preparing school principals for ethno‐democratic leadership

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Preparing school principals forethno‐democratic leadershipSpencer J. MaxcyPublished online: 28 Jul 2006.

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INT. J. LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION, 1998, VOL. 1, NO. 3, 217-235

Preparing school principals for ethno-democraticleadership

SPENCER J. MAXCY

Preparing school leaders for a culturally diverse America is a recognized need, yet bysticking with out-of-date models of school administrator preparation which value precision,efficiency, and narrow effectiveness, most university-based educational leadershipprogrammes have failed to meet this need. Seeing that school leadership nearly alwaysoperates within a multi-cultural setting and complex social dynamic, the present essayprovides an alternative leadership approach and related programmatic recommendations forpreparing educators for 'ethno-democratic leadership'. Key to understanding the point ofthis new approach is the belief that we must relocate race and culture to the heart ofdemocracy, embracing a new vision of democracy as a personal—social way of living, and acommitment to valuing the artful (as opposed to the militaristic, managerial, etc.,) side ofleadership practice.

The end of educational management and the discovery ofleadership

A new need has emerged in the world of educational administration — a needfor preparing educators for leadership in a culturally diverse America. Butwhile across the country school districts are experimenting with restructur-ing, downsizing and teacher empowerment; few universities are dealingboldly with the challenge to build programmes to instruct this newleadership for schools. Older theoretical models of educational administra-tion continue to hold sway. Few are being abandoned, despite the fact thateven popular magazines like Newsweek, after surveying poorly performingcorporations, are proclaiming that 'management is dead!' America'scorporate world (business, health care, etc.), has given up on the MBAdegree as sure-fire preparation for business leadership. And now theelementary and secondary schools are beginning to question derivativeuniversity preparation programmes leading to the MEd in EducationalAdministration or Management. Given these states-of-affairs, the funda-mental question to be addressed is: How shall colleges, divisions, anddepartments of educational administration prepare the new generation ofmulti-cultural leaders given this vacuum in educational administrationpreparation?

Spencer J. Maxcy is Professor of Education in the Department of Educational Leadership, Research,and Counseling at Louisiana State University. His research interests are educational leadership andorganizational theory, technology and education, and the foundations of education.

1360-3124/98 $12.00 © 1998 Taylor & Francis Ltd

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218 SPENCER J. MAXCY

The historic and dominant models for selecting and inducting educa-tional managers into their work were characterized by marketplace sloganssuch as 'educational efficiency', 'excellence', and most recently, 'effective-ness'. Derived from business and economics, the popular university modeof training school administrators may be traced to the 'scientific manage-ment' philosophy of Frederick Winslow Taylor. Expanded by generationsof positivists and behaviourists, Taylor's ideas have been refined andshaped. 'Systems Theory', and 'Organizational Culture' views dominatedthe literature on administrator training (Greenfield 1986, Evers andLakomski 1991). Through these modern renditions, mechanistic anddehumanized, control assumptions continue to underwrite contemporaryadministrator training approaches. In recent years, the aim of this schooladministration model has meant competitiveness, market share, bottomline considerations, economic survival, and so forth. Only when theseprogrammatic preparations were seen as failing did the ill-fitting trainingshift to addressing the real problems of American schooling.

In the last few years, a new generation of administration theorists hasbegun critically scrutinizing the older models of leader preparation. Bates(1990), Foster (1986), Sergiovanni (1992), Giroux (1992), English (1994),and others have offered alternatives to the business-efficiency and systemsapproaches. The essay to follow will discuss a new and reconstructed'ethno-democratic school leadership', and illustrate my theoretical discus-sion by applying this new leadership to the training of Hispanic-Americanschool leaders. What is being recognized here is the fact of that schoolleadership, as a cultural manifestation rather than a business enterprise,assumes a host of interesting ideas that have largely eluded older stylemanagement philosophies. I shall argue that a new preparation programmefor 'ethno-democratic school leaders', should replace the old administrator/bureaucrat preparation programmes so dominant in our colleges anduniversities. The new 'postmodern' school leadership is gaining steadily inthe journals and scholarly books on school governance (Maxcy 1993, 1995).Beyond this insight, I wish to offer a vision of leadership that is built uponan aesthetic interest over that of a business and engineering attitude.Scientific management, I shall argue, is giving way to design art.

'Ethno-democratic school leadership' means leading from a race/culture orientation with critical-mindedness and value-mindedness in theforefront. Much of the critical theoretical work done on school leadershipassumes a liberal modernist world. In contrast, ethno-democracy locatesthe new leadership in a postmodern cultural context.

Two major changes in our historic condition prompt the considerationof a radically new school leadership preparation mode: First, a crisis indemocratic government is pervasive in the latter decades of the twentiethcentury-a crisis that seriously impacts any effort to develop educationalleadership for the schools. Americans are presently torn between a view ofdemocracy that is built upon human rights as an abstract ideal and thetwentieth-century liberal recognition of American democracy as pluralistic,comprised of individual and distinct groups each having claim to theAmerican dream. Searching for protection against the uncritical values ofthe majority, African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, and others have

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PREPARING SCHOOL PRINCIPALS FOR ETHNO-DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP 219

moved under the umbrella of constitutional protection of difference.Second, communitarians and lovers of collaboration, communication, andcompromise, seek the new American 'Community of Communities' (asJohn Dewey termed i t ) -a safe, hyphenated republic in which interestgroups may agree to disagree, insulated from the excesses of radicalindividualism and alienation.

Fukuyama (1992) has characterized the competing of these two forcesin democracies as thymos or the desire for recognition versus the desire forequality and freedom. Where the search for personal and group glorydominates, a democracy of equality and freedom is threatened by tyranny,oppression and domination. When the desire for peace and prosperityinheres - conditioned by free human beings living lives of equal treatmentand regard-aspiration and achievement are killed and mediocrity results.While democracy has swept the world as the most popular form ofgovernment, the two countervailing desires throw us into a cultural tension.In the present American pluralistic culture, each ethnic, racial and interestgroup seeks recognition as unique and excellent, while concomitantlyexercising the desire for equality of place and opportunity.

This sea change in democratic thinking has provoked a seriousturnaround in school leadership. As Henry Giroux (1992) points out,schools of education have a social responsibility as they seek to prepareschool administrators. The responsibility is one of 'educating people with avision, people who can rewrite the narrative of educational administrationand the story of leadership by developing a public philosophy whosepurpose is to animate a democratic society' (Giroux 1992: 5).

I wish to argue that the pluralistic nature of American culture is largelyunder-served by older models of administrator preparation. Blind-sided bythe need to control and direct large-scale school 'corporations', 'educationalexecutives' have overlooked the ethnic, racial and religious, literary,sculptural, and configural nature of leading human enterprises. Lost in themaze of technical language and logical empiricism, leaders-to-be are nevertaught alternative narratives of leading. The style and elegance of heroicleadership rooted in cultural histories and archetypes, educational leader-ship as moral stewardship, or leadership as art form are strangely absent inthe texts and courses of standard school administration departments. Withscience, and particularly physics, speaking of the virtues of chaos and therapture of diversity, school leadership waffles on the brink: Shall we movefrom a positivist social scientific rendering to an engagement with artfulcommunity living? The resources of a rich diversity await the creativeschool leader. In the pages to follow, I shall attempt to chart the a priorijustification for such critical and reflective ethnic and humanistic leader-ship.

Developing critical ethno-democratic leadership

The idea of educational leadership has been the solution of choice asAmericans have come to recognize the problems attached to schools in thiscountry. As school reform became more pronounced in public discourse,

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school administration preparation programmes have undergone re-struc-turing and re-paradigmization. Foster (1986) and Maxcy (1991) haveargued for emancipatory and aesthetic leadership. Hodgkinson (1991) andSergiovanni (1992) argue that educational leadership is essentially a moral/ethical enterprise. New configurations facing school reformers, such ascultural diversity and cultural integration, have largely eluded leadershiptheorists, however. An exception, Lomotey (1993), asserts that leadershipmust be 'ethno-humanistic' as well as bureaucratic, and as such must beconnected to the improvement of the life chances of cultural members. It isargued here that the direction leadership theory must take is toward aculturally sensitive humanism. By this, one would have in mind thedevelopment of a leadership that is at once sensitive to cultural difference,while seeking to free up the possibilities of members of ethnic/racialcommunities to contribute to both the institution of the school and thecommunity/society at large.

Educational leadership, it shall be maintained, should be conceived ofas transactional discourse/practice entailing the empowering of criticallyreflective cultural community members, with the concomitant desire toenlarge and re-connect educators, students and parents with their culturalresources. The emancipation of actors, the enhancement of integrity, andthe improvement of community/social context through the use of artisticdesign processes is an alternative to all prior leadership training schemes(Maxcy 1991).

Beyond these features of an imminent ethno-democratic leadership isthe advocacy of a psychological predisposition toward what William Jamestermed, 'unjustifiable hope'. Rorty (1979) has, in his critical pragmatism,emphasized the importance of this hope against all odds. The importantaddition that should be considered here is the necessity of hope to take onsocio-political meaning as cultural leadership exerts power over ethno-emancipatory self-reflection. This is all to say that no theory of culturalcomplexity is satisfactory unless it is underwritten by a will to succeed inthe elevation and transformation of consciousness and condition. Culturalactors in ethnic communities are, as they adopt such a vision of educationalleading, enhanced in their practice where they adopt hope as a driving idea,a force for the genuine communal enrichment of self and others.

While it is beyond the scope of the present paper to deal in any detailwith the vision of leadership embraced here, the components of ethno-democratic leadership may be outlined and a technique for its implementa-tion specified. The bare bones of such a leadership entails five componentparts: (1) a theory of culture as plural; (2) a conception of ethnicity ashumanistic; (3) a new view of 'ethno-democracy'; (4) stress on experience asartistic; and (5) revised notions of power and empowerment.

A theory of cultural pluralism

Two kinds of cultural diversity exist. One version may be termed 'verticalpluralism'. This type of diversity finds groups isolated from one another,pursuing their own agendas. A second kind of pluralism is possible:

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'horizontal pluralism'. In this mode of cultural patterning, groups have anequal opportunity to formulate and work toward their goals, butcompetition and critical dialogue (and struggle) between groups isrecognized.

Calls for ethnic empowerment necessarily link an implicit programmeof cultural pluralism with political and economic factors. In the face of thesearch for power in our pluralistic culture, any plan of culturalenhancement must take existing political and economic patterns seriously.We must accept the fact of cultural relativity, while being on guard not tocodify this condition without reflection. Participants in cultures prizediffering components of culture; however, what is needed is intelligentcontrol of experience so that ways are developed to appraise these valuedcomponents. Naive acceptance of cultural values enslaves us to tradition asan authority, while a critical evaluation of cultural values liberates and freesus. Here we require a theory of reflective practice, or critical pragmatism,aimed at the scrutiny of cultural values and the test of those values againstexperience. Relativity must not be elevated into an ideology of close-minded acceptance of traditional values (Romanticism). Ways must befound to communicate across differences. Inter-cultural conflict is asignificant barrier to understanding. In the present instance, we need anopen, communicated expression of values to create shared and commonconcerns for harmoniously accomplishing ethno-cultural goals.

In principle, a diversity of cultural values need not deny theexistence of shared acceptance of socio-political process values. It is notincompatible in practice to have a cultural pluralism and a socio-politicalintegration. But even before such a confluence of value emerges, wemust admit to the capacity of pluralisms to be comparable in nature.Promoting trans-cultural values of a process type, so as to includecomparing, does not lead to the breakdown of ethnic or sub-groupidentity. In the long run, we retain cultural relativity, (with its variedrichness) and promote cooperative, trans-cultural efforts for socio-political continuity and development as well. Each minority may cometo see its own uniqueness and worth realized through interactions andtransactions with other cultures. Here the mechanism of communicationprovides the avenue through which differing ethnic and other interestgroups may share in mutual understanding. The element of ahermeneutic is essential to this trans-active exchange and adjudicationbetween competing interests.

A wide variety of ethnological variables may be considered aspreparatory to the discussion of ethno-democracy and leadership. Threeof these are myth, ritual, and ethos. Viewed from an anthropologicalperspective, myth, ritual, and ethos form a kind of glue that confers identityto groups and continuity and comparability to the culture-at-large. Theschool leader has opportunities to incorporate myths and folk ales into theday-to-day operations of the school. Unfortunately, the public character ofeducation in the US has led to a non-sectarian Protestant belief systembeing adopted by schools. There is a necessity to introduce the culturalfolkways into the schools in ethnic communities; African myths and tales inAfrican-American schools, and so forth.

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Myth

Myth may be interpreted in a number of ways. It is vital to see myth not asirrational belief, but as a kind of sublime wisdom that has pragmatic valuein the sustenance of a culture group. 'Instructional leaders' in ethnic schoolsettings must be shown the many ways in which myth may be incorporatedinto the curriculum and teaching in the school. Here the school librarian,language arts teacher and resource person may be of great value. The roleof the core of the university preparation programme in this regard is not toteach principals the myths and rituals of their resident culture, but ratherwhat 'myth' is and how it functions to integrate a culture and move peopleto excellence.

Ritual

Ritual is everywhere in every culture. Here again the principal is in aprime position to introduce rituals drawn from ethnic culture. Schoolplays, choral and band recitals provide opportunities to draw upontraditional drama, music and dance. Peter McLaren (1993) writespersuasively regarding the use of cultural rituals to critically confrontdominance of one culture over another. Culturally integrating valuesmay be taught and reinforced by these means. Imber-Black and Roberts(1992) illustrate how we may tap the power of ritual to express values,heal old wounds, and deepen human relationships. Daily rituals ofgreeting and parting, and mealtime activities, offer opportunities todevelop ethnic awareness and uniqueness. Celebration rituals (birthday,anniversary, etc.,) may be seized upon to enhance multicultural mean-ings.

Bernal and Knight (1993) have studied ethnic identity and the roles ofsocial scientists in government as they create and sustain multiculturalpolicies, with resultant ethnic group responses to such philosophies andgoverning rules. Pride in Hispanic origins may be instilled, but against acurrent of managed efficiency and artificial harmony. Church-stateseparation was never meant to cleave cultures into diverse parts. Religiousbeliefs and rituals infuse every public endeavour. It is vital to surface thesenon-coopting cultural values and to draw upon them to link the students,teachers and parents to the ethnic family of the school and their ownsubculture.

The different myths and rituals that emerge in ethnic, racial andother group histories are resources for group identity and serveleadership as a means of communicating across cultures the varietywithin the similar. It should also be evident that new schools willdevelop their own myths and folkloristic wisdom. Myth-making is acreative act and must be recognized as important in the identification ofself and community. All too often cultural anthropologists andphilosophers have neglected the myth-building side of cultural member-ship for the sake of myth-finding. However, the Nazi 'Aryan Superiority'myth proved to be just such a myth construction which had a world-

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wide impact on the future of peace. Building new myths that are at oncehumanistic and culturally enhancing is the trick for school leadership infragile cultures.

Ethos

The concept of ethos also allows us to decipher pluralistic cultures.For if leadership is pledged to the conscious and critical reconstruc-tion of culture, then there is a tandem need for cultural character. Itis not enough to think of the right or proper design for culturalparticipation, one also needs to test this out in pragmatic action.Leadership that possesses moral character is the kind of ethicalrectitude that requires administrators, managers, and coordinators to'stay the course' or 'stay with the ship'. Character is a matter ofnurturing and development through tested experience. Ethnic identitycarries with it this potential for character growth. Programmes ineducational leadership must be alert to these elements of character(e.g. courage in the face of cultural danger, fortitude against all odds,etc.), and character-enhancing exercises such as case studies, andpersonal histories should be used.

In sum, what is required for a fully functioning ethno-democraticcultural pluralism to succeed is a concept of cultural affiliation that looksinward as well as outward.

A conception of ethnicity as humanistic

The conception of ethnicity located in this leadership teaching strategy isone of multiples and intensities of uniqueness. (Here, I would cautionthat emphasis upon 'difference' as terminological treatment of ethnicdiversity tends to introduce barriers and blur connections betweengroups. 'Uniqueness' seems more descriptive.) Ethnicity too often isused as an objective determination of sub-group characteristics lacking inany humanistic qualities. The present concept of ethnicity is deemedhumanistic as it seeks to describe/explain the distinctly humandimensions of cultural thought and practice. The eighteenth-centuryhumanistic conception of man (and woman) as the creator andtransformer of his/her culture implied a distinction between thestructured order of nature and the changeable order of human culture.Nature was seen as moving toward perfection through divine control,while in the realm of human culture there was to be found progress inthe organization of human life and institutions (Bidney 1967: 186).Today, 'humanistic' refers to the fact of human-engineered institutionalchaos being remediable, not through the natural mechanism of socialprogress, but rather through 'postmodern' tools of artistic depiction andre-structure. Through the rubric of 'humanistic', the chaos in schools iscapable of humane aesthetic re-composition over mere deployment oftechnical control.

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Anglo-Saxon conformity

Historically, there has been a resistance to pluralism from the perspectiveof the so-called 'dominant culture'. Ellwood Patterson Cubberley taught ageneration of school administrators to believe that the only way to deal withethnic uniqueness was through the mechanism of 'Anglo-Saxon confor-mity'. Each successive cultural group that entered the US was to beenculturated into this model. English-speaking, Protestant, and fiercelypro-American, each of the pieces of the model reflected Cubberley'svalues-his aesthetic taking of the dominant culture. No respect orconsideration for alternative languages, religious beliefs, or other culturalvalues were manifest.

The melting pot

Israel Zangwell proposed an alternative to this view in the early twentiethcentury. His metaphor was the 'melting pot'. Here differing cultural groupswere stirred together in a great cauldron of differences out of whichemerged a new American, different from each particular ethnic group. Thisapproach to educational administration was tried and found manyadherents.

Cultural pluralism

After the First World War, Horace Kallen, a Jew and a professor in NewYork City, proposed a new metaphor, that of a 'cultural pluralism'. ForKallen, each ethnic group must retain its customs and traditions, whileparticipating in the society at large. Through the mechanism of'orchestration' these differing elements of culture would be madeharmonious. Cultural pluralism was modified by John Dewey when hespoke of the 'hyphenated American'. Here Dewey added the insight that itwas through our interactions with other ethnic and racial groups that wecame to be not a single identity, but a person having a variety of culturalparts, each drawn from a different group. We were at once Polish-Swedish-Irish-Hispanic-Americans. Moreover, he argued that such a new Americanwas a result of 'interests' being secured and enhanced. Thus, it was not somuch the extant fact that we were a plural nation, but that we seized uponsome parts of our distinct cultures to highlight and transmit. Schooling,therefore provided a rich arena in which the various cultures emphasizedwhat culture participants took to be the interests of the respective group. Itwas 'fiesta' and 'mardi gras', 'taco' and 'gumbo', that were selected andtransmitted as representative.

Finally, it must be pointed out that the view of ethnicity stressed here isnot linked to 'political correctness'. Conservative critics of multi-culturaland multi-ethnic teaching in the schools seek to defeat such efforts byartificially grounding it in radical difference. The position advocated here isone in which membership in ethnic community is a commitment to seek

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both uniqueness and similarities with others. Such a view of culturalparticipation as humanistic is necessary in American democratic society ifwe are to live together harmoniously.

Ethno-democracy and ethics

Ethno-democracy

Bull, Fruehling and Chattergy (1992) have explored three political theories,Liberal, Democratic and Communitarian, as they may inform ethicaldecisions arising from cultural and linguistic differences. The notion thatpolitical configurations and attitudes shape the organizational culture is notnew, however the degree to which Liberal Realism, Democratic and otherviews inform a mode of interpersonal transaction in school leadership needsexploration.

'Discursive democracy', or 'participatory democracy', names a newnotion of democratic arrangement that has viability for the new culturallysensitive school (Dryzek 1990). Democracy has historically been reduced topolitical structure first, and political processes second. However, what isrequired is a kind of democracy that allows for both arrangements anddirections that enhance the lives of participants. It is, of necessity, apolitical way of life, but beyond this it is an ethical mode of living as well.

Attached to this belief that democracy ranged beyond mere voting andpaying taxes, we find a fundamental and unique regard for the rights ofcitizens. School participant are attracted to the mechanisms whereby theyare protected and insulated from unfair treatment. But too much attentionto rights blurs our responsibilities. Democracy rests upon each persondoing their part to make it work. Sacrifice has been slighted in this regard.Each wishes rights, but no-one wishes to accept responsibility.

Viewed as a social and personal way of life, democracy, John Deweyargued, means that we consider others and their interests. We take intoview what impact, what effect, our policies and choices may have on othersin the community and society. Ethics is useless in a vacuum, but in the richtapestry of the American republic, we require ethical rectitude in order toconduct our daily business. Schools are the places for this democratic socialethic to be taught and followed. Students of school leadership must beprovided opportunities to learn ethical decision-making as well as how toprovide occasions for teaching/learning to be conducted in an ethicalatmosphere. How we treat others is derived from our conception of self andothers. Too often there is a gulf between these two concepts. Case studiesfor administrators must be infused with ethical dilemmas and everyopportunity must be provided for new leaders to engage in ethical decision-making. Unfortunately, we have been lax in this dimension of adminis-trator preparation.

Democracy may contain certain enabling values or process ideas thatmake it a way of designed living. A kind of, what I shall term 'ethno-democracy', results from the separation of democracy into enabling values(values that warrant and back democracy over other forms of socio-political

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arrangement) and content values (which number ethnic identity, equality,mutuality, and the value of freedom and inquiry). Actual democracy maybe detailed through voting, judicial fairness, legislative action, and so on;however, these procedural matters are supported by a more fundamentalset of commitments. When the new school leader accepts bureaucracy asunchanging and human motives as given, the opportunity to engage intransactional leadership is curtailed. However, if the school leader-to-be isinvested with a critical and emancipatory perspective, involving a recastingof conventional hegemonic and disabling socio-cultural narrative practices,the reconstructed school leadership will succeed beyond our wildest hopes.

Ethno-democracy enabling values

The key enabling values of such a vision of democracy for the schools arethe following:

(1) Mutuality is a value that highlights a critical administrative practicemodel. Here the leader-to-be learns to consider the diverse interests anddesires of persons and groups, sees these as mutually reinforcing andimportant and seeks to provide a critical design for their emergence andsustenance.

(2) Non-foundationalism is a second feature of the new democracy. Thehistoric desire has been to ground executive administration in some set ofabsolute ideals or metanarratives. This move has hampered and stiltedgrowth. School leaders must be alert to the idealists' efforts to introduceparalyzing structures that fail to guide living designs, but serve asmarginalizing ends-in-themselves. A non-foundational view assumes thereare no once-and-for-all ideals by which competing interests are to bejudged. Each conflict is resolved through the best pragmatic meansavailable. This critical pragmatic maxim has been evident in the writings ofDewey, Wittgenstein, Rorty, Bernstein and others.

(3) Community is another vital component of the new musculardemocracy. Unity, solidarity, and cohesiveness are three allied values thatserve critical administrative practice. Following Rorty (1989) it is proposedthat one of the key values of any administered group is that of communalcohesiveness. In stark contrast to the chaos of schools in some inner citysettings, leaders must see ways to critically appraise the divisive anddiscordant, with an eye to growth of conjoint and cooperative living.

A new search for community is underway. Schools are minicommunities and as such they require nurture. The leader must listen tofollowers, pay attention to service, and provide a 'soft touch' in dealing withpersons. Community and collective practice is superior to individual egogratification.

(4) Discourse forms one of the criterial features of this new democracy.Dialogue and conversation are pledged to the value of continuous discussionand debate, regarding not only the ends, but also the means of reachinggoals. Openness is related to the discourse value. As a process value,discursiveness is taken to be intimately connected to practice (discourse/

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practice), rather than being antecedent to practice. In the new leadership, itis argued that dialogue is a learned process and must be carried intoprofessional work. Ira Shor in Empowering Education: Critical Teaching forSocial Change (1992), points out that what is needed in empowerment is a'third idiom', a dialogue of teaching/learning that simultaneously isconcrete and conceptual, that is academic as well as conversational, onethat is critical and accessible (254-255). I would add that this third idiom isnecessarily an ethno-humanistic dialogic that embraces everyday life indemocratic context as a form of art that emancipates, enriches and enlargesour experience.

(5) Critical Pragmatism identifies the last, and most inclusive, processvalue of democracy. Critical pragmatism as a method of intelligence hashistoric roots in the works of John Dewey, John L. Childs, Kenneth Benne,and R. Bruce Raup. Key ingredients of this method are: (a) Theemancipation of critical human enquiry and the embrace of experimentalism;(b) edification (through artistic perception in the present instance); (c)emphasis placed upon ends-in-view, fruits, and results; (d) the denial ofmetanarratives and absolutes; and, (e) a rejection of all dualisms (Maxcy 1991:16-19).

Ethics

Three dimensions of ethics are stressed: ethical theory; ethical character;and, caring. Leaders-to-be should be familiarized with the various theoriesof ethics. Ethics and leadership are closely allied. Educational decisions areoften centred on oughts. Where leaders recommend courses of action, thewarrant for such decisions should be weighed against the ethically correct.At the grossest level, leaders should be able to sort out decisions based onprinciple versus consequences. Knowing ethical theory allows for a richer,more informed path to action.

Earlier in this essay, mention was made of democracy as an ethical wayof life. This point is important. Ethnic culture is not only a matter oflinguistic, artistic, and other artifactual forms, it is a patterned ethos orcultural character. Leaders-to-be who are vested in the knowledge andwisdom of their ethnic group are better able to function in the complexcommunities they will inhabit. Culture is ever-changing. The ethos ofethnic culture is changing. Principals must be aware of these changes asseen through the lens of ethos.

It should be recognized that ethics begins at home; and in this case theethnic home. Ethnicity and ethics are intrinsic in relationship. Noddings(1984) talks of an 'ethic of caring', by which she has in mind drawing uponthe essentially feminine capacity to be a caring one who seeks the morallybest solution for the cared for. When we translate this into an ethic of ethniccaring, it is clear that non-Hispanic-Americans must care about Hispanic-Americans; non-African-Americans must care about African-Americans;Hispanic-Americans must care about African-Americans, and so forth.However, it also illustrates the natural history of ethnic caring as arising inthe close-knit family. The task for educators of minority culture leaders is to

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teach for such ethnic caring at the familial and face-to-face communitylevels, but, as Giroux, McLaren and others have argued, we must also beaware of the border crossings, the move across divisions in which weembrace the marginalized group members of society who are 'other'.

In sum, leaders should be instructed through a preparation programmein the nuances of ethical theory. They may come, therefore, to understandconcrete ethical dilemmas and to sort out ways of analysing them. Onceanalysis is complete, a course of action must be determined. And, after theaction is taken, an assessment of the results made. By learning to engage inthe complete act of ethical behaviour, the leader-to-be will approach anethical attitude that is attached to certain traits of ethical character. Thecritical ethno-democratic leadership paradigm should also explore howcharacter and character traits have manifested themselves in historic leadersand leadership situations (English, forthcoming). And, we must be ready toemphasize human caring for ethnic values and actions.

What is essential to understand here is the fact that educationalleadership is never exclusively rational. Rather, leading is a matter of thehuman heart and an ethic of care is essential to educational leadership inparticular.

What is being argued for here is the re-thinking of democracy so that itprovides a co-fluent channel to emancipatory educational leadership. Thispattern of ethno-democracy is social and political, but beyond this it is away of orchestrated ethical living that is dedicated to human freedom,critical inquiry and the testing of ideas against the fabric of experience.

Design for educational leadership

By conceiving of leadership as an aesthetic form of life, it is possible torelieve administrators, managers and other executives of the responsibilityto operate as if they are bureaucrats 'in control'. And conversely, teachers,students and parents may come to engage in leadership as empoweredindividuals involved in an artful school living.

Bolman and Deal (1990) speak of 'artistry' in reframing organizations,like schools. I wish to move beyond this mere organizational re-configuration to the melding of art with leadership. Eisner (1991) speaksof 'connoisseurship' as applied to inquiry. However, although educators-as-leaders are interested in qualitative inquiry, it is the realm of praxis thatinforms my concern here. Leadership as a form of art may be seen as: (1)the creative rendering of human expressive experience; and (2) a way ofenvisioning information for the improvement of practice. Both of theseinitiatives rest upon the assumption that at the heart of human living is theexperience of quality.

Quality

The insight that human experience is essentially first a matter of quality hasbeen the contribution of pragmatists such as John Dewey and Charles

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Sanders Peirce. Dewey in Art as Experience (1934) saw experience as theshaping of human actions in terms of value, lending the qualitative to themanifest behaviours of humans. Peirce argued that all experience was amatter of raw 'firstness', or the implicit quality residing there withoutreflection or anticipation.

Leadership, as a matter of human transaction (an affair of affairs), hasas its incipient given, the aesthetic category of qualitative value.Educational leadership is thus a type of interaction that bears value inpre-rational form. The artist understands that the eye sees value first.Everything in nature is presented to our vision in terms of valuerelationships. That is to say that we see light and dark and understandthese in terms of contrast. Life appears through shades and gradations ofintensity.

Applied to school leadership, we see that leading is a matter ofqualitative experience highlighted or raised to the level of perception suchthat cultural participants see the consummatory nature of these valuetransactions. Just as the artist works with values and contrasts to elicitintensity, leadership is the operative application of emancipation ofdirection and control over the human interactions in an organization orassociation. Tufte (1990) points out that we may use graphic depictions ofvarious kinds, and that each may provide a different slant and bring newmeanings to data. This is true of artistic leadership as well where leadinginvolves grasping the epistemological value of information in schoolsettings.

What is proposed is that educational leaders be educated in artisticperception and skills so that they may engage in the design of moreappropriate contexts within which learners are to live and work. Artisticattitude provides the perceptive apparatus through which leaders mayexamine alternative patterns of rendering chaos into order.

Composition

One facet of design is composing. Composition is part of a painting'smeaning. Bateson (1989) speaks of 'composing a life', but we may expandthis to leading as composing an organizational life. The fruits of design arefound in the rhythms of choice. In the new participatory approaches toeducational administration, the leader is moved to understand how toorchestrate the symphonic elements of the school organization. Composi-tion is at once the articulation of difference into a harmony of meanings sothat players and audience experience the enjoyment of teaching and learning(Maxcy 1992: 337-340).

Educational leadership, seen as art, capitalizes on improvisation.Leaders must be able to respond to the new in terms of the old byunderstanding the underlying grammar and emerging picture. A goodorganizational life, like a good life in general, has balance and diversity: Itentails both order and chaos. The improviser works with the parts byplanning (and risking). Avenues for creative solution of complex problemsemerge from the design attitude. For administrators-to-be, an introduction

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to the composing dimension provides avenues for the creative solution toproblems, a type of leadership emerges that is creative and innovative.

Line

Interestingly, since at least the first half of the nineteenth century,educational organizations relied most upon linear characterization to denoteauthority and track paths of command. Organizational charts appeared.'Line and staff arrangements are specified. Schools have embracedpyramid-shaped patterns of power. Today, school re-structuring hasprompted a re-thinking of the lines of authority. The bureaucracy has beenflattened out. Cooperative and collegial school organizations revealcomplexity through 'work groups', 'shared decision-making', and so forth.New kinds of lines of force and intensity, artful representations of the truerways in which teaching/learning are carried on successfully have appeared.Just as the artist masters line before all else, educational leaders must cometo learn the new ways in which linearity impacts school organization for aricher cultural pluralism.

Colour

To take another dimension of design, colour, we may see how designing isused in aesthetic characterizations of experience to provide an enrichmentof that experience. Colour moves us from contrast and intensity, from high-key to low-key difference. Design artists speak of monochromatic (singlecolour), polychromatic (many colours), and complementary (familymember colours). Where artists use colour they speak of the 'temperature'of the picture. Warm or cool influences the perception of the canvas.Designers are never without a range of colours on their palette, workingthese into a picture so that washes of light may complement or highlightfeatures of the canvas.

Colour in leadership is the added dimension of recognition andmanagement of warmth and coolness in value components of organization.Just as verbal expression conveys emotion and determination, the schoolmay capture or suppress ethnic colour. We respond differently to differingcolours. The leaders must recognize colour and learn to use colourvariations to enhance enthusiasm for learning and teaching. Colour carriesand enhances emotions. We are made happy or sad by colour. Colourmoves us to embrace or reject. Red and orange mean warning. Blue meansquiet and calm. Drab interiors, dull dress, colourless lectures — all nullifywhat may be in other ways exciting educational experiences.

Style and technique

While much has been written about leadership style, viewed from thestandpoint of artistry style takes on new meanings. Style for artistic

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leadership is the special flair a leader manifests in doing ordinary andextraordinary things.

There are many methods used to lead groups. The technique ofleadership is different in differing organizational settings (contrast themilitary with a counselling situation). School leaders differ as well. Theymust learn to reach out, experiment, test and analyse to determine theproper style and technique for so arranging the components of value, lineand colour so that a harmonious composition results. The chaos of discordantand severed communications, interactions and actions will be replaced byan orchestrated and harmonious pluralism. As Horace Kallen stated , wewill discover a cultural pluralism that is orchestrated, not by a singleconductor, but rather through the conjoint interactions of the various anddifferent groups of instruments.

By attending to school organization from the standpoint of art (andhere I am only using the example of painting), we may see a shift in theconception of leadership from that of external bureaucratic managementto that of creative composition of ethnic elements. Each educationalexperience may be taken in a variety of ways. A value relativism abideshere. It is vital to demonstrate the various washes that are part of everyorganization, so much like the hermeneutic readings. Each successiveone reveals and contrasts meanings. The core experience is dramatizedby a variety of renderings and these are aesthetic rather than linear andrational. Schooling is closer to a work of art than it is to an engineeredmachine. Precision gives way to excitement. Efficiency yields to richness.School organization is a matter of associated living that requires anaesthetic sense if the fruits of teaching/learning are to be garnered,sustained and enlarged.

Preparation

University courses in school facility planning, organizational managementand school budgeting are important places to teach administrators-to-bethe importance of quality, composition, line and colour for the world ofschooling. However, we must also see colour play a part in other coursesand practical experiences. We must be on the alert for artistic elements inour lives, learn how to use these to improve interactions of culturalmembers. Ethnic artistic values and renderings are an untapped resource.Principals, teachers, students and parents bringing ethnic quality,composition, line and colour into the classroom have a serious impact onschool learning and attentive behaviour. This dimension of leadership is inneed of study in the widest possible curricular way.

In conclusion, what is at stake here is a notion of leadership design thatincorporates: (1) democratic collaborative skills such that rich dialogueforms the ground for ethnic self-understanding and community success;and, (2) a variety of disciplinary knowledges (learning theory, school law,economics and budgetary practices, political and sociological information,etc.). Each is drawn upon to aid principals in building a vision for the ethnicschool.

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Ethno-democratic educational empowerment

Before we tackle cultural empowerment, several prior questions should beaddressed: What is power? What is empowerment? What are the uniquecharacteristics of power/empowerment in ethno-democratic culture?

First, it is vital to see power as a matter of transaction or exchange,rather than as has been defined in Newtonian physics terms as a vectoringof force. Socio-political power is not to be reduced to strength, size orspeed. Rather, power from a socio-political perspective, especially since theturn toward postmodernity, is taken to be a matter of intensity, influenceand direction. 'Empowerment', given this new notion of power, is neitherconferred upon the powerless by the powerful, nor is it seized by thepowerless from the powerful. Empowerment is self-emancipation arisingout of critical consciousness. In this sense, power is always latent andpotential. Each teacher in the school has power and each administrator iscapable of becoming empowered — through the occasions and incidents oflived experience. Power/empowerment, given this meaning, is not found inamounts or measured in degrees. Power/empowerment is a subtle andreleasing control over subsequent events that seeks to enrich them in termsof present experiences.

Viewed from an ethnological standpoint, 'power' and 'empowerment'are characteristics of transactions among cultural participants. Rites andrituals play out conferral dramas of power/empowerment so as to sanctionrule and law. Courtroom judge and attorney, minister and priest, teacherand principal — each engages in culturally sanctioning actions that conferpower and empower. These behaviours must be seen in their ceremonialface. (Awarding diplomas, for example, is a sanctioning activity thatempowers learners to practice their skills or trade.) It is vital for thoseengaged in the preparation of school leaders to see the role of awards,certificates, honours and other badges of arrival, and to see the ceremonialnature of such entitlements of power. Terminological, linguistic specifica-tions ('Master Teacher', 'Lead Teacher', etc.), are more manifestations ofthe cultural import of empowerment as a ceremonial device to authenticateprofessional praxis. We must be alert to these devices and their impactupon school leaders and the authenticity they lend to the conduct ofeducational labour.

The case of Hispanics in educational empowerment for anew leadership

The search for empowerment in North America of persons of Spanishheritage has a long history. When we look at Chicano history, five periodsare discernible. Beginning with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848,these five periods are: The Politics of Resistance (1850-1915); Accom-modation (1915-1945); Social Change (1945-1965); Protest (1965-1974),and Moderation and Recognition (1974-present) (Villarreal 1988: 1-9).

Delgado-Gaitan (1992) reports that contrary to conventional socialscience expectations, Mexican-American families exhibited three

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'strengths' that augured well for socializing children to education. Delgado-Gaitan identified, physical resources, emotional climate and interpersonalinteractions as significant components. She argues that,

The parents' social linkages outside the home served to facilitate an exchange of informationabout children's schooling issues. Parents provided children with the emotional support thatencouraged them to value education. The common thread with all parents was that they caredabout their children's education. (495)

She went on to say that the ways in which parents exercised their rolesvaried, particularly relative to homework.

Villarreal (1988) in discussing empowerment found that Mexican-Americans entered a new period of empowerment in the mid-1970s. Theradical political activities of the Mexican-Americans were replaced by anew form of empowerment emphasizing political recognition and modera-tion. The Mexican-American transformation paralleled the national swingtoward conservativism. Mexican-American leadership shifted to a newelite. The empowerment politics of the post-1974 period has been one ofgreater participation, a dilution of the many levels of politicization, andideological modifications. The new recognition of Hispanicity produced anew kind of leadership in which leaders displayed moderation, andknowledge of the dominant political system. Young, educated andarticulate, these leaders were assimilated into mainstream culture. Theywere also highly visible to the news media. The new leadership is similar toAnglo-American leadership in the fact that it is less issue-oriented and issupportive of coalitions between Anglo and Mexican-Americans. Mexican-Americans are often short of the tools that enable them to empowerthemselves. While Villarreal (1988) stresses the need for informationprocessing and political aggressiveness as necessary for empowerment, itwould seem that educational attainment is a prerequisite for both of these.The bulk of the Spanish-speaking community remains powerless despitethe growth of this group, Villarreal concludes. That is what is required isplanning for empowerment.

The central argument here is that only through empowerment canAmericans of Spanish heritage secure educational leadership in the schools.And, without this leadership the greater attainment of these people isunlikely. Therefore, the proposal is to provide a theoretical model andjustification for steps toward reconstructing the leadership in Hispanic-American educational centres. In particular, the concern is to recast theprincipal's role in the Hispanic-American school and community such thateducational attainment is improved (hence enlarging Hispanic-Americanempowerment).

Empowerment conceived of as a fully freed leadership has at its nexus areading of texts as related to the conditions out of which Hispanic-Americans emerge. Ira Shor (1992) tells us how to achieve empowermentthrough dialogue and 'problem-posing'. The role of the leader (in this casethe teacher) is to guide rather than lecture, coax rather than dictate.Empowerment is frightening and foreign to students, teachers, parents andothers. The path to empowerment is via teaching. The new ethno-humanistic leader must utilize thoughtful methods of bringing about the

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active role-taking in a participatory critical democracy. Direct socialinvolvement is thus encouraged through the reading and discussion withingroups of the literature of the Hispanic culture and/or the literature thatliberates individuals from their sense of powerlessness. Scholes (1985) andCherryholmes (1988) speak of 'textual power' and the processes wherebycultural actors learn to reconstruct meanings that impact their lives. AsFreire (1970, 1973) has argued, it is necessary that disadvantaged peoplesliving in a 'culture of silence' learn to read texts that promote'conscientization' of their situation. Once one is literate regarding one'scultural heritage and current condition, the process of self-understandingand potential for contribution to society is unleashed.

As John Dewey argued, it is vital to retain ethnic cultural values as wellas promote cross-cultural process values. Ethnic variations, such as dressand lifestyle, are not held to be incompatible with the democratic processvalues of tolerance for others, majority rule, respect for minority rights, andso on. Importantly, a new pattern of cultural richness and diversity is to bebased upon freer association formed out of human interest and sharedconcern. What is required is an open society of freely formed and forminginterest groups.

Conclusions

The remarks above have comprised an effort to reconstruct the meaning ofleadership for the schools through re-configuring older views of schooladministration/management along the lines of a critically pragmaticaesthetic democracy. This new pattern of ethno-democratic leadership, ithas been argued here, has attached to it a theory of cultural pluralism thatcelebrates distinctness and union with others, a conception of ethnicity ashumanistic, a new vision of democracy as a personal and social way ofliving, artistic design to replace bureaucratic manipulation as organizationaltechnique, and, power and empowerment seen as implicit in everyeducational transaction.

It has been further argued that the notion of design provideseducational leadership with the intellectual and practical resources forenlarging and enervating the plural nature of American democraticculture in the face of conflicts and controversies raking the schools.Taking seriously ethnic, racial and other uniquenesses in our society;developing a university programme for the preparation of school leaderswhich builds upon such diversity; and re-enforcing such ethno-humanistic-democratic norms through educational leadership shouldaid minorities to gain control and direction over their identities, unleashnew self-understanding, and propel vital contributions to communityand nation.

References

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preparing school principals for ethno‐democratic leadership

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