Prehistorie Human Remains on Curaçao

Jay B. Haviser Jr.

Introduction

Physical Anthropology studies in the Netherlands Antilles have been carried out since the beginning of this century. However, there have been at least two important investigations yet to be completed for these islands. First, except for a 1904 craniological study of one skull by Koeze, and a 1959 overview of three skeletons by Hummelinck, the island of Curaçao has been entirely neglected in terms of physical anthropology research. A second important area of research is the observation of burial context and the application of archeological concepts for a more thorough perspective of those human remains recovered. This paper is the combination of these two research goals; the study of archeological context in relation to human remains on the island of Curaçao.

The primary data base for this paper has been previous scientific literature, in conjunction with three recent archeological excavations conducted, by the author, for the Archaeological/Anthropological Institute of the Netherlands Antilles (AAINA). Bach of these three excavations uncovered human burials and associated artifacts which were identifiable tö various technological or cultural affinities.

The St. Michielsberfg Site (C-013) with four articulated skeletons, was identified as having characteristics of both the "Archaic Age" and "Lithic Age" technological levels (Rouse and Allaire, 1978). This site was carbon-14 dated to 3790ii65 years B.P. (before present), by Dicarb Radioisotope Co., Oklahoma.

The De Savaan Site (C-021) was identified by the artifact assemblage as being of the "Ceramic Age: technological level (Rouse and Allaire, 1978) and more specifically were noted cultural affinities with the Dabajuroid cultures of Northwestern Venezuela (Rouse and Cruxent, 1963). This site excavation revealed four skeletons; two of which were direct burials, carbon-14 dated to 1500±200 years (B.P.), also a primary urn burial carbon-14 to 600±20 years (B.P;) and a secondary urn burial.

The third site used for this study is the San Hironimo Site (C-060) which has been identified, by relative dating of the ceramic styles, to the later pre-columbian Dabajuroid culture, and possibly on into the proto-historic period after European contact.

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It is important to clarify that this presentation is being made by an archeologist, as an archeological interpretation. The more specific details of physical anthropology research, are being conducted now, and will continue, on the mentioned skeletons, by trained physical anthropologists. Those results will be the subject of another report.

Background

In a letter to the State Museum of Antiquities (Holland), dated May 20, 1879, Pastor A.J. van Koolwijk wrote of his discovery of human remains on Curaçao. This is the first record, of prehistoric skeletal remains recover from Curaçao. Van Koolwijk located a human skull, about 50 cm. below the surface, in a ravine at the Knip site (C-001). The arrangement of these human remains were of some interest to van Koolwijk because there were four ceramic "dishes" associated. One dish formed a horizontal base, on which rested the skull and other disarticulated human long bones. The three other "dishes" were slanted to form a small roof over the bones. The distinctive large size and thickness of these "dish" ceramics lead van Koolwijk to examine other areas of the site where he noted fragments of similar ceramics, at all these other locations he found disarticulated human bones associated (van Koolwijk, 1880).

On March 20, 1880, C. Leemans, of the State Museum of Antiquities (Holland), responded to van Koolwijks' letter with his correction that the "dishes" from the Knip site were more probably of a fragmentary urn. Later, van Koolwijk conceded to this idea, however the artifacts in question have never again been located for positive verification. The Knip site was later carbon-14 dated by J. Cruxent (1965), using charcoal to produce an age span of 630.+60 to 1230±60 years B.P.

In 1904, C.A. Koeze conducted a research of the van Koolwijk skull from Curaçao, along with four other skulls collected by van Koolwijk on Aruba. All of which were noted as being in a very poor state of preservation.

During a short professional visit, in 1926, J.P.B, de Josselin de Jong conducted an archeological excavation at the San Juan Site (C-008) on Curaçao. Located at±40 cm. below surface, in midden soils, de Josselin de Jong uncovered an extended human skeleton from an in-situ position. He describes the body position as left-side down, horizontal, slightly bent legs and head to south. He explains that the bone material was so fragile, it was completely destroyed upon removal.

A very thorough albeit dated, contribution to the study of urn burial techniques in the Americas, was written by de Josselin de Jong (1920). He cites primary and secondary urn burial finds in the North American southeast and Mississippi valley, as well as occurrences from Central America. He notes the majority of urn burials discovered, come from all over South America, particularly within the sphere of influence of the Guarani-Tupi indians (von Rosen, 1904). Some of his citings are more relevant to the Curaçao vicinity; in the Antillean Archipelago, Aruba is the only island known with both primary and secondary urn burials, however secondary urn burials have been reported on Jamaica (Fewkes, 1907) with large oval reddish pots with human bones inside, also inverted urns on the Dominican Republic (Luna Calderón, 1985). In Colombia archeological excavations established that the Quimbaya indians practiced primary urn burial (E.

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Restrepo Tirado, 1913), while the Goajira indians more frequently practiced secondary urn burials (Simmons, nd.).

In Venezuela, at La Cabrera (Kidder, 1944), Camburito (Marcano, 1889), El Zamuro (von den Steinen, 1904), Falcon (Nomland, 1935) and La Mata (Bennett, 1937), secondary urn burials were noted. The urns were described as generally being 60-80 cm. in diameter, 50-65 cm. in height, with a mouth 15-20 cm. shorter then the diameter and a conical lower part ending in a flat bottom 10 cm. in diameter. Also found at El Zamuro and La Cabrera were the disarticulated skeletons of humans, each on a±40 cm. diameter ceramic platter (von den Steinen, 1904; Kidder, 1944). Clearly, this overview exemplifies the very wide distribution of urn burial practices in the western hemisphere. Unfortunately, de Josselin de Jong was writing at a period in history when precise dates o( these archeological features were not available.

It was not until about thirty years later (1950), that an amateur archeologist, named A.D. Ringma, excavated five human skeletons from a shallow rock shelter at Hato on Curaçao (Hummelinck, 1959: 39). All of these skeletons were found at ±50 cm. below surface within the rock shelter, none of which were associated with ceramic urns or other grave goods. Two of the skeletons were disarticulated and fragmentary, most probably secondary burials. There was also found a tightly flexed child (±5 years) skeleton with the crania missing yet the mandible present. Another tightly flexed skeleton was that of an adult male (±40 years), with a stature calculated at ±1.55 m. (Genoves, tables 1968). The final skeleton was that of a juvenile in an extended burial position with the arms crossed over the chest. This juvenile had shovel shaped incisors and a calculated stature of 1.23 m. (Hummelinck, 1959:40). Ringma noted the association of these skeleton with soils containing "relics of fires, shells and potsherds", as well, this rock shelter is the location of certain prehistoric petroglyphs, also discovered by Ringma six months earlier. No radiocarbon dates are available from this site.

Then in 1959, two of the first professional scientific studies were done on the physical anthropology of the Netherlands Antilles. An overview of the known prehistoric skeletal material from the islands, by P.W. Hummelick, and a study of prehistoric skeletal remains from Aruba, by J. Tacoma. Hummelick was able to publish for the first time, an analysis of the material collected by Ringma; whereas Tacoma concentrated primarily on cranial studies from the Canashito site on Aruba. It is with Tacomas' paper that the indians of these lower Dutch islands were first identified as of the "Amazonid" group. The Amazonid definition comes from a living population study published in 1938, by J. Imbelloni, and was later summarized by Newman (1949) as: short to medium tall stature (slightly less than 160 cm.), robust build, head form medium-long with brachycephalic tendencies, skin color relatively light (cephalic index Caribs= 81-82.5, Arawaks 81-84). These finds support evidence gathered by Ten Kate (1887) who did somatological work on Arawaks from Surimare (Goodwin, 1978). Imbelloni places mis Amazonid group as covering all of the Guyanas, Venezuela, Amazon drainage, Antillean Archipelago and Southern Florida. Curiously, Lake Maracaibo is the separation line between the Amazonids and the "Istmids" who cover the entire Central American region. Both sides of Lake Maracaibo, according to Imbelloni, have different genetic populations, with the east side being the Amazonids.

An archeological investigation, conducted by H.R. van Heekeren and C.J. DuRy, on Curaçao in 1960, produced several archeological reports (van Heekeren and DuRy, 1961, 1962; van

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Heekeren, 1963). However, the only human osteological remains found on Curaçao were a few disarticulated human bones found in the San Juan II excavation (re. human maxilla with teeth, in the refuse midden). Van Heekeren went so far as to suggest "cannibalism or sacrifice" because of the presence of human bone in the refuse midden (1963: 14). While discussing human burial practices of the prehistoric inhabitants of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire, DuRy states that there is no evidence of cremation being practiced and that secondary urn burials occur more frequently than primary urn burials (1961: 97). Van Heekeren later expanded on this subject by stating "..although it is rumored that urn burial was practiced in Curaçao, we have no definite evidence of it". (1963: 14) In 1965, J. Cruxent used a charcoal sample to get a carbon-14 date of 1440±60 years B.P. for the San Juan Site.

Between 1963 and 1980, Tacoma continued his physical anthropology studies of the Netherlands Antilles and Suriname (1963, 1964, 1965, 1980). Although, an examination of skeletal material from Curaçao was not conducted, cranial (piano-frontal) deformation was noted in several specimen from the lower Dutch islands.

It is relevant to note here, that during the middle 1970's archeological excavations were being conducted on Aruba, which were uncovering human skeletal remains with and without urns associated (Boerstra, 1976; 1977). Boerstra pointed out some characteristic factors relating to prehistoric burial practices, such as a lack of concern for pattern in area distribution, no solar orientation of body position and a similar posture of legs bent towards chest for both urn and direct burials (1977: 12). As well, Boerstra identified three types of burials for Aruba, these being skeletons in pits, primary urn burials, and secondary urn burials (1976: 125). He further noted that urns contain skeletal material (no grave goods), and that still cremation was not evidenced yet on Aruba (1976: 127). Boerstra describes the urn burial vessels as between 40-70 cm. diameter and 50-80 cm. in height, slight oval shape with a rim of irregular horizontal lines modelled by overlapping each coil clay outside the one below (1976: 127).

Also for Aruba, DuRy suggests that possibly more decorated jars were used for, particularly secondary, burials but more often plainware (1961: 98). Aruban sites with urn burials were dated by carbon-14 samples as; Tanki Flip ±750 years B.P. (Heidecker and Siegel, 1969) and the Ceru Noka site and Savoneta sites date between ±940-1040 years B.P. (Groningen).

In 1971, an archeological excavation was conducted at the Santa Barbara Site (C-038) on Curaçao, by E. Boerstra and E. Juliana. During the excavation, three articulated human skeletons were discovered at between 10-30 cm. below surface. These skeletons were noted to have been in very poor condition, and were thus not removed, but rather left in the soil (Juliana, personal communication). Until now, no excavation reports is known for this osteological material from Curaçao.

In 1980, a salvage archeological excavation was conducted at the De Savaan Site (C-021), Curaçao, by E.N. Ay ubi, J. Kemperman and J. Tacoma. They removed two human skeletons both of which were male, one being 20-25 years with a stature of 165 cm. (Genoves) and the other ±30 years with a stature of 155 cm. (Genoves), no cranial deformation was apparent. The bodies were horizontal on their sides, both with the loosely flexed position of legs bent toward the chest, facing southwest. Although no grave goods or urns were recorded, ceramic sherds

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were noted in one cranial area. Ayubi suggests a possible double burial context (personal communication). The carbon-14 date for these skeletons was produced by using actual bone material to achieve an age of 1500±200 years B.P. (Groningen).

Recent Archeological Excavations St. Michielsberg Site (C-013)

Located approximately 1.5 km. from the sea on the east slope of St. Michielsberg, to the south central portion of Curaçao, are a series of artifact concentrations in the vicinity of several rock shelters. A preliminary report of this site can be found in Haviser (1985). The artifacts from this site are primarily situated in a midden deposit, at about 80 meters downhill of the rock shelters, these shelters appear to be the living area for this settlement of people. The separation of a living area and a refuse area is possible due to the fact that almost the entire artifact assemblage, from the rock shelters, is tools or tool fragments, whereas at the refuse area are noted almost entirely midden deposits, with a few tools and the burial of humans directly into the midden soils. Based on the identification of diagnostic artifacts, this site can be placed in either the "Archaic Age" or "Lithic Age" technological classifications (Rouse and Allaire, 1978). An Archaic age designation has been made for this site and was confirmed by two carbon-14 dates taken of marine shells directly associated with the human burials, those dates being 3790±and 3820±65 years B.P. The characteristic Archaic age traits; lack of ceramics, no evidence of agriculture, rock shelter habitation and the presence of certain diagnostic tools (such as a distinctive Strombus columella gouge) are all identified factors at the St. Michielsberg Site. However, ground stone is very infrequent, with the majority of the lithic tools being chipped not ground.

As for the human remains at St. Michielsberg, prior to excavation, were noted numerous human bones eroded downhill in the wash-out areas of the site. These remains constitute at least one human, additional to four articulated skeletons recorded in the 3m.x 4m. Trench a excavation with extensions. The extreme vertical slope (±30°) of this site posed a problem for below surface horizontal excavation levels, therefore a stepped excavation technique was utilized. Each 10 cm. level was bagged with the different stratigraphie zones individually bagged within that level, allowing a vertical, and downhill movement horizontal, separation of the artifacts. All soils were saved through a 2.8 mm. mesh screen.

Based on preliminary physical anthropometric measurements of the St. Michielsberg skeletons, by J. Tacoma, the following burial descriptions are provided.

Three of the four excavated skeletons were noticeably interred with large stones placed surrounding and atop the bodies, in all cases, these were limestone and were placed over the lower body or legs, not the head. The skeleton not covered with large stones (feature 4), was located with its lower body eroding at the surface, and it is thus possible that the stones have been removed by natural erosion. In all four cases, the burial procedure appears to have been to dig a pit into and or below the midden deposits, placing the body (with ligaments attached) horizontally (except for feature 3) in the bottom of the pit. The horizontal placement is rather curious considering the extreme vertical slope of the site. Then surrounding the body with large stones and placing one large stone directly atop the lower body or legs (Figure 1).

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Finally, the pit was back filled with the midden soils. All of the burials are roughly 1-1.5 m. apart from each other and between surface to 75 cm. below surface, on a horizontal plane not following the ground surface angle. In no cases were true grave goods noted, however two of the diagnostic Strombus columella gouges were found in the midden soils around feature 1 and the complete humerus of a manatee (Tricheras manatee) was recover at the same horizontal level between feature 4 and feature 5. This manatee bone is the only known evidence of that animal for Curaçao.

The feature 1 skeleton is a juvenile, probably male, in a tightly flexed position, laying on its right side, with the arms extend over the legs and the head facing east.

The feature 3 adult male skeleton, is very loosely flexed laying on the right side, with the legs bent tightly together but only partially towards the body. The left arm crosses the mid-section of the body, while the right arm is twisted so that the right hand is beneath the head. The head and upper body are raised from the horizontal position of the lower body and legs. This uneven body position may be due to the irregular surface of the sterile soils below this burial. The head faces south.

The feature 4 adult female skeleton is also in a loosely flexed position laying on the right side, however most of the legs were not recover as they had eroded away at the surface. The arms are both extended and to either side of the body. The head faces east. This burial is the only one of the four which was situated in the middle portion of the midden strata, whereas the others were all located in pits dug through and below the midden strata, a fact which may relate to the lack of a stone pile for this burial.

Of the feature 5 adult skeleton, gender was not possible to identify due to the fact that only half of the burial has been exposed. The lumbar vertebrae, pelvis, legs and feet are the only portions of the skeleton revealed in the excavation. The remainder of this burial has been left in a subsurface position for future research. The lower body posture is that of laying on the right side with tightly flexed legs, pulled partially towards the body.

De Sa vaan Site (C-021)

The De Savaan Site is situated on the northern shore of Piscadera Baai, at the south central portion of the island Curaçao.

An excavation was conducted on one of the hilltops of the 2-3 hectare De Savaan Site. Six lm. sq. test pits and five 2 x 2 m. excavation units, all dug in 10 cm. levels and sieved through 2.8 mm. mesh, were dug in the area of the 1980 skeletal finds of Ayubi and Tacoma. The artifacts recovered from this excavation are indicative of the Dabajuroid culture known for Northwestern Venezuela, including a large quantity of carved shell discs (with and without perforations). Ceramics with characteristic Dabajuroid decorative styles and numerous specimen of the multiple-lipped-rim were found in the midden soils of the site.

Also noted in the 4 x 4 m. excavation area was the partial floor plan semi-circular pattern of post-holes cut into the baserock. This structure had a central pole (60 cm. deep, 24 cm.

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diameter) and, within the excavation area, were noted seven surrounding smaller postholes (50-60 cm. deep, 12-16 cm. diameter). All at approx. 1.6 to 2.0 m. from the center pole and approx. 1.2-1.4 m. apart. All of these postholes had filled with midden soils. The 1980 skeletons were located approx. 2 m. outside the south wall of this structure. On the lower slopes of this hilltop to the N.E. approx. 35 m. and to the N.N.W. approx. 45 m. were found primary and secondary urn burials, respectively. Both of these burials were made visible by bulldozer activity in the area; thus a small part of the primary urn burial and over half of the secondary urn burial were destroyed prior to excavation.

The primary urn burial shown in Figure 2, consist of a single large ceramic urn measuring 57 cm. max. diameter, 36 cm. max. height, with a 49 cm. diameter mouth, smoothed outer surface, overlap single-lip rim, round shoulders conical lower portion to a 10 cm. diameter flattened base. The clay used for this urn is a coarse quartz temper, approx. 1.5 cm. thick, and fired at a low temperature.

The human remains are of a male adult (±30 years) approx. stature 147 cm. (Genoves), with evidence of piano-frontal cranial deformation, and pre-mortal loss of all but one incisor in the mandible. The body position is in a very tight squatting pose, with the face down between the legs, the knees higher than the head, the left hand covering the genital region, the right arm passing below the head, and the right hand with both feet tightly together.

Several small artifacts were found among the bones which could have been grave goods, a (2.2 cm. long) sharks tooth, 3 calcite fragments, one chert drill tip (8 mm x 3 mm) with usewear, seven shell discs without perforations, six shell discs with single hole perforations bored from both sides, one shell disc with two perforation bored from one side, one perforation bored and joining them from the other side. All shell discs are approx. 7 mm in diameter, one of the non-perforated specimen was found in the intestinal cavity next to the sacrum and associated with bird bones. Also noted, in the soils which were adjacent the skeleton, were various other remains; including 46 fish bones (8 charred), 2 crab claw fragments (Cardiosoma sp.), 9 coral fragments (Pontes sp.), 1 limpet shell, 8 mm long (Fissurella sp.), 7 wood fragments, all of a linear "shaft" shape but very eroded and 68 chert debitage flakes.

The apparent procedure for interment of this human was to first dig a bowl-shaped pit, approx. 55 cm. diameter and 50 cm. deep. Then placement of the human (with ligaments still attached) in a tight squatting position into the pit, face down. Whether the left hand was intentionally placed over the genitals is but speculation. The large ceramic urn was then filled with ashes and turned upside-down over the body, pouring some of the ashes over the body but mostly into the open areas of the pit. No lower urn was present. It is of importance to note a smaller pit located 26 cm. southeast of the burial pit, this small pit was 11 cm. diameter, 4 cm. deep and completely filled with a light grey fine sand which does not occur anywhere else in the site area. No artifacts were found in this smaller pit.

Also due to bulldozer activity on the De Savaan site, at approx. 45 m., N.N.W., of the main excavation area, was noted another urn burial, cut in half vertically. Rescue excavation of this urn burial revealed it to be a secondary burial, with a large urn upside-down atop the bones. Again, no lower urn was noted, however, the profile of the pit dug for the body was clearly visible in the excavation. The urn for this secondary burial was very fragmentary and thus

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measurement of the diameter can only be approximated as ±52 cm., whereas the height of the urn cannot, at all, be estimated. There was a similar construction technique for this urn, as at the primary urn burial for this site. The maximum depth of the burial pit is 35 cm. below surface, with the urn fragments on the surface and disarticulated human bone scattered throughout the pit to the bottom. The skull and mandible were not located in this rescue excavation. The larger bones of the pelvis, scapulae and long bones lay on the bottom of the burial pit.

Several small artifacts were found associated with the bones which may have been grave goods, a (9 mm. long) sharks tooth, 8 crab claw fragments (Cardiosoma sp.), 1 chert and 3 basalt debitage flakes, 5 fish bones, 2 small bird bones, 4 very small oyster shell fragments (Pinctata sp.), 1 small Strombus fragment (Strombus sp.), 1 chiton segment, and 1 small fragment of charcoal, but no evidence of burned bone.

San Hironimo Site (C-060)

This site is located on the inland, north western portion of Curaçao, along one of the main drainage valleys of the San Hironimo and St. Christoffel mountains.

The artifacts recovered from this site are indicative of the Ceramic Age, and specifically the Dabajuroid cultures of northwestern Venezuela. Many artifactual similarities can be seen between this site and the De Savaan Site (C-021) previously described. There are, however, certain traits of the San Hironimo Site which indicate that it may have been inhabited at the very late pre-columbian or even post-contact period. Some of these traits are: particular art motif differences from the De Savaan Site, a greater presence of non-local trade items (such as Jade­like stone and tar), surface evidence of early historic artifacts, and the possible identification of periostitis on both of the human skeletons recovered from this site (periostitis being the extension into bone from an adjacent soft-tissue infection (re. syphilis, yaws, fungi infections, etc). (Morse, 1969).

This excavation was conducted first with a series of 150, 50 x 50 cm. test pits dug in 5 cm. levels over a 4 hectare area. Then a series of 1 x 2 m. excavation units, dug in 5 cm. levels, at the densest artifact concentration of the site, a midden deposit.

The disarticulated skeleton of a child, less than one year old, was found at the edge of this midden area. There were no grave goods, with this secondary child burial, which had been placed in a ±40 cm. diameter shallow pit (23-25 below surface). The bones were in a very poor state of preservation, although probable evidence of extreme periostitis and osteitis were noted for the facial area, maxilla, pelvis, femur and humerus of this child. The burial pit for this skeleton was immediately adjacent the eastern corner of a larger and deeper burial pit which contained the articulated skeleton of an adult male (Figure 3).

The adult skeleton (feature 5) was placed in a pit, dug at the outer eastern edge of the dense midden deposit. The pit was 70 cm. wide, 1.05 m. long and a maximum of 55 cm. below surface. A considerable amount of midden soil was used for backfilled, thus a greater quantity of refuse such as shell, coral, chert, basalt, ceramics and faunal material are associated with the

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skeleton. However, the area around the feet of feature 5, (which is the closest point to the child burial) revealed several artifacts which may have been grave goods. These artifacts are a polished basalt stone, an edge fragment of a polished basalt celt, and a sea turtle plastron fragment showing grinding use and charing. Also included in this area of the burial pit were ceramic sherds; specimen with two varieties of multiple-lip rim, another example with incised lines on the vessel interior, and one sherd with exterior black and white painting on extremely vitreous shell and sand tempered pottery.

The body position of Feature 5 is horizontal laying on his back, with head facing up, arms folded over the body, the legs flexed bent up to the body, and the feet were turned toe-to-toe together.

It is important to note that some destruction of this skeleton, particularly the facial area, was the result of a large root intrusion. The alteration of the facial area was such, that the maxilla was located at the interior back of the crania.

Just as was the case with the secondary child burial from this site, several of the feature 5 bones showed probable evidence of periostitis. The extent of periosteal erosion foF this adult male was extreme, as was seen on the right femur, mandible, and particularly the crania.

Also noted in the Unit IV excavation area where these two human skeletons were found, 3fe two other pit features of dark brown soil, neither of these other pits contained human bone.

Synthesis and Summary

The previously described prehistoric human remains are a complete inventory of all recorded such osteological material for Curaçao, as of this time. What follows is the evaluation of this material with particular interest in burial context as an expression of cultural and chronological association.

First, it can be stated that all three of Boerstras' burial types found on Aruba, are also found on Curaçao. Furthermore, his observation that the posture of skeletons tends to be the same for both urn and direct burials is true for Curaçao, to the extent that the legs are bent up towards the chest in all cases. However, only the primary urn burial at De Savaan revealed a human in the squatting position, all others were horizontal. As we examine Boerstras' findings of Aruban burial distribution on the site, we note some possible differences between the islands. On Aruba, he indicates that there is no pattern in burial distribution over the site and that there is no solar orientation of body position. On Curaçao, there may possibly be some pattern of on site burial distribution, albeit the Curaçao sample is too small for a definitive statement. As well, there does not seem to be any solar orientation of body position on Curaçao. Also, in agreement with the Aruban finds, there was no evidence of cremation, as a burial technique, found on Curaçao. However, the excavation of two urn burials on Curaçao has proven that this technique was used on the island.

On Curaçao, the presence of direct burials in refuse midden may be a more probable explanation of van Heekerens' suggestions of cannibalism for these Arawakan indians. Also, the Amazonid group, defined by Imbelloni and identified for these skeletons by Tacoma, is geographically in

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the same region as the Dabajuroid cultures of Venezuela. The Dabajuroid culture having been identified as the principle ceramic period cultural influence of the prehistoric inhabitants of Curaçao.

The St. Michielsberg Site, with dates of ±3790 and 3820 years B.P., is the loci of the oldest articulated human remains for Curaçao, relatively contemporaneous with human remains found at the Banwari site, Trinidad (Harris, 1976). However, the Banwari skeletons come from an undated stratigraphie level. These Archaic age indians from Curaçao, had a technological level similar to those of Archaic cultures on Trinidad, Margarita and Venezuelan coastline. As to the burial pattern at the St. Michielsberg Site, these indians placed their dead in the vicinity of their rock shelter living area, but not directly in it. They preferred the separation of burials to an area of refuse, possibly signifying a minimal concern for afterdeath in relationship to location of interment. The actual burial technique used by these Archaic age peoples was to place the semi­flexed body into a shallow pit and cover them with large stones, without true grave goods. None of the later period indians from Curaçao exhibit this technique for burial, it is unique to the Archaic age.

As we move into more recent times, we find the early De Savaan Site and the undated Hato Site excavated by Ringma, as exhibiting a possible overlap or transition from the above early burial technique to urn burials. First, we see the Hato site is associated with a rock shelter living area which is characteristic of the Archaic age on Curaçao. Also noted, is the semi-flexed body position in shallow pits, yet, without evidence of grave goods or stone piles. This could be a possible indication of a transition period between the Archaic and Ceramic age burial techniques. However, the soils with these Hato skeletons are reported to have contained ceramics and thus must be placed within the Ceramic age. It is also of interest here, to point out that the burials were located right in the rock shelter or living area, another possible transitional burial practice indication.

Another example of possible transition in the burial techniques used on Curaçao, can be seen at the De Savaan Site. The two skeletons excavated in 1980 and dated to ±1500 years B.P., display the semi-flexed body position in a shallow pit without stone piles. However, the potential of double-burial is unique, as well as, the placement of grave goods with the skeletons (re. ceramics at the crania area) is the earliest dated example of that cultural application on Curaçao. Curiously, the Knip site, excavated, by van Koolwijk and dated by Cruxent, also exhibits this relationship between ceramic grave goods and the crania area as occurring about the same time and possibly with secondary burials (±1230 years B.P.). Also relating to these sites, as de Josselin de Jong pointed out, the use of ceramic platters about the crania, and with secondary burials is well known for Venezuela and other parts of South America. Although none of the secondary burials from Curaçao have been carbon-14 dated, we do have associating evidence that the practice occurs with the Dabajuroid culture known during the ceramic period. Of particular interest here is the secondary urn burial noted at the De Savaan Site, which has the bones placed in a shallow pit with a single urn turned upside-down over them. One true grave good was recovered from this burial, that being a small sharks tooth. The exact same grave good, of a small sharks tooth, was also found in the primary urn burial of De Savaan. As well, both of the urn burials at De Savaan have no lower urn, as is the typical case in Aruba, but rather a shallow pit with the body placed in a squatting position, the knees drawn up above the

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head, and the urn placed upside-down over the body. The shallow soils above the baserock may be an explanation of why only single top urns are found on Curaçao, whereas, in Aruba the soils are rather deep allowing easier placement of a lower urn. The upper urn only type of burial, called by Kidder the "inverted urn" burial, was of the most common techniques used with urn burials (particularly secondary urn burials) at his la Cabrera peninsula excavations (1944: 43). Kidder produced some rather significant results from his investigations in Northwestern Venezuela, including evidence that secondary urn burial was the most common type, no single method of burial was universal at any given time, an absence of adult primary urn burial, five examples (all male) of cranial deformation, and that 55% of all adult burials had grave goods (1944: 38-51). His findings of different types of burials at the same time period, indicates no particular preference by these indians for a specific burial technique. This is important, since we can make the probable suggestion that the ±660 years B.P. date of the De Savaan primary urn burial, is also relatively applicable to the secondary urn burial from the same site. This primary urn burial, being the first ever recorded for Curaçao, also contains a greater quantity and variety of grave goods than any other prehistoric burial known, to date, for Curaçao. Also found in Venezuela, is evidence of fish, bird and mammal bones with the burials, this was interpreted by Bennett (1937) as food offering for the for the dead. It may be the similar case with faunal remains, specifically bird bones, for these two De Savaan urn burials. This factor seems to be in a slight contradiction to Boerstras' findings of only skeletal material in burial urns on Aruba. This De Savaan primary urn burial indicates a strong association with the Dabajuroid cultures noted from Venezuela, including the practice of cranial deformation, which has not been found on any other Curaçao skulls until now. It is important to point out the post ±1040 years B.P. age of the urn burial techniques on Aruba, and the similar close affinity between Aruba and Dabajuroid cultures.

Also, the actual urn vessel shape may be used as an aspect of similarity with the Venezuelan Dabajuroid cultures, as noted with similar vessel sizes, shapes and the characteristic overlap multiple-lip rim. This rim type is very common among the ceramic styles on Curaçao. However, the burial urns excavated have only a single-lip overlap rim. It seems to be, based on the artifacts found, that these Ceramic age, Dabajoroid culture indians were more materialistic and afterdeath oriented than the Archaic age indians on Curaçao.

It is further noted that the distribution of the burials (re. the two non-urn burials from De Savaan) is in very close proximity to a probable living area structure, clearly more similar to the transitional or Ceramic age distribution pattern of burials at the site. The burial technique of placing the body in a shallow pit in the floor of their living hut, is recorded for most of South America, including the Quimbaya and Goajira indians of northern Colombia. This practice is recorded for the prehistoric as well as, on into historic times. Furthermore, van Koolwijk wrote of a living witness to the urn burial of an indian woman on Aruba, during the 19th century (1880).

As we turn to the later Ceramic age and proto-historic period, we continue to see the strong Dabajuroid influence on the Curaçao indian cultures. There is a greater frequency of trade items and other indications of a closer contact with the mainland. Of the only two human skeletons believed to be of this period (San Hironimo Site), both show pathologies of the bone which indicate a probable death by some form of treponema infection. Therefore, the burial technique of these individuals may not be completely characteristic of this period. However, we do note

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Jay B. Haviser Jr.

shallow pit burial, with a presence of grave goods. The body position continued to be semi­flexed yet on his back with the face up, whereas the secondary child burial was without grave goods. These diseased burials may be indicative of a separation burial pattern, at the edge of the midden rather than in close proximity to the living area, due to their cause of death.

For a summary, we can visualize the prehistoric inhabitants of Curaçao as having gone through various changes in their cultural perspectives relating to the burial of fellow humans. The earliest peoples on Curaçao, dug shallow pits, away from the primary living area, where they placed the dead and covered them with large stones.

As time passed, the techniques of separating the burials from the living area and placing of large stones, were changed or discontinued. A transitional period of total cultural and technological change of the Archaic peoples was being implemented by new immigrants from the mainland. At first, it seems these changes were gradual, but toward the turn of the first millennium A.D., the Dabajuriod cultures of Venezuela were beginning to dominate Curaçao. With this advancement of the Dabajuroid cultural influence, the burial techniques became much more varied, with direct, primary and secondary urn burials, more frequent grave goods and a greater preoccupation with the questions of afterdeath.

At the time of historic contact, disease depopulated many aboriginal Americans. On Curaçao, we also see the evidence of death brought by diseases, and the separation of those who died thus to the refuse pile, not the living area. However, those vexing questions of afterdeath were still present enough that grave goods were interred with the dead. This paper seeks not to answer those prehistoric questions of afterdeath, but rather is an attempt to identify how the various prehistoric cultures, on Curaçao, dealt with those questions.

Reference

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Captions of figures

Fig. 1: St. Michielsberg site (C-013). Trench A with extensions burial features 1,3,4 & 5. Fig. 2: De Savaan site (C-021). Primary urn burial. Fig. 3: San Hironimo site (C-060). Trench B, unit IV. Burial feature 5 (40 cms below surface).

237

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