 2003)
Extension of previous research in peer tutoring and reading comprehension to content area learning with high school students with disabilities.
Purpose: Compare peer tutoring versus teacher-
directed study in high school world history with students with disabilities
Partner Reading*
1st reader (admiral) reads 1-3 paragraphs while second reader (general) listens and helps with difficult words
Switch roles – turn to the beginning of section and 2nd reader begins reading
Answer summarization questions using strategy sheets
_______ * Modeled after Fuchs and Fuchs PALS
Comprehension Strategy
Read the paragraph - ask and answer: Who or what is it about? What is happening to them?
Use those answers to write a summary sentence
tells what the whole paragraph is about Use self-monitoring card
Paragraph Summarization Sheets
Name :______ Date: __________ Paragraph No. _____
Who or what is this paragraph about? ______________
What is happening to the who or what? _____________
Summary Sentence ____________________________
Who or what is this paragraph about? ______________
What is happening to the who or what? _____________
Summary Sentence ____________________________
Graphic Display of Content Test Performance
0
5
10
15
20
25
Prete
stCh 1
Ch 2Ch 3
Cumula
tive
Guided NotesTutoring
Year-End Final Exam: Items Covered and Not Covered During Study
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25
Non-Unit Item Unit Items
Guided NotesTutoring
US History Study Design
Crossover design with four inclusive 7th grade classes
Plus parent component involving in-service, technology and home activities
Sample N= 81 students and their parents/guardians 15 with mild disabilities
Parent Component Training sessions held in evenings to
teach parents how to access and use study materials on Blackboard site Materials sent home for those without pc
and internet access Pre and Post testing Blackboard use Anecdotal record keeping of material
use at home
Blackboard Training Evening sessions in pc lab Pre and post testing
Blackboard access and use History training materials and use
Rules for Tutoring: At school and home
1. Talk only to your partner about the peer-tutoring program.
2. Talk in a quiet voice.3. Cooperate with your partner.4. Do your BEST.
Identifying Mistakes
Your child says the wrong answer. Your child gives a partially correct
answer. Your child adds unnecessary
information. Your child waits longer than 3 seconds
to give an answer. (count: 1- one thousand, 2 - one thousand, 3 – one thousand)
Correcting Mistakes If your child misses an answer say, “You
missed that one. Can you try again?” If your child answers correctly, say,
‘Good.’ Ask the question again. If your child does not know an answer,
wait 3 seconds, then say, “The answer is “_____.”
Ask the question again. Then say, “Good.”
Parent Home Tutoring Checklist
Get out own tutoring fact sheets and record keeping sheet.
Get with your child. Write date and time on your record
sheet. Begin asking and answering the
questions with your child (if child is alone, have him/her cover one side of the sheet and ask and answer questions independently).
Put all tutoring materials away.
Date Blackboard Section Visited
Purpose for Information Retrieved
Comments
Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment
Personal InfoTo get materials for
student useTo get materials to work
w/ student
Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment
Personal InfoTo get materials for
student useTo get materials to work
w/ student
Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sh. Student ToolsLabs/Assessment
Personal InfoTo get materials for
student useTo get materials to work
w/ student
Parent Recording Sheet
Date Blackboard Section Visited
Purpose for Information Retrieved
Comments
Announcements Staff InformationInformation AssignmentsLabs/Strategy Sheets Student ToolsLabs/Assessment
Personal InfoTo get materials for student useTo get materials to work w/ student
Tutoring Sheets
Name the Railroads and the railroad towns.
Railroads: Union pacific and Central Pacific
Towns: Promontory Point, Utah; Omaha, Nebraska; Sacramento, California
Tutoring Sheets
Name the cattle towns and trails.
Towns: Abilene, Kansas; Cheyenne, Wyoming
Trails: Chisholm Trail; Goodnight-Loving Trail
Write the card you practiced in this column (Example: Tanks)
Write date you practiced this item with your partner (Feb. 14; Feb. 18)
Place date you covered the information, but still need more practice(Feb. 18)
Please check and date when mastered the content(Feb.14 )
Parent Training Results Pretest vs posttest
Evaluation of blackboard usage Evaluation of access of study
materials t(21) = 25.228, p =.000
Parent Evaluation of Training1 = low; 5= high; Mean (SD)
Effectiveness of training 4.68 (.48)
Effectiveness of trainers 4.73 (.46)
Training informative 4.59 (.59)
Sufficient time for training
4.45 (.74)
Helpfulness of handouts 4.68 (.48)
Effects of Classwide Peer Tutoring on Achievement in History
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76
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86
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90
Control Tutoring
Condition
Me
an
Pe
rce
nt
Co
rre
ct
generalspecial
Teacher Feedback Materials engaged all students Materials very student centered. Students needed directions once, and
they were off and running. Had to quiet students down but only
lower voices. They were always on task. Students even developed their own
games out of it.
What are General Techniques for Improving Memory? Increase Attention. Promote External Memory. Enhance Meaningfulness. Use Pictures. Minimize Interference. Promote Active Manipulation. Promote Active Reasoning. Increase the Amount of Practice.
What Are Effective Mnemonic Strategies? Strategies that make Unfamiliar
Information more: Concrete Meaningful Familiar Memorable
Mnemonic strategies First described by the ancient Greeks (see
Yates, The Art of Memory, 1956) Discussed by William James, Principles of
Psychology (1890) First treatment in experimental psychology,
Atkinson (1975), for teaching Russian vocabulary to college students.
Employed in late 1970s with k-12 students (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney, 1982)
Employed with students with LD, 1983-present Over 40 experiments, >1200 students
How Effective Are Mnemonic Strategies ? (Forness, 2001)
Mnc = MnemonicRC = Reading
comp. strategiesDI = Direct InstructionSM = Stimulant
medicationPrT = Peer
tutoringDiet = Diet restrictionsPT = Perceptual
training 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Mean ES
Mnc RC DI SM PrT Diet PT
Most Effective Techniques Mnemonic strategies
Keyword method Pegword method Letter strategies, such as acrostics
and acronyms Other verbal elaborations
The Keyword Method
Best for Unfamiliar Vocabulary Steps in using the keyword
method: Recode unfamiliar word to an
acoustically similar but familiar word or keyword.
Relate the the keyword in an interactive picture with the to-be-remembered information
Retrieve the new definition by thinking of the keyword and what was happening in the interactive picture
Ranid (rain) frog
Pegword method Can keyword method be combined
with the pegword method for remembering numbers?
Materials Content: hardness levels of North
American minerals, according to the Mohs scale.
Mnemonic pictures included keyword representation of mineral name, pegword for hardness level.
Pegwords One is bun Two is shoe Three is tree Four is door Five is hive
Six is sticks Seven is heaven Eight is gate Nine is vine Ten is hen
Crocoite (crocodile) 2 (shoe)
01020304050607080
% correct
Imm. DelayExperimental Condition
Results
Mnemonic
Free study
Directinstruction
Multiple Attributes Can students with LD learn multiple
attributes -- e.g., hardness, color, common use -- with mnemonics?
Example: WOLFRAMITE: A black wolf at a door lit by light bulbs Black = mineral color Door = hardness level #4 Light Bulbs = common use (from
tungsten filaments)
Three conditions Mnemonic instruction Direct instruction Free study
Results
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20
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40
50
60
70
80
90
%
correct
Mnemonic DI Free Study
HardnessColorUse
Curriculum Applications of Mnemonic Instruction Can mnemonic strategies be
applied to a chapter from a content area textbook?
Content Area: World War I
Allied Powers Central Powers William Jennings Bryan Lusitania Zimmerman note Trench warfare Eddie Rickenbacher George M. Cohan
Reconstructive Elaborations Mimetic: Representational picture for
concrete, familiar information (trench) Symbolic: Symbolic picture for
abstract, familiar information (foreign policy)
Acoustic: Keyword strategy for unfamiliar information (Zimmerman)
Letter strategies for list information
World War I test: What countries were in the Allied Powers? What countries were in the Central Powers? Who was William Jennings Bryan? What was the Lusitania? What was the Zimmerman note? What was trench warfare like? Who was Eddie Rickenbacher? Who was George M. Cohan?
Participants, Procedure 30 8th – 10th graders with LD Mean reading GE = 5.2 Students stratified by grade level
and assigned at random to mnemonic or control condition.
5
10
15
20
Number correct
Experimental Condition
Results
Mnemonic
Control
Long-Term Applications
Can mnemonic strategies be applied to units of curriculum in classroom instruction over time?
Participants Four classrooms of students with learning
disabilities in an inner-city school Each classroom had a different
configuration of mnemonic and traditional pictures to support classroom learning over 4 units: M-T-M-T T-M-T-M T-T-T-M M-M-M-T
Procedure Each unit lasted two weeks. Teachers
employed relevant pictures as overhead transparencies throughout the unit.
After 8 weeks of instruction, individual tests of content knowledge were given: World War I 20s 30s World War II
2030405060708090
100
% correct
Experimental Condition
Results
Mnemonic
Control
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction
0102030405060708090
100
WWI 20x 30s WWII
Unit
Per
cent
cor
rect
M-T-M-T
T-M-T-M
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Classroom Instruction
0102030405060708090
WWI 20x 30s WWII
Unit
Per
cent
cor
rect
M-M-M-T
T-T-T-M
Research questions 1. Can the model of reconstructive
elaborations be used with life science content?
2. Can students with LD create their own mnemonic strategies?
Participants, design Students with LD student in two
self-contained classes Each classroom had a different
configuration over 2 units: 1. Mnemonic-Traditional 2. Traditional-Mnemonic
Third week: all mnemonic 4th week: generalization
Procedure Each unit lasted one week. Teachers
employed relevant pictures as overhead transparencies throughout the unit.
After 2 weeks of instruction, individual tests of content knowledge were given: Invertebrate animals Vertebrate animals
Questions What are characteristics of
earthworms? What are characteristics of birds? What are characteristics of trichina? What are the five classes of
vertebrates? What are parasites and hosts? What is radial symmetry?
Classroom x Chapter Interaction
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Invert Vertebrate
Instructional Unit
Per
cen
t co
rrec
t
M - T
T - M
Generalization phase Earth history: Third week of
training, both classes taught mnemonically
Questions Name the three parts of the earth. What is the core? What is the mantle? What is the crust?
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20
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60
80
100
Reported strategy No strategy reported
Percent correct by strategy use
Week 3 76.3% answered correctly
Generalization Training Week 4
0
20
40
60
80
100
Reported strategy No strategyreported
Percent correct by strategy use
However For generalization week, 52.5% of
content covered answered correctly
33% to 39% as much content covered as previous weeks. Additional time spent creating strategies.
IT FITS Strategy*
Identify the term Tell the definition of the term Find a keyword Imagine the definition doing something with
the keyword Think about the definition doing something
with the keyword Study what you imagined until you know the
definition *King-Sears, M.E., Mercer, C.D., & Sindelar, P.T. (1992). Toward independence with keyword mnemonics: A strategy for science vocabulary
instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 13, 22-33.
Effectiveness of Mnemonic Instruction in Science(13 experiments, N = 525)
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80
Mean % correct
Mnemonic Comparison
Mean ES = 1.59 (SD = .93)
Concrete & Meaningful Tasks Point out importance and worth Select relevant, concrete tasks Hands-on materials Illustrations Active involvement Relate to students’ personal
experiences
Approaches to Science InstructionTextbook high language
demands high literacy
demands excessive vocabulary abstract content high factual learning
demands factual recall on tests
Activities-oriented reduced language reduced literacy reduced vocabulary hands-on
experiences & “enactments”
minimal testing performance-based
testing
Activities versus Text-basedScience
Ecosystem Unit (Science Education)
4th grade classes Textbook adopted by district STC Ecosystems unit Inclusive classes with adaptations
Student Data by Classroom
Activities Comparison M (SD) M (SD)
Age 120.7 (5.5) 121.4 (6.0) IQ 109.8 (16.0) 112.2(14.1)Rdg 75.3 (17.8) 75.1 (20.9)Math 76.8 (20.3) 81.0 (19.3)Lang 76.3 (19.6) 74.4 (20.1)Males 48% 44%
PASS Variables Prioritize objectives Adapt (instruction, materials, &
environment) SCREAM
structure clarity redundancy enthusiasm appropriate pace maximize engagement
Systematic Evaluation
Problem Solving Very structured and guided instruction Build ecosystem and observe plant,
animal growth & interactions with environment
Predict effects of acid rain, too much salt, too much fertilizer on your eco-column
PORC = predict, observe, record, compare
Minimal insight required for success Disability specific adaptations made
Disability-Specific Adaptations
Vocabulary check-sheets Modified worksheets Communication boards Teacher and peer assistance with
reading tasks Special matching of peers in small
groups Testing adaptations - oral and
transcribed
Textbook vs Activities Science
10
12
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24
Multiple Choice Performance
TextbookActivitiesSpecial Ed
Textbook vs Activities Science
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60
110
160
210
260
310
Number of words
TextbookActivitiesSpecial Ed
Enthusiastic Science Teaching
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%
Achievement On-task
Enthusiastic Unenthusisatic
Coached Elaborations:Direct Teaching (No Explanation) Condition
Experimenter: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. What does the anteater have?
Student: Long claws on its front feet.
Experimenter: Long claws on its front feet. Good.
Coached Elaborations: Provided Explanation Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its
front feet, to help it dig for ants. What does the anteater have?
S: Long claws on its front feet. E: The anteater has long claws on its
front feet. Good. And why does it have this?
S: To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.
Coached Elaborations:Coached Elaboration Condition E: The anteater has long claws on its front feet. Why
does it make sense that the anteater has long claws on its front feet?
S: I don't know. E: Well, let's think. What does the anteater eat? S: Ants? E: Ants, good. And where do ants live? S: In holes in the ground. E: In holes in the ground. So why does it make sense
that the anteater has long claws on its front feet? S: Oh. To help it dig for ants. E: To help it dig for ants. Good.
Results (Sullivan, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1993)
0
5
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Immediate Delayed
Coached
Provided
No Exp.
Summary of Results: Coached Elaborations
Students in the CE conditions remembered facts (e.g., long claws) best
Students in the CE conditions remembered explanations (e.g., to dig for ants) best
Transfer and independent learning effects were smaller
Differentiated Science Curriculum Enhancements
Random assignment of 13 inclusive 8th grade science classes to: Control Group: traditional instruction Experimental Group: traditional
instruction + differentiated curriculum enhancements
Intervention Delivered by teachers over 12 weeks
Sample 13.7 = Mean age N = 213
(37 LD, 7 SED, 35 ELL) Ethnic diversity
44% Caucasian 27% Black 17.4% Latino 5.2% Multi-racial 4.4% Asian
Differentiated Curriculum Enhancement Activities
Scientific Investigation Unit and linked to high stakes tests
Eight major activities developed Each activity developed into multiple levels of
increasing difficulty Start with differentiating the content using
scaffolding/prompting Level 1 for maximum support with content Level 2 for reduced support with content Level 3 for independent learning with minimal, if any
supports
Scientific Process Skills Observing, Classifying Predicting Comparing Contrasting Charting, Graphing, Recording Data
Development Rules for Level 1
Identification level
Must be able to identify answers from a multiple choice or matching format
Must contain prompts to help ensure success
Development Rules for Level 2
Production with prompts level
Start at beginning production responses
Include prompts to ensure success
Development Rules for Level 3
Independent production level
Production format
Remove prompts
Experimental Design Level 1-3
Level 1: students match independent and dependent variables.
Level 2: identify independent, dependent variables, and hypothesis given a scenario.
Level 3: students produce independent, dependent variables, and hypothesis given a scenario.
These games provide practice for the SOL Grade 6: hypotheses are stated in ways that identify the independent and dependent variables, SOL Grade 7: variables defined, dependent variables, independent variables, and constants identified, and SOL Grade 8: independent and dependent variables, constants, and repeated trials are identified.
Use this sheet to track how you did. Look at the example on the first line. Write in the name of the activity on the line then graph how long you played each activity. Don’t forget to rate how well you think you did! Rate your performance on each activity -
3 2 1 Place a mark on the amount of time you spent playing the activity below Rate your performance on each activity
20 min.
15 min.
10 min.
5 min.
0 min.
Circle the Names of the Activities You Played Today
1
Activities Key
Concentration 1 – Con 1 Mission Possible 1 – MP 1 Measuring 1 – Meas 1 Concentration 2 – Con 2 Mission Possible 2 – MP 2 Measuring 2 – Meas 2 Concentration 3 – Con 3 Mission Possible 3 – MP 3 Measuring 3 – Meas 3 Hangman 1 - Hang 1 Quantitative/Qualitative 1 – QQ1 Liquid Measurement 1- LM1 Hangman 2 - Hang 2 Quantitative/Qualitative 2 – QQ2 Liquid Measurement 2- LM2 Match-Ups - MU1 Quantitative/Qualitative 3 – QQ3 Liquid Measurement 3- LM3 Tic Tac Toe - TTT2 Jeopardy 1 – J1 Scenarios – Scen3 Jeopardy 2 – J2 Jeopardy 3 - J3
Sample Scenario Scenario: A student's science fair project was
to examine the effects of different amounts of fertilizer on plant growth. Three identical plants were grown with three different amounts of fertilizer (low, medium and high). At the end of the experiment the plant given the highest amount of fertilizer was the tallest.
Independent variable- Amount of Fertilizer Dependent variable- Plant Growth Hypothesis- If you give a plant a high amount
of fertilizer, then the plant will grow taller.
Data Sources Pre and Posttests
Content High Stakes Tests
Student Reports Teacher Feedback
Results Students in Differentiated science
curriculum outperformed comparison students on: Science content tests Virginia High Stakes Tests
Chemistry 10th Grade Chemistry Study
Students with and without disabilities in inclusive classes
Peer Tutoring Format involving Strategies including mnemonics, elaborations What else is important? Applications
Differentiated format Use embedded strategies when required Skip strategies when not required
Tutoring Condition Materials
Rules and Procedures for Tutoring Folders containing strategy sheets
What is … A strategy to help you remember What else is important about . ? What is an example of --- ?
Student recording sheets
What is the Periodic Table?
A tabular arrangement of all known elements, organized by properties.If your partner is correct, go to
If your partner doesn’t know the answer, review the strategy.
Strategy: Think of the word "table" (chart) for periodic table, and think of the table of all the elements.Then ask:
What is the strategy to remember periodic table?
Then ask again: What is the periodic table?
Then ask:What else is important about periodic table?
[Answers include: Properties are arranged by periods (rows) and groups (columns).]
Then ask: What are other characteristics of periodic table?
[Answers include: Increase across periods, Mass, Electron affinity, Ionization energy;
Decrease across periods: Size; Increase across groups (top to bottom), Reactivity, Atomic radius;
Decrease across groups (top to bottom), Electron, affinity, Electron negativity, ionization]Then ask:
What are the components of the periodic table?
[Answers include: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition elements, metalloids, noble gases, lanthanides, actinides]
Chemistry Test Results
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9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
Control Experimental
LDGeneral Ed
Challenges with Implementations Can we raise scores
enough? Support for teachers
and administrators Resources and
training issues Time for teachers
and for freeing teachers
Sustainability of practices
Providing ongoing positive and positive critical feedback
Demonstrating student growth
Fidelity of Implementation
Summary Tension exists between demands of high
stakes testing and teaching students with LD RTI may present challenges A variety of evidence-based techniques have
improved performance Extend interaction and practice with text Use strategies with peer tutors Enhance meaningfulness and concreteness Use activities to enhance meaningfulness Differentiate activities to support multiple learner
levels
Great Challenges can lead to Great Opportunities for
Students with LD Improved accountability Improved access to general ed.
Curriculum Potential for achieving beyond
expectations Entire school has stake in success of
students with LD Future research can provide further
guidance for practice