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UNEP-WCMC technical report

Preliminary overview of

the genus Anguilla

(Version edited for public release)

2 Preliminary overview of the genus Anguilla

Prepared for The European Commission, Directorate General Environment, Directorate E - Global & Regional

Challenges, LIFE ENV.E.2. – Global Sustainability, Trade & Multilateral Agreements, Brussels,

Belgium

Published September 2015

Copyright European Commission 2015

Citation UNEP-WCMC. 2015. Preliminary overview of the genus Anguilla. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.

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3 Introduction

As a major importer of wildlife, the EU is considering potential engagement with range States to support their preparation for the upcoming CITES CoP17. The genus Anguilla was considered to warrant further assessment in this context, as to whether further action may be required for the genus as a whole or for individual species. This document provides a high-level overview of the various species in this genus (other than the Appendix-II listed Anguilla anguilla) to assist with this assessment.

This document provides basic overviews of relevant data for all species included in the genus

Anguilla, with the exception of A. anguilla. These 16 overviews are primarily based on the IUCN

Red List assessments, where available. Member States are invited to consider whether these taxa

may merit further consideration in preparation for the upcoming CoP17.

Overview of the genus Anguilla - trade

Eels, Anguilla spp., are consumed globally, and East-Asian countries play a major role in the

Anguilla industry (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). More than 90% of Anguilla production is based on

eel farming, which requires wild-caught glass eels for stocking, as the captive reproduction and

raising of larvae to glass eel stage is not commercially viable yet (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015).

Global annual exports, as recorded by the FAO at the genus level, averaged around 20 000 t per

year in the late 1970s (valued at 55-95 million US dollars/year), rising to over 130 000 t in 2000

(valued at 1000 million US dollars/year). Annual global exports then declined to slightly over

80 000 t in 2008 and 2009 (valued at more than 800 million US dollars/year) (FAO 2013 in Jacoby

et al., 2014a). China and Taiwan PoC exported nearly 75% of this trade while Japan imported over

75% of all trade (FAO 2013 in Jacoby et al., 2014a). However, considerable recent declines in

Japan’s eel consumption were reported, with consumer behaviour being influenced by concerns

over chemicals used in Chinese eel production, and price increases for products due to changes in

eel fry supplies for farms (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Meanwhile, China’s domestic consumption

appears to have increased (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Furthermore, countries in South-East Asia

such as the Philippines and Indonesia were noted to have become an increasingly important

exporter of Anguilla spp. in recent years (Crook, 2014).

The frequent discrepancies in global trade data, whereby customs data and the data reported to

FAO by importers and exporters may differ considerably, and prevalent illegal, unregulated and

unreported (IUU) fishing for eel fry and glass eels and illegal trade in eels/eel products were

considered to be of concern (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015).

Eastern Asian eel farming initially relied on A. japonica and shifted to A. anguilla once the former

species’ availability was reduced; the EU ban of all trade in A. anguilla in 2010 meant that other

Anguilla species originating in South-East Asia and the Americas became more important

alternatives for the eel farming industry (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). The eel industry in East Asia

was found to continue to evolve to cope with changes in supply, whilst global production and

consumption appeared to be declining due to reduced species and eel fry availability, as well as

other factors (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Crook and Nakamura (2013) voiced concerns over the

shifts in exploitation affecting this genus, whereby once one Anguilla species becomes over-

exploited, trade shifts towards another species to satisfy the demand.

Further details on the distribution, conservation status, exploitation levels and other relevant

information for each Anguilla species is provided in Table 1.

4 Table 1: Overview of Anguilla species (other than A. anguilla) for consideration in preparation for CoP17

Scientific name

(Common name)

Distribution Population status

and trends

Biology Trade Previous CITES discussions

Protection status

Actinopterygii

Anguillidae

Anguilla australis

(Short-finned Eel)

(Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Widespread throughout the tropical and temperate South-western Pacific, including New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Chatham Islands, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island and mainland Australia (Gomon and Bray, 2011a).

Not yet assessed by the IUCN.

Population status and trend unknown.

Semelparous [spawning once in a lifetime] and catadromous [migrate from freshwater down to the sea to spawn].

Larvae metamorphose to the glass eel stage on continental shelf. Glass eels move into estuaries and rivers and developing into elvers, which is followed by a secondary upstream migration into freshwater. Adults may remain in freshwater environments for 10-20 years (males mature at ~14 years, females at 18-24 years) before migrating to the sea to breed (Gomon and Bray, 2011a).

A. australis resembles A. obscura (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014g).

A small but important commercial fishery exists for A. australis in south-eastern Australia. Most catch is exported overseas, either frozen or smoked. A small aquaculture industry also exists with all life-history stages caught from the wild and grown to a marketable size in lakes, swamps, wetlands and farm dams. Most of the production occurs in Victoria (Gomon and Bray, 2011a).

Australia: Not currently listed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC) (Gomon and Bray, 2011a). New Zealand: Not protected, but quota management system for eels in place (explained more fully under

A. dieffenbachii). Protection status in other range states not identified.

Anguilla bengalensis (Mottled Eel) (Jacoby et al., 2014a; Talwar and Jhingran 1991).

Very widely distributed, with two subpopulations, which are in some cases referred to as two subspecies:

- Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis, which occurs in countries of the Indian Ocean region, including in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and also in southeast Africa;

- A. bengalensis labiata, which occurs in Eastern

Categorised as Near Threatened by the IUCN in 2014.

Population trend unknown, but population decline of close to 30% over the last 3 generations (36 years) suspected. Potential uplisting to higher threat category thought to potentially be more appropriate.

Semelparous and catadromous. Breeds in the ocean and migrates into freshwaters and estuaries as juveniles, which migrate up rivers and streams to mature in pools; some individuals remain in coastal waters.

All species and subspecies Anguilla share a simple overall morphology and colour pattern, making them difficult to distinguish

Little species-specific information available.

Exploited for consumption and possibly farmed in Africa; exports of eels have been low over last 10 years, but have begun to increase in recent years, but species are mixed.

Of considerable commercial value in India. It is unknown whether

India: Classified as ‘Endangered’, but harvesting still occurs (Molur and Walker 1998 in Jacoby et al., 2014a). Protection status in other range states not identified.

5 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

Africa, from around the Phongolo in South Africa as far north as Kenya, and as a vagrant in the Arabian peninsula (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014a).

Common in eastern and south-eastern African water systems but declines observed and some anecdotal evidence for localised extirpation.

Most common eel in India, but localised declines in area of occupancy and extent/quality of habitat, as well as population declines; categorised as ‘Endangered’ nationally (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014a).

without closer examination/genetic testing.

A. bengalensis is difficult to distinguish from A. marmorata (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014a).

glass eels of this species are traded nationally or internationally, as they may be sold under incorrect names. Sold on local markets in India and Bangladesh as yellow or silver eel. Growing demand in China (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014a).

Anguilla bicolor (Shortfin Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Widespread distribution with two subpopulations, which are in some cases referred to as two subspecies:

- Anguilla bicolor bicolor, which is found in Indian Ocean from the east coast of Africa, Arabian Peninsula across to north-western Australia and greater Sundaland;

- Anguilla bicolor pacifica, which is found in the Indo-West Pacific from China, Taiwan PoC, Viet Nam, Philippines and the Indonesian islands of Borneo, Sulawesi, New Guinea and the Marianas (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014b).


Population trend unknown, but population decline of close to 30% over the last 3 generations (24 years) suspected. Little quantitative information available on population status, but clear that the number of glass eels being exported is rapidly rising and may mean that the species may quickly qualify for uplisting to higher threat category.

Not considered common anywhere and low population densities locally (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014b).

Semelparous and catadromous. Spawns in the ocean (off south-west coast of Sumatra for Javan/Sumatran subpopulations) and migrates into freshwaters and estuaries as juveniles, which migrate up rivers into streams where they inhabit pools until they mature, although some individuals (~25% of adults) will remain in coastal/brackish waters.

Age of glass eels at recruitment to the coast is 124-202 days.

Can live for up to 20 years; average age of maturation is younger than those of temperate eels.

A. bicolor is difficult to distinguish from A. obscura (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014b).

Believed to be the next preference [in Japan] after A. japonica, A. anguilla [and A. rostrata] for consumption, with exports rapidly rising to meet demand.

Little species-specific information available, with export data including multiple species. Can be easily purchased in bulk online (live and frozen), and increasingly used to stock farms in China.

According to the FAO, catches of Anguilla spp. in Indonesia and the Philippines is 2000 t and a significant proportion of this may be A. bicolor.

Reportedly also used in the aquarium trade locally (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014b).

China: Not protected (People’s Republic of China, 2004). Number of licences for take restricted (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d). Exports of live eel fry are subject to approval (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Indonesia: Regulation on the Export of Glass Eels (Anguilla spp.) (PP 19/2012), stipulating that all eels exported out of Indonesia must weigh 150g or more (Nijman, 2015). Philippines: export ban in place since May 2012 for juvenile eels not exceeding 15 cm (Crook 2014). Export restrictions in place for several eel commodities in East Asian countries/ territories (see Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Protection status in other range states not identified.

6 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

Anguilla borneensis (Indonesian Longfinned Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Restricted to Borneo Island and the surrounding Celebes Sea and Makassar Strait region (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014a).

Categorised as Vulnerable by the IUCN in 2014.

Population trend unknown, but range has diminished considerably over the last 30 years. Limited information on the population status, but some evidence of depletion or extirpation from Malaysian Borneo. Exploitation of the rainforest along the river edge appears to be main driver of decline (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014a).

Demersal and catadromous. Leptocephali caught in Celebes Sea. Undertakes much smaller-scale migrations than most Anguilla spp. and spawns in waters near to their growth habitat.

Likely to inhabit different areas of freshwater rivers and streams, brackish environments and estuaries.

A borneensis may be difficult to distinguish from A. japonica (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014a).

Little known on trade in this species. A. borneensis is not currently being offered for sale on online, but may be included in mixed catches/shipments sourced from Indonesian waters.

Morphologically very similar to A. japonica, therefore an easily targeted alternative (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014a).

Indonesia: Regulation on the Export of Glass Eels (Anguilla spp.) (PP 19/2012), stipulating that all eels exported out of Indonesia must weigh 150g or more (Nijman, 2015).

Anguilla celebesensis (Celebes Longfin Eel)


Relatively narrow and patchy range; found in the Western Pacific from Indonesia to the southern Philippines, mainly within the Celebes Sea and the Gulf of Tomini, but range still under consideration.

Occasionally identified range as vagrants outside of this (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014b).


Currently very little information on the population status. Population trend unknown, but population decline of close to 30% over the last 3 generations (24 years) expected.

Very low densities locally, while more abundant in some locations (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014b).

Semelparous and catadromous. Recruitment to freshwater may occur all year round, which differs from temperate anguillids. Age of recruitment is 90-122 days (in Poso and Poigar Rivers in Indonesia); it has some of the shortest early life-history parameters of all anguillids. A. celebesensis is thought to undertake much smaller-scale local migrations than other anguillids to spawn in waters near to their growth habitat, with multiple spawning sites.

A celebesensis is particularly similar to A. interioris and A. luzonensis (various

Fishing and trade of Anguilla species is known to occur in several of its range States, but proportion of A. celebesensis in these catches is unknown.

Not currently offered for sale online, and no available information on potential demand for glass eels of this species for supplying East Asian eel farms (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014b).

Indonesia: Regulation on the Export of Glass Eels (Anguilla spp.) (PP 19/2012), stipulating that all eels exported out of Indonesia must weigh 150g or more (Nijman, 2015). Philippines: export ban in place since May 2012 for juvenile eels not exceeding 15 cm (Crook 2014). Protection status in other range states not identified.

7 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014b).

Anguilla

dieffenbachii (New Zealand Longfin Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Endemic to New Zealand in the southwest Pacific (Eschmeyer, 2015).


Ranked as ‘At Risk - Declining’ in the New Zealand Threat Classification System listings in 2013 (Goodman et al. 2014).

Dramatic declines can be inferred by reductions in yearly catch since the 1970’s (Jellyman 2007).

Semelparous and catadromous. Very long lived, with records of females reaching 106 years old. Recruitment of glass eels into the freshwater river networks in New Zealand is a very variable process which is thought to be affected by the El Niño and La Niña Southern Oscillations (McDowall 1990; Todd 1980).

Traditionally important food resource for Māori. Commercial fishing since 1960s, with yearly catch of 2000t by the 1970s, but declining in 1980s, with almost half this taken in 2000’s.

Total Allowable Catch has not been reached in any fishing season since 2007 (Jellyman 2007).

Quota management system introduced in 2000 for the South Island, and in 2004 for the North Island, which sets limits to minimum and maximum size (220g and 4kg, respectively) and the Total Allowable Catch (TAC). Māori have a 20% allocation of fishery stocks. Capture and export of glass eels has been prohibited (Anon., 2004; Beentjes et al. 2005; Jellyman 2007).

Anguilla interioris (Highlands Long-finned Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Limited information available on distribution, but currently known only from the northern half of New Guinea. However, larvae were found in the Indonesian Seas around Central Sulawesi, the Western Central Pacific and in the eastern Indian Ocean. May, therefore, have multiple spawning sites, and be divided into continental subpopulations with a wider distribution than presently thought (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014c).

Classified as Data Deficient by the IUCN in 2014.

Little known about the population status, partly due to difficultly visually differentiating this species from others, but thought to have relatively small population. Population trend unknown (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014c).

Catadromous, and inhabits tropical freshwater, brackish and marine ecosystems. Spawning thought to take place somewhere in the seas around northern New Guinea - the exact location is unknown.

A. interioris is particularly similar to A. megastoma and A. luzonensis (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014c).

Fishing and trade of Anguilla species is known to occur in its range States, particularly in Indonesia, but the proportion of A. interioris in these catches is thought to be very small.

A. interioris is not being offered for sale online; no information available on potential demand for glass eels for supplying East Asian eel farms (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014c).

Indonesia: Regulation on the Export of Glass Eels (Anguilla spp.) (PP 19/2012), stipulating that all eels exported out of Indonesia must weigh 150g or more (Nijman, 2015).

Anguilla japonica

(Japanese Eel)


Southern Pacific coast of Japan, south to Hainan Island, China, Taiwan PoC and the Republic of Korea (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d).

Categorised as Endangered by the IUCN in 2014 (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d).

Decline in abundance of mature eels estimated at 50% over the last 30 years (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d).

Larvae develop in pelagic ocean areas and drift to their estuarine recruitment areas over 5-6 months, where they metamorphose into glass eels (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014). A proportion of the glass eels moves upstream to feed and grow as yellow eels, while some remain in saline waters to

(See information above on general anguillid species trade)

Overfishing, particularly of glass eels to stock fish farms, considered a threat (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014). Recruitment varies

East Asian countries/ territories are trying to implement regional measures instead of a potential CITES listing (see e.g.

Japan: Export of live eel fry (≤ 13 g) from Japan has been regulated by the Export Trade Control Order since 1976, and currently, exports of live eel fry are banned Dec-March, and need to be approved by authorities April-Nov (Shiraishi and Crook 2015). Capture of glass eels for aquaculture or research permitted

8 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

mature (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014). Matured silver eels migrate back to their spawning area, the region along the western side of the seamount chain of the Mariana Ridge (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d).

year by year, and when A. japonica is not available, other Anguilla species are sourced, although A. japonica is always the preferred choice (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015).

China et al., undated).

for certain months of the year only and requires a licence; capture of silver eel prohibited or restricted since 2013 in three of the main glass eel-fishing prefectures (Miyazaki, Kumamoto and Kagoshima) China: Not protected (People’s Republic of China, 2004). Number of licences for take restricted (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d). Exports of live eel fry are subject to approval (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Taiwan, POC: glass eel harvesting season controlled (seven months in 2013-14, reduced to 4 months for 2014-15) (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015), and take of eels larger than 8cm TL prohibited in most major rivers (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d).

Export restrictions in place for several eel commodities in East Asian countries/ territories (see Shiraishi and Crook, 2015).

Anguilla luzonensis (Philippine Mottled Eel) Only described as species in 2009 (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014e; Wantanabe et al., 2009).

Geographic distribution is thought to be very small, found only on the Philippine island of Luzon and rarely in Mindanao; vagrants in Taiwan PoC. May also be found on other islands in the Philippines, but this remains unconfirmed (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014e).


Population trend unknown. Recently discovered species (2009), therefore very little information. Thought to possibly warrant uplisting to a higher threat category (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014e).

Catadromous, thought to spawn in areas in the North Pacific. Estimated to begin metamorphosis at ages of 104–147 days and recruit at 130–177 days old. Juveniles migrate upstream, inhabiting freshwater to mature prior to final spawning migration.

Appears to have very specific habitat preferences in small river branches up in mountains.

Threatened by overexploitation in the Philippines. Mixed fishery for eels in the Philippines, but information on national catch and trade is not species-specific. The country supplies East Asian farms and increasing quantities of exports of glass eels of concern. Based on species composition of Anguilla glass eels in the Cagayan River, at least 30 tonnes of A. luzonensis could have been exported

Philippines: export ban in place since May 2012 for juvenile eels under 15 cm (but illegal export still takes place) (Crook 2014)

9 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

A. luzonensis is particularly similar to A. celebensis and A. interioris (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014e).

to East Asia in the last 10 years (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014e).

Anguilla marmorata (Marbled Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Widest geographical distribution of anguillids.

Range covers the east coast of Africa, eastwards across the Indian Ocean, including India and Sri Lanka, the Indo-Pacific region, and the island chains in the central South Pacific. Latitudinally, range extends from south-western Japan, Taiwan PoC and south-eastern China, to Viet Nam and Malaysia, with its most southern distribution in the Southern Cape in South Africa. In Africa it is restricted to southern Africa. Individuals have been found in the Pacific and the Galapagos Islands, but unclear if this is natural migration, vagrant individuals, or introduction (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014f).

Categorised as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2014.

No detailed information on population size, and while population trend is unknown, there is no evidence of declines. However, effective population size may be much smaller than in all other Anguilla species.

Subpopulations are impacted by local threats, and local declines have been shown in some areas (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014f).

Semelparous and catadromous, with a continued debate over the number of isolated subpopulations and spawning grounds.

Found in freshwater, brackish and saline habitats during its continental growth stages. Ages at metamorphosis from the larval stage and recruitment thought to be approximately 125 and 155 days, respectively. Yellow eel growth stage may be as short as 2-3 years in warm productive habitats, but about 6-20 years + in more northerly latitudes (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014f).

Highly commercial food fish, with potential risk of overfishing for food and for stocking of farms. Taken in subsistence and commercial fishery across areas of its range. In high demand in China.

Likely to be caught alongside multiple other anguillid species, due to broad distribution. Little species-specific information available.

Relatively easy to buy in bulk online, as glass eels, live adult eels and frozen eels. Offered mainly from suppliers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Viet Nam and Sri Lanka. Increasingly used to stock farms in China. About 35 tonnes of A. marmorata were exported to Hong Kong in the last 10 years from the Philippines alone (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014f).

China: Assessed as 'II Rare and Valuable’ in the Wildlife Conservation Act Republic of China (Taiwan) (Wang 1998 in Jacoby and Gollock 2014). Japan: Export of live eel fry (≤ 13 g) from Japan has been regulated by the Export Trade Control Order since 1976, and currently, exports of live eel fry are banned Dec-March, and need to be approved by authorities April-Nov (Shiraishi and Crook 2015). Capture of glass eels for aquaculture or research permitted for certain months of the year only and requires a licence; capture of silver eel prohibited or restricted since 2013 in three of the main glass eel-fishing prefectures (Miyazaki, Kumamoto and Kagoshima). Indonesia: Regulation on the Export of Glass Eels (Anguilla spp.) (PP 19/2012), stipulating that all eels exported out of Indonesia must weigh 150g or more (Nijman, 2015). Taiwan, PoC: glass eel harvesting season controlled (seven months in 2013-14, reduced to 4 months for 2014-15) (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015), and take of eels larger than 8cm TL prohibited in most major rivers (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014d). Export restrictions in place for several eel commodities in East

10 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

Asian countries/ territories (see Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). Protection status in other range states not identified.

Anguilla megastoma (Polynesian Longfinned Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Pacific Ocean, ranging from Pitcairn to Papua New Guinea in the South Pacific. May be separated into eastern and western subpopulations in the western Pacific Ocean (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014g).


Population trend unknown due to lack of data on population status and distribution. Locally depleted and reported that there have been local declines, but little data to support claims (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014g).

Demersal and catadromous, found only in the headwaters of freshwater rivers. Adults spawn in the ocean, with spawning areas thought to be somewhere in the Southern Equatorial Current, but unclear whether one or multiple spawning areas. Little information available about ecology and life history, but has more specific habitat preferences compared to other eels. Its occurrence in small islands may mean that recruitment fluctuates strongly between years.

A. megastoma can be confused with various other species, depending on the lifestage (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014g).

Very little species-specific information. Not currently offered for sale online. Thought to be caught locally throughout its range (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014g).

Protection status not identified.

Anguilla mossambica (African Longfin Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Relatively wide distribution but endemic to the South Western Indian Ocean; found in rivers from Kenya, south to Cape Agulhas, and on Madagascar and other western Indian Ocean islands (Jacoby and Gollock, 2014h).

Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN in 2014.

Population trend unknown. Lack of evidence of negative impact by current threats. Relatively common in the freshwater habitats of East Africa, Madagascar and other West Indian Ocean island chains (various authors in

Demersal and catadromous; spends the majority of its life in freshwater or brackish/coastal waters, before one spawning migration to the open ocean. Spawning areas thought to be somewhere north east of Madagascar (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014h).

Exports of Anguilla spp. reported from South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique and Tanzania, but no species-specific numbers.

Reported increase in demand for glass eels of this species for export to East Asia for farming. Investment in fisheries/ farming in Madagascar and Mauritius, particularly


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla_mossambica

11 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

Jacoby and Gollock, 2014h).

this species, in recent years; various Malagasy companies offer live eels for sale online (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014h).

Anguilla nebulosa (Mottled eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005). According to Jacoby et al. 2014a, A. nebulosa is a synonym of A. bengalensis, but Eschmayer (2015) considers this species to be valid.

Distributed in the Indo-West Pacific (Eschmayer, 2015).



Demersal and catadromous. Found in marine, fresh and brackish waters. Adults rarely in coastal swamps, with a wide temperature tolerance. Found in greatest abundance in mud substrates of dry zones. Most often found in deep rock pools in rivers in the wet zones (various authors Froese and Pauly, 2015).

Species considered too large for use in aquarium trade but caught for food (various authors Froese and Pauly, 2015).


Anguilla obscura (Pacific Shortfinned Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

Widely distributed, ranging throughout the Pacific Ocean from western New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Fiji to French Polynesia (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014i).


Population status and trend unknown, due to lack of information, however does have quite specific habitat preferences and may be susceptible to overexploitation, particularly if demand shifts to this species (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014i).

Catadromous; inhabits stagnant waters of both freshwaters and coastal lagoons but is primarily found in the lower reaches of rivers. Shows quite specific habitat preferences. Glass eels have recently been found to recruit to atolls. Adults are thought to migrate to spawn east of Tahiti, but locality yet to be confirmed (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014i).

A. obscura can be confused with A. australis and A. bicolor (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014g).

No species-specific information on trade, but anecdotal evidence suggests that juveniles are sold in markets in the Solomon Islands. Rarely found offered online. Could potentially be used as a replacement for A. japonica (various authors in Jacoby and Gollock, 2014i).


Anguilla reinhardtii Distributed in Asia and southwest Pacific


Demersal, catadromous and semelparous. Larvae

Longfin eels have long been a popular food

Australia: Not protected and no coordinated national legislation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla_nebulosa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla_obscura

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla_obscura

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anguilla_reinhardtii

12 Scientific name

(Common name)


and trends


Protection status

(Speckled Longfin Eel) (Aida et al., 2003; Wantanabe et al., 2005).

(Eschmayer, 2015): New Guinea, eastern Australia, including Tasmania, Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia (Froese and Pauly, 2015).


transported to the continental shelf before metamorphosis into glass eels. Adults may remain in freshwater environments for more than 50 years before migrating to the Coral Sea to breed in depths greater than 400m (Gomon and Bray 2011b).

source for Aboriginal people in eastern Australia and have strong cultural significance. Targeted commercially in Australia since 1950s or 60s, most harvested in estuarine trap fishery, which targets large yellow eels. Relatively small numbers of glass eels are caught in upper estuarine areas for the aquaculture industry. Most exported live to China (Gomon and Bray 2011b).

Collection of glass eels/elvers restricted in some places. Licensing and permits required in others (Wohlsenn et al., 2002). Tasmania: Commercial fishing on licence basis. Legal minimum catch size (300mm) and ban on the export of live elvers. For recreational fishing: bag limit of 12 eels, possession limit of 24 eels and size limit of 300mm (Boxall, undated). Protection status in other range states not identified.

Anguilla rostrata

(American Eel)


West Greenland southwards along the Atlantic coast of Canada and the Eastern USA, down to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coast of Central America, and some West Indian Islands (various authors in Jacoby et al., 2014j).

Categorised as Endangered by the IUCN in 2014.

Decline in silver eel escapement estimated at ~50% and decline in yellow eel recruitment at 50-60% over three generations (Jacoby et al., 2014j).

Egg hatch in the Sargasso Sea and the larvae drift with the currents to the continental coasts to metamorphosise into glass eels within the first year. Glass eels enter estuaries and a proportion of these move upstream to mature into yellow eels while the others complete their yellow phase in estuaries. Yellow eels take 3-30 or more years inland or in coastal waters to mature to silver eels, which migrate back to their spawning area (Jacoby et al., 2014j).

Exploitation and trade of eels (glass, yellow and silver) considered a threat (Jacoby et al., 2014j). Trade data shows dramatic changes in “source” regions of live eel fry imported into East Asia (EA) over past decade, especially increase from Americas (USA, Canada and Dominican Republic): 2004-2010, <10% EA imports from Americas (5-10 tonnes per year), 2011-2014: >30% (20-47 tonnes per year) (Shiraishi and Crook, 2015). EU imports of live eel (most >20 cm) from US, 2008-2011: 200-300 tonnes per year, 2012-2014:130-160 tonnes per year (most to Belgium, EUROSTAT data).

Considered for listing at CoP16 by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Jacoby et al., 2014j).

Canada: Categorised as “Threatened” in 2012; Classified as ‘Endangered’ under the Ontario Endangered Species Act (Jacoby et al., 2014j). U.S.: Review under way to consider listing as ‘Threatened’ under the Endangered Species Act (Jacoby et al., 2014j).

Dominican Republic: seasonal glass eel fishing/export restrictions and maximum quota of 1800 kg for 2014 fishing season (CODOPESCA, 2014).

Protection status in other range states not identified.

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