preface; this little book owes its origin to a suggestion made
TRANSCRIPT
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SOUTH -INDIAN IMAGE S OF GODS AND
GODDE SSE S
THE TANJORE TE MPLE .
SOUTH - IND IAN IMAGE S
GODS AND GODDE SSE S
H . KR I SH NA SA STR I ,“
B .A RAO SAHE B ,A ssz
’
stm zt A r c/ueo logi ca 1 S u[ termten (1m t f or E pz'
g r afl:y ,
S ou th er n Cir cle.
Published under the author ity of the Government of Madras.
MADRAS GOVE RNM E NT PR E S S .
1 9 1 6 .
P R E F A C E .
H IS lit t le book owes its o r ig i n to a suggest io n madeT hy H is E x c e l len cy Lo rd Carm i chael, wh e n he wasGover
b
nOr o f Madras i n the year 19 1 2 . H e fel t that ,wh i l e t her e was a m u lt i tude o f book s deal i ng w i t h H i ndure lig io n and i n c iden tally w i th H i ndu i conography, t herewas no popu lar handbook wh i ch wou ld g i ve i n fo rmat io nabout the images one comm o n ly sees i n tem ples o r
m u seum s i n Sou thern I nd ia,and that i t wou ld be a
d i s t inc tly usefu l th ing to supp ly t hat wan t . The
Madras Governmen t en tru sted the task to me, presu
mab ly be cau se my o ffi c ial du t i e s b r i ng m e very Often tov i sit the var ious t em p les i n the Prov i nce and to studyand c las s i fy the i mages found there i n .
When I accep ted the task , I was no t fu l ly aware o f
the d i fficult ies t hat lay befo re m e . I n the fi r s t p lace ,
there we re very few p r i n ted books,i n San sk rit or in
t ran slat io n s,that gave the o rthodo x desc r ip t io n and
s ign ificance o f the image s set up i n tem p le s . A nd wh e nI managed to co l late no tes from a
’
few o ld m anus c r ip t st reat i ng‘
o f t h i s subjec t , it was alm o st im po s s ib le i nsev e ra l i n stances to recon c i le the d i sc repan c ies wh i cht h ey showed o r even to under s tand the t e c h n i ca l te rm swh i ch abo unded i n them . I n som e cases , the descript io n o f a par t i cu lar im age fou nd i n the lo cal ch ro n i c l e sor S tha/a -P m 'd h as cou ld not be t raced i n the Afgczmas.
I am no t al toge the r sangu i ne t hat I have s teered c learof these d iffi c ul t ies and suc ceeded i n p resen t i ng a clearand readab le ac coun t to the ave rage reader .
P R E F A C E
My ch i e f source of in fo rmat ion in com p ili ng th isbook has been an e x ce l len t wo rk ent i t led Tattvan idh i
,
”
pub l i s hed by the S ri -Venkatesvara S t eam Pr e s s at
Bombay , and comp i led by H i s H igh nes s th e MaharajaMummadi Krishnaraja Vodeyar Bahadur o f Myso re .
A s ho r t b ib l iography o f o ther S an skr i t works co n su lted
by m e i s g i v en at page xv .
Amo ng the many fr iends who have k i nd ly helpedm e i n th i s task ,
my spec ial thank s are due to S ir J. H .
Mar shall, Kt M .A .
,L I TT .D . , D i re c to r -G e n e ral
o f A rchaeo logy, S i m la,and h is as s i s tan t Mr . V . Natesa
A iyar , B .A for ex t rac t s from anc ien t m anu s cr ip t s on the
subj e ct o f I nd ian i con og raphy to Mr . A . H . Lo nghur s t,
A r chaeo log i cal S up e r in te nde n t, S outher n C i rc le, fo r the
n umerou s i l lust rat ion s wi thout wh i ch the book wouldbe almo s t un i n t e l l ig ib le ; and to Mr . C . S . A nan taram a
A iyar , the Unde r S ec retary to the Gove r nment o f
Madras,for m uch valuab le c r i t i c i sm wh i ch has been o f
gr eat as s i s tanc e to me. My thanks are a lso due to Mr .
T . F i sh e r , Super i n t e nden t , Gove r nm en t Pres s,Madras
,
for h is many k i nd suggest io n s about the get-up o f
the book and a p ract i cal ar rangem e n t o f the numero usi l lus t rat io n s .
OOTACAMUND,
1 st Apr il 1 91 6 . H . KR I SH NA SA STR I .
TA BLE O F CONTE NTS .
CHA PTE R I .
INTRODUCTORY.
Tem ples and images, the subject o f zigam as and S z'
lpa-S r'
istras origin o fstone tem ples i n th e Pallava period (page I f. )—Thei r developmentin the ChOIa period (2 )— S i gns to dist ingu ish a Sai va temple from a
Vaishnava templ e r i tual general ly fo l lowed i n temples annua lfestivals (3f. )—R i t ual i n tem ples of vi l lage-dei t ies (7)
CHA PTE R IL
B RAHMA .
No t wo rshi pped as th e chief dei ty in a tem ple ; h is images and genera ldescri pt io n (l o ) —Various fo rms ; i l l ustrat ions (I I )
CHA PTE R IH.
V ISHNU .
H is general descr i pt ion (r7) -I ncarnat ions (22 ) - Boar incarnat ion andthe reverence pai d to i t by the early Sou th - I nd ian k ings (22 f. )— Man
l ion incarnat ion and its var iet ies (24h ) - Dwarf incarnat ion (3of. )Rama incarnation (35f.)—K rishna incarnat ion and varieties (37f . )B uddha and Kalk i in carnations (4 7)— Anan tasayin , Padmanabha} or
Ranganatha (so f . ) —Jalasayana, Vaikuntha-Narayana, Lakshm iNarayana, Garuda -Narayana and YOgésvara
-Vishnu (52 f . ) -The 24
general fo rm s o f Vishnu Panduranga, Hayagriva and Venkatésa
(55f.)— Pradyumna o r Manmatha, Vishvakséna and Garuda (62 f.)Hanuman (64f . ) —Sudarsana(66f. )—S c
’
zlz1gr£im a stones (7of .)
CHA PTE R IV .
S I VA .
H is temples and their no n-sectarian nat u re , lingo , symbo l o f S i vaits significance, descrip t ion and variet ies (72f . )— S ubsi diary imagesi n a S iva tem ple im po rtance at tached to h is Spo rt ive fo rms (74 f. )Th e genera l fo rm Rudram iirti its descri ption and variet ies ; Pancha
Bhikshatana and MOh ini (97f. )— Kankalamfirti (I O3)— Kalyanasundaramiirti (103f. ) —SOmaskanda and al l ied fo rms (to7f . )
PAC E S
10 - 16
I 7~—7 l
vfi i TA BLE (M? CONTE NTS
PAGE S
Vrisharfidha (I r3 f. )— Chandrasékh aram 1‘
1rti (I t 4 f.) -A rdhanari(t aot.) —Harihara (125)— Gajahamfi rti (i z5i.)— Gangadh ara (rzgf. )— Kalaharam iirti (132 f . )— N i1akan tha (137i. ) —Tripuran takam fi rti
(I 40f. )— Kiratarjunam iirti (l 4 1 f.)—Chandésanugraham fi rti (I 4 3f
Sarabham fi rti (r4 7f —Pasupatamfi rti, Ra‘xshOghnamfirti, A ghOra
m iirti, Bhai rava an d his vario us form s, Mahakala and Kalagh iRu dra (148f.) —Virabhadra and h is various fo rms (155f.)— Ksh étrapala (159f. ) —Chandésa , Nan disa, Bh ringisa and Jvaradéva (I 6 1f. )Ganapat i and h is various fo rm s h is popu lari ty (I 65f.) —Skanda and
his di fferent fo rms th e antiqu i ty o f h is worshi p (I 77f.) 72— 183
CHA PTE R V.
SA KTI -GODDE SSE S .
Thei r si gnificance (184)— Thei r div ision into th ree c lasses and thei rwo rshi p on chahm s
, ym ztras and pith os (185) —Sarasvat i and h er
di fferen t fo rms (185f. )— Lakshm i and her d i fferent fo rms (187f . )The ei gh t energies of Vishnu personified (189)— General descrip tiono f Gau ri or Parvati (190) —Th e Saptamatrikas (I 90f.)— Sal! t i goddesses ho l d ing Vaish navite symbo ls : Cham unda, Durga, Mah ishasura
mardi n i and Maha-Lakshm i (196 — 2 I I ) -Kalaratri , Tvarita,Tripu ra
Bhairavl , Vaj raprastarin i , S u ra, Surapriya, S rividyadévi , Pranasakti,Svasthavésin i, Satruvidh vamsin i , Ugra -Tara, Dh fim ravati, Sul i ni ,I’ratyangira, S italadévi , Trikan takidévi
,Bhfi tam é ta and S ivadfi ti
(z 1 1 f. )— ]yésh tha-Lakshm i (z 16f. ) —Bala-Tripurasundari , Saubhagyabh uvanésvari, A nnapurna,
Gayatri, Savi t ri and Sarasvat i , Tu lajaBhavani , Rajamatangi, Lagh usyamala, Vei run i
,Kurukulla and
Vindhyavasin i- Lal i ta
,Tripurasundari and Rajarajésvari
thei r w orshi p on b’c’zlfi -yan tm and Sr i-chakra (220f . )
CHA PTE R VI.
V ILLAGE DE IT I E S .
Their o ri gin traceabl e to Tantrik goddesses ; names o f a few of them(za3f.) —Thei r worshi p and wo rsh ippers (226 ) —Cerem on ies pecu l iarto tem ples o f vi l lage dei t ies ; I ) raupadi tem ples and karagam (226f. )Sad-wo rship and th e fire-wal king ceremony (229)— Vi l lage godsA iyanar and Karuppannasam i (2 29f . ) —Hero -wo rship ; devi l-dances(234 ) 2 23 234
CHA PTE R VII.
M ISCE LLANE OUS DE ITI E S .
The ni ne Planets (235] —Th e Sun h is descript ion and th e S zi ry ay an tm
-Th e M oon and th e o ther Planets —The Dikpalakas
I nd ra,A gni
,Yama, Nairrita, Varuna, Vayu and Kubéra (z4 1f.)— Th e
Nagas (a48f. )—Th e clem i-go ds Yakshas,Viclyadharas , etc . ,
an d
Dvarapalas (251f.) —Saints and sages (254 f . )— Th e th ree rel i giousrefo rmers ; Saiva and Vaishnava sai nts (259f.) —Jai na images(262f.) -Pedesta ls, post u res, symbo ls, weapons and jewel lery o f
im ages (265f . ) 235—2 72
L IST O F ILLUSTRAT IONS .
PAGE
F RONTISP I E CE . The Tanjo re tem ple.
F IG. I . Gopura , N arasimha tem ple ; M angalagir i2 . Back v iew o f central sh r ine, S iva temple ; Gangaikonda
sOlapuram
3 H aridranadi tank ; Mannargud i4 . P rocessional images (metal ) Madu ra5 . Lamp pattern s and pzij ci-utensi ls Uttatt i
‘
i r
6 B rahma ; Seven Pagodas7 D O . KumbakOnam
8 Do . Ti ruvad i9 ,
Brahma and Sarasvati Kandiyiir
r o . B rahma on swan veh i cle ; Ch idambaram1 1 . V ish nu (A sh tabhuja) ; Conjeeveram1 2
,V ish nu ; Bellary
1 3 . Do . Paramésvaramangalam
14 . V ish nu and h is con so rts ; Ariyambakkam1 5 . Boar incarnation o f V i sh nu ; Seven Pagodas1 6 . Narasimha bursting fo rth from the pi llar ; A hObalam1 7. Ugra- Narasimha do .
1 8 . Do . (metal) ; Madras Museum1 9. YOga-Narasimha ; Ti rupati H i l l20 Trivikrama ; Seven Pagodas
D O . KumbakOnam
2 2 . Vamana ; Namakkal2 3 ,
Rama and group (metal) ; Ramesvaram2 4 . K r ishna tied to a mo rtar ; Penukonda25;
Butter-dance o f Bala-K r ishna (metal) M ad ras Museuml
2 6 . Serpent danceo f fi hw r ish fi aTmetal) do
2 7,Venu-Gé pala do .
28,Madana-GOpala ; Li ttle Conjeeveram
29 . GOvardhana-Kr ish na ; Seven Pagodas30 . K r i shna on th e pmm ai-t ree (wood) ; Kum bakénam3 1 . Parthasarath i teach ing B hagavazZ-Gitato A rjuna Pushpa
gi r i3 2 . Anan tasayin ; Seven Pagodas
3 3 ,Vaikun tha-Narayan a ; Namakkal
L IST OF ILLUSTRA TIONS
Lakshm i-Narayana ; NamakkalGaruda-Narayana ; Ch idambaramGaruda-Narayana and Gajéndrambksha ; KumbakOnam
YOgésvara-V ishnu ; H fivinahadagalliD O . (P) KumbakOnam
Panduranga ; Ti rupat iDo . AhObalam
Rati- Manmatha ; Ch idambaramGaruda ; Tanjo reSudarsana ; Ti rupati
DO . back V iew ; do
DO . fron t and back n ew (metal ) Dadikkombu
Sahasra- l inga Tiruvottiyfi r
Panchamukha- l inga ; TiruvanaikkavalNataraja (metal) ; Panchanadakkulam
DO . Ramesvaram
Urdhva- tandava Ti ruppanandalPatanjali Ch idambaramVyagh rapada do .
Kal ika-tandava (metal ) ; N allfir
Daksh inamfirti ; A vur
Vinadhara-Daksh inam fi rti ; Ch idambaramYOga-Daksh inamfi rti ; ConjeeveramDaksh inamfirti Tiruvengavasal
LingOdbhava ; Tanjo reEkapada-Tr imurti ; Ti ruvottiyur
Do . Tiruvanaikkaval
MOh ini (metal) Valuvfi r
Bh ikshatanam fi rti (metal) do .
Kankalam firti (metal ) ; TenkasiKankalamurti Dharasuram
Kalyana-Sundara ; M adu raKaly
‘
érna-Sundara and Svayamvara Ch idambaramSOmaskanda (metal) Sivankudal
SOmaskanda ; Seven Pagodas
Umasah ita do .
V rishavahana ; Ch idambaramD O . (metal) ; Védaranyam
Chand rasekhara (metal) ; Ti ruvottiyurChandrasekhara Tanjo reChandrasekhara (Alinganam fi rti) Bagal iA rdhanar i ; M adu ra
Do . Kumbakonam
N
L IST OF ILLUSTRA T IONS
A rdhanar i TanjoreDo
,Tiruch chengOdu
D o . D harasuram
Do . Ti ruvad iSankaranarayana NamakkalGajaham firti D harasuram
I ) o . Tirutturaippiindi
Gangadhara GangaikondasOlapuram
D o . (metal) VaidisvarankOyilGangadhara Tanjo re
D o . Tr ich inopolyKalaharam firti Pattisvaram
Do . Chand ragi r iTripurantakamfi rti Ch idambaramKiratarjunamfirti Pushpagi r i
Do . Ch idambaramChandésanugrahamurti GangaikondasOlapuram
Sarabhamurti D harasuram
Pasupatamfirti Ch idambaramAghOramurti Pattisvaram
Bhai rava do .
Kala-Bhai rava ; DurgiKalagh i-R ud ra do .
Virabh adra th rowing the head o f Daksha in toTanjo re
ro r Virabhadra ; Mudiko ndam
Ksh étrapala Tiruvarangulam
Chandésa Tiruvo ttiyfir
N andisa and h is conso r t (metal ) ; ValuvfirBh ringi ; S r isai lamJvaradeva ; B havan iGanapati standing ; Lepaksh i
D o . (metal) ; PattisvaramDo . seated ; SiyamangalamD o . dancing ; GangaikondasOlapuram
Mabel -Ganapat i ; MaduraH eramba-Ganapati (metal) NegapatamSkanda ; TiruvottiyfirD o . (Shadanana) Madura
Skanda and h is consorts ; SamayapuramD o . figh ting wi th giants Ch idambaram
Sarasvati ; Bagal iSamanya
-Lakshm i ; Seven Pagodas
x i
L IST OF ILLUSTRA T IONS
Parvati ; BOIumampattiD O . Param ésvaramangalam
D o. in penance ; Pattisvaram
Th e Seven M others ; Tanjo reChamunda (M ahakal i ) ; Tiruch chengOduDurga ; Seven PagodasDO . do .
Do ,Srimushnam
D o . Dharasuram
Durga-Lakshmi ; Tirumalisai
Mah ishasuramardini ; GangaikondasOlapuram
D o . D harasuram
Do . DurgiDurgi -Mah ishasuramardini ; Seven
-Pagodas
Pratyangira Tiruch ch engOdu
D o . (metal ) Tiruppalatturai
Jyésh tha Tiruvellavayil
Saubhagyabhuvanésvari ; Dharasuram
Rajarajésvari ; RamesvaramMutyalamma ; Avah iG roup o f images in the Draupadi-amman temple ;KumbakOnam
A iyanar (metal) Tiruppalatturai
Do . Valuvfi r
Do . RamesvaramSurya Kumbaké nam
Do . Ch idambaramRahu and Ketu Ch idambaramI nd ra do .
Agn i do .
Yama do .
N airrita ; A hObalam
Varuna ; Lepaksh iVayu do .
Kubera do
Adisésha ; Ch idambaramK innar i ; RamesvaramD varapala ; Tiruvo ttiyfi r
Do . Dharasuram
Narada Ch idambaramA gastya do .
Gaulisvara (Gaudapada and Sankaracharya ; Ti ruvo ttiyfir
L IST OF ILLUSTRA T IONS Xiii
PAG E
F IG . 1 60 (metal). —(a) Garuda (b) Vedanta-Desika ; (c) Vishvakséna ; (d) Raman ujacharya (e) Tirumangai
-Alvar ;Namakkal
1 6 1 . Manikkavasagar (metal ) ; Tiruvarangulam1 6 2 . Karaikkal-Ammai Madura
PLATE I . Pedestals, postu res, etc .
I I . Do. do .
I I I . D o. do .
IV. Do . do .
SA NSKR IT BOOKS CON SULTE D .
Mayamata.
Manasara.
Chaturvargach in taman i (Hemadri).
Brihatsamh ita(Varaham ih ira).Kasyapa-Silpa (from the Bhanumat o r Am sumat
Brahmiya- Silpa.
S ilparatna.
S ilpasangraha.
S ilpasara;
Tattvan idh i (wi th numerous quotat ions ; p r inted at the
Venkatesvara Steam Press,Bombay) .
Sabdakalpadruma (the E ncyclopaed ia o f Sanskr i t Literatu reRaja Radhakanta Deo pr in ted in Calcutta).
Bhagavata-Purana.
CHAPTE R I .
I NTRODUCTORY .
I
A lmost every v i l lage Of any im portan ce i n South ern Indiah as its temp le , roun d wh i ch cen tres i n a very large measurethe corporat e c iv i c l i fe of the commun i ty wh i ch l i ve s i n i t .The casual v is i tor i s at onc e attracted by th e templ e and
when h e goes th ere h e sees various im ages i n all sorts of
i n congruous postures and is general ly puzz led to know wh atth ey mean or what th ey rep resen t , an d how th ey serve to
evok e th e rel i g ious fee l i n gs of the peop le worsh ipp i n g th em .
A n at t empt w i l l b e made i n the succeedi ng pages to
descri be an d c lass i fy them i n var ious groups so as to maketh em m ore i n te l l i g i b l e to th e o rd i nary v i s i tor.E labo rat e rules have been la i d down in th e an c i en t
Agamas and S ilpa-Sdstras as to th e p lace where tem pl es are
to b e bui l t , th e k i n ds of im ages to b e i nstal l ed there, th ematerials wi th wh i ch such images are to be fash ioned
, an d
even the dimens ions and proport ions of var ious k i nds of
images , to vary which w i l l result in unto l d calamity to th emaker an d th e worsh ipper al i ke. The curious reader m ay .
for exam ple , refer to Suhranitz'
sdm (Chapter IV, S ect ion IV ,
verses 130 et
II
Templesmust have ex i ste d i n th is part o f th e country fromt ime immemorial . But th e earl i est i n script iona l evi dence o f
th e exist ence of temples takes us back on ly to th e age o f th e
Pallava k in gs.wh i ch is supposed to be between th e fourth
1 Pages 166 to 182 of Vol . X I I I o f the Sac red B ooks o f the East ” ser ies,publ ished by th e Panin i Press, Al lahabad .
2 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
and th e n inth centuries of th e Chr ist ian era.
1 The moreanc i ent temples were probab ly m ade of wood and o ther suchperi shable mat erial , as we find to th is day i n parts of Malabar.Perhaps th e Pallavas we re among th e very first i n SouthernInd ia to bui ld tem ples of durable m ater ia l . I n fact on e o f
th e m ost fam ous of th ese Pallava k i n gs, Mah en dravarman I ,
w ho rei gned about th e beg i nn i ng o f th e seventh century A .D . ,
was known by th e t i tl e Chetthahd r z'
,i.e. , th e m aker o f chaityas
or temples.
”
The earl iest Pallava m onum ents so far discovered are
those of Mahabal ipuram or the S even Pagodas. They con
s ist o f sol i d rat/ms cut out of a s i ng l e rock an d O f t em p lesscooped out of th e l iv i ng boulder. The form of these rathas
an d t em ples served perhaps as models to th e lat er tem pl es i ncut stone, such as those of th e Sho re Tem pl e th ere , th e Ka i lasanatha and Vaikun th a-Perumal tem ples at Con j eeveram , an d
o th er Pallava t emples el s ewh ere .
I II
The Pallavas were succe eded by th e Chola k i ngs, who are
just ly ent i t l e d to be regarded as the greatest tem ple- bui ldersof Southern Ind ia. A bout 90 per cen t of th e tem p les now
foun d were erec ted i n the i r t im e. They are general lydedi cated e i th er to S iva or Vishnu , an d i n th e i r s im p lest formcons ist of a cel l cal l ed th e Garhko -
gr z’
ha,
— th e centra l shr i n e ,surmounted by a sp i re or dome , wi th a ha l l i n front , cal l e dMukha-mandapa an d a narrow passage or vest i bul e connect i ngth e two ,
cal l ed th e Ardha—mandapa, wh ich is Open on two s i desto perm it of th e pri est ly worsh ippers c i rcumambulat i n g thecentral sh ri n e . In t he IMuhha-mandapa or just outs i de i t wi l lbe p laced th e image of th e de i ty
’
s ch i ef veh i cl e , th e Nand ibul l i n S iva t emples an d th e Garuda- bi rd i n Vi shnu tem pl es.
This is general ly th e l im i t up to wh i ch th e non -Brahm anc lasses are al lowed to com e . Round an d outs i de of th eseare th e Mahd -mandapa, the b i g h al l , an d o th er pavi l ions i nwh i ch on spec ial occas ions proc ess ional images of th e de i tyare p laced and worsh ipped . Next after th e IMahd -mandapa
there wi l l b e two raised p latforms , one beh in d th e oth e r, on one
1 Th e B uddhist stfipas at Amaravati an d o ther v i l lages i n th e Gun tfir dist ri c t,
th e stripe at Sankaram i n the Vizagapatam dist r ict , and th e caverns wi th rock -cu tbeds i n the Madura and Tinnevel ly d ist ric ts are certainly m u ch o l der bu t canno ti n any sense be cal led temples. Some of these last may, however, have been usedas temples in a. m uch later perio d ei ther by B uddhists or by Jai nas .
2 S im ul taneously w ith Mah éndravarrr an I , i n the Pallava dom i nions, rockcu t temples appear to have come i nto ex istence in the Pandya and the Chéra(Kongu ) co un tries under the pat ronage of thei r respective soverei gns.
INTRODUCTORY 3
of wh ich is planted the flagstaff or dhvaj a-stambha,made of
stone , wood or metal , an d on th e othe r is o ffered what iscal led th e Sr ibali, wh en sacrific ial cooked food and flowers areOffered to th e m i no r d iv i n i t i es or powers wh o have to beappeased in o rder to ward off all evi l an d to prevent di sturbance to th e ord i n ary conduc t o f th e da i ly worsh ip . It is on lyup to th is l im i t that fore i gners are al lowed to enter th et em p les by th e o rthodox H i n du .
In temples of any im portance there w i l l b e a separat e shri nefor th e goddess, but g eneral ly on a sm al l er sca l e than that o fth e ch i ef de i ty . There are separate p laces for th e ki tch enwhere th e Offeri n gs are prepared with scrupulous regard to
ceremon ial puri ty ; there are storehouses where th e art i c lesrequ i red for a year
’
s consum pt ion i n th e tem pl e are stored ; andthere is general ly a fresh water wel l wh i ch is o ften th e bestsource of drink i ng water i n th e v i l lage . The who l e group o fbui l d ings is surrounded by h i gh prd led ra wal ls , whose gateways are surmoun ted by the charact er ist i c towers (figs. I and2 ) wh i ch l en d d i st i n c t ion to a temple c i ty . In som e casesthere wi l l b e outs i de the temp l e a b i g p l easure tan k (fig .
general ly square i n s i ze , bu i l t round with ston e st eps on all
si des , and with a central mandapa , where on ce a year th e godand goddess are taken i n p rocess ion for th e float i ng fest ival .
IV
The outer wal ls an d th e lofty flagstaff wi l l eas i ly show to
th e s i g ht- seer wh ether th e t emp le is ded icat ed to a S a ivad iv i n ity or to a Va i shnava god . In th e fo rm er th ere wi l l b eseen images o f th e Nand i - bul l i n a recum ben t posture, wh i l eth e lat ter wi l l show s im i lar images o f th e Garuda- b i rd .
Temples oth er than those o f S i va an d Vishnu are not
uncommon an d can eas i ly b e i dent ified by s im i lar m arks Ofthe character isti c veh i cle of th e god . Vishnu tem pl es m ay
a lso sh ow th e sym bo ls o f th e conch an d th e d iscus an d th ecaste m ark (net/71am ) o f th e Vaishnavas pa i n ted on th e wal ls.
V
Th e r i tua l fo l lowed every day i n th e tem p l es of S i va an d
Vishnu m ay b e general ly descr ib ed as rdj o'
pachd ra, or th e
pay i ng of royal honours. Thus i n r i ch temples there wi l l bee l ephants an d cam e ls wi th th ei r appropriat e paraphernal ia ,
th e royal umbre l las an d chauf fs mounted on go l d or s i lverhandl es, palanqu i ns and other veh i cl es, a t roupe o f danc ersan d mus i c ians, a host of other temp l e servants to wash th e
god ,ano i n t h im with sandal or decorat e h im with flowers and
I -A
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . I . Narasimha templ e ; Mangalagi ri .
INTRODUCTORY
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
ruraonucr oav 7
so on. Crowns an d o ther r i ch an d cost ly j ewel l ery , set withgems and pearls (fig . an d often presented by Rajas and
Ch i efta i ns or o ther r i ch devo t ees, are a spec ial p r i de of t h ewea l th i e r temp les.
The Brahmana pri est is to puri fy h imse l f by bath and prayers early morn i n g , and then open the doors o f th e sanctum an d
gently wak e up the god , wh o is supposed to be s l eep i n g , bychant i ng appropr iate hymns i n h i s pra ise . Then , after dulywo rsh ipp ing th e guard ian dei t i es, he washes th e feet of th ech i ef de i ty , bathes th e image , c loth es i t properly , deco rat esi t w ith the usua l jewel lery , sanda l and flowers , wav ing i ncenseand lamps of diverse pattern (fig . 5) i n fron t Of th e god and
final ly off eri ng h im the cooked food or naive'
dyam an d thefinal bete l l eaf and nut. A t stated i ntervals th e god comesout i n process ion and perhaps sees to th e com fo rt Of h is
atten dant de i t i es. Usual ly th ere is an important annua lfest ival , represent i ng i n some cases the marr iage of t he godor some o the r spec ial event i n th e do i ng s o f th e godreg istered i n local ch ron i cl es or Purdnas. O n such occas ionsth e process ion is carr i e d on d ifferent veh i c l es, bo th commonand spec ial , the latt er be i ng such as th e kalpa—vr ihsha, th ewish-g iv i n g celest ia l tre e or th e kdmadhénu, th e wish-g iv i ngcel est ia l cow , or th e my th i c an imal gandabhérunda. The mo s timportant process ion wi l l general ly be the car fest iva l whenthe god goe s round i n the huge car through the ma i n st reetswhere h is worsh ippers l i ve an d rece ives worsh ip an d Offer in gsat thei r very homes .
VI
In the temples ded icat ed to the v i l lage de i t i e s th e ceremon ial is not much d i ff eren t . Brahmanas however rare lyOffi ciate and an imal sacrifice s are gen era l ly offered , espec ial lywhen the v i l lage is th reatened wi th an ep i dem i c or wi thserious scarci ty or fami n e . Vedic i n cantat ions are not
utte red i n these temples.
With th i s br i ef gen eral descr i p tion of th e temp le , we can
now procee d to study the var ious image s wh i ch are foundreprese n ted i n them .
INTRODUCTORY
CHAPTE R I I .
BRA HMA .
Brahma, d i st i nct from Brahman , th e all-pervadi ng E t erna lSp i r i t , is th e first member Of the H i n du Triad . H is pri nc ipalfunct ion is creat ion . In dependent shri nes ded i cat ed to h imare rather rare. S t i l l , figures of th is god a re common ly foun ddecorat i n g one of th e n i ches i n th e no rth wal l of th e centralshr i ne i n a S iva templ e . Images of Brahma may somet imesalso be seen on p i l lars, ce i l i n gs or o ther parts O f a temple ;but the on e po i nt that deserves to be noted is that thoughoften p i ctured th e god is not worsh ipped 1 as the ch ief de i tyi n a temple , l i ke th e two o ther m em bers o f th e Tr iad , Vishnuan d S iva .
A ccord in g to Manosara , one of th e standard wo rks on
sculpture , Brahma i s represented wi th four heads. He h as ,
however, on ly one body and four hands . The image may bestandi ng or seated and made of m etal o r Of stone . The palmof the le ft lower hand exh ib i ts th e posture of conferri n g boon s(varada) wh i l e the r i ght lower indicates pro tect ion (abhaya) .The corresponding upper hands ho l d th e water-p ot (Immahdalu) an d the rosary (akshamd ld) or somet imes the sacrific ialladl e (w ife) and spoon (sruva) . The fo l lowing o rnaments are
seen i n a fin i sh ed p i cture of Brahma z— (I ) ear-r i ngs or
pendants fash ion ed l i k e the face of a crocodi le (2) th e sacredthread yaj nasr
‘
t tra hang i n g right across the body from abovethe left shoulder ; (3) th e scarf (uttar iya) th rown round th eneck so as to s tretc h down to th e knees ; (4) the udara
banalhcma2or l i teral ly ,
a g i rdle go i n g round th e be l ly ; (5)necklac e and torque ; (6) armlets, arm - ri ngs, wri st l e ts , ank l ets,wa i st-zone, fi nger- ri n gs set wi th gems, etc . H is ha i r is m ade
1 A cco rding to th e Brahmavaivarta-Purc’
iua he was cu rsed by Mob ini n ot toreceive any wo rship see also be low , p . 93 . I n th e Tel u gu an d Canaresedistric ts we o ccasiona l ly find temples dedicated to Traipurusha, i.e. ,
the th reegods B rahma, Vishnu and S iva. Curio usly enough th e place o f Brahma is hereoccupied by Siirya, the Sun god ; see Babu Nagend ra Natha. Vasu’
sM ayfi rabhauj a,p . xxi v . F rom th e N n
'
sim hapf iisao’a quo ted in Tattzzam '
a’h i we learn that one
variety of Brahmais of the fo rm of Sun-god .
9 In the Tanjo re inscri p tions th is ornament is men tioned as made of go l d andset wi th gems ; see, e.g. , South -I n dian I nscr iptions, V ol . I I , p . 189.
BRAHMA
up i n the fash ion known as j atd -makuta and he i s att ende d byth e two goddesses 1 S arasvati (on th e r i gh t) and Savi tri (onthe l eft).A nother representat ion shows Brahma ri d i ng on a char io t Various
drawn by seven swan s {hamsa H is r i gh t lower hand rests f° rms'
on th e palm of the left low er , th e two o ther hands ho l d i ng theusual rosary and the water-pot. H e is seated on a ful l blownlotus-flower, wi th h is eyes clo sed i n a m ed itat iv e po sture .
The goddess Sav i tri‘ i s seate d on h is left th i gh .
3 There arevar ious other represen tat ion s o f Brahma drawn purely fromth e im ag i nat ion of t he sculp to r or pa i n ter and som et imesalso based on Pura
’
m'
c legen ds. But the m ainp o in ts wh i chd ist i ngu ish Brahma from th e other gods are th e same i n all.Hemadri ment ions some fo rm s of Brahma such as Prajapat i ,V isvakarm a ,
4 L okapala an d Dharm a. It may be note d t hat th eswan vehi c l e and the goddesses are rarely , i f at all, foun d inth e figures of Brahma gen era l ly set up i n S outh - I nd ian temples .
A n o ld p i cture of Brahma from S even Pagodas (fig . 6) and I l lust rations.a late r one from Kum bakonam (fig . 7) i l lust rate th e standi ngposture descri bed above . In th e latte r th e l eft lower handrests fre ely on the wa i st o f the god and does not show theposture of con ferr i ng boons . The s i t t i ng att i tude of Brahmasurmounted by a paraso l and chauf fs— the symbo ls Of supremepower— i s b eaut i ful ly i l lustrat ed by a p i cture from Tiruvad inear Tan jo re (fig . A noth er figure, wh i ch is unfortunate lymuti lat ed , shows th e same pos i t ion , but i n c ludes the standi ngfigure o f S arasvati on th e ri gh t s i de Of Brahma (fig . It is
not i ceabl e that i n t his figure the ri ght upper hand o f Brahmais made to ho l d a lotus i nstead o f the usua l rosary . A n imagefrom Ch i dambaram (fig . 10) shows Brahma on h is swanveh i c l e fo l d i ng two of h is hands i n a worsh ipp i ng postu re andho l d i n g the rosary an d water-p ot i n th e o th er two .
1 F or a desc rip t ion o f these go ddesses, see below , pp . 185 f. and 2 18 , no te 3 .
Th e Kal ika-Puré n a men t ions also th e two goddesses, the ghee-po t on the left andtheVédas in fro nt , together wi th a number o f at tendant sages engaged i n medi tat ion .
9 Th e convent ional b ird hamsa is represented i n H i ndu scu l p tu re wit h a hi ghneck , a. crest (stfi pi) on its head , whi te bo dy, red feet and a beak o f go l den yel low .
3 B rahma wi th Savi t ri on h is left side,is cal led Prajapat i -B rahma. H e has
o nly on e face and no swan vehic le.
4Visvakarma has ten hands and ho l ds th e characterist i c symbo ls of the th ree
go ds B rahma, Vishnu and Mah ésvara. O ne o f h is symbo ls men t ioned i n theS ilpasé ra is the mafia -dand er, measu ring rod .
’H e rides on an elephant and has
h is bo dy besmeared w i th ashes. A no ther such god , who partakes of the natu re of
all the th ree gods, is the Sun . S t i l l ano ther is Dattatréya who granted th e
objects o f h is desi re to sage A tri. He is represen ted as a wandering mend icantw ith ashes rubbed over his body and fo l lowed by the four Védas in the fo rm o f
fou r dogs . Dattatréya is considered to be a fo rm o f Vishnu .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
FIG. 6 .—B rahma ; Seven Pagodas.
BRAHMA
FIG . 7.-Bmhma; Kumbakonam .
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES
F IG . 24.— B rahma ; Ti ru vadi .
BRAHMA
FIG. 9.—Brahmaand Sarasvati Kandiyfi t .
I S
CHAPTE R I I I .
V I SH NU .
I
Vishnu is th e second m ember of th e H i n du Triad . H is
prin c ipal funct ion is that of th e prote c tor of th e un iverse .H e is worsh ipped i n South - Ind ian templ e s i n var ious formsan d un der various names. Th e general descr ipt ion of Vishnuw ithout reference to any of h is part i cu lar i n carnat ions is g iveni n the Md nasd ra as fo l lows — H e has four arms an d two eyes,wears a h igh crown and a y e l low scarf ; on h i s breast is th eausp i c ious m ark Sr ivatsa ; he ho l ds th e di scus and th e conchi n h is upper arms and th e club and t h e sword (or lo tus) i n th elower an d wears th e garland (vanamd ld ) of flowers, reach i n gdown to the knees . In some cases th e lower arms exh i b i t th eprotect i n g and the boon- conferri n g postures (fig . A
prom i n en t nose, broad ey es and smi l i n g countenan ce are othe rfeatures of Vishnu . The goddesses Sri or L akshmi (weal th)an d Mah i or Pri thvi (E arth) are usual ly represente d on h is
r i gh t and l eft s i des respect ively .
2 The d iscus is general lyhel d i n th e ri gh t hand and th e conch i n th e left ; but th isarrangement is reversed i n th e case of an imag e found i n theBe llary d i stri c t (fig . A ccord ing to th e
'
d yapa-S ilpa
th e l eft lower hand of Vi shnu may , without showin g th evarada or boon- conferr i n g posture, rest on h is wa ist freely(fig . I 3) an d th e goddesses need n ot always be represente dwi th h im . F i gures of Vishnu may be seen standi ng , seatedor re cl i n ing . They rece ive d iffere n t names i n th e i r d iffere ntpostures ; but th e Va i sh nava symbo ls, vi z. , th e di scus and
con ch , th e garland vanama‘
ld and th e ausp i c ious mark Sr ivatsaalways remai n th e d i st i ngu ish i n g features of Vishnu. F i g . I 4
1 Thi s figu re shows, however , fou r m ore hands ho l din g a bow and arrow and
a swo rd and shield .2 F o r a descr i pt ion of these goddesses, see below, p . 187. The Pam/zaratrfi
gay/m m en t ions also the goddess N iladévi an d describes her as seated with fourhands i n two o f which she ho l ds lo tus flowers.
18 SOUTH - INDIAN IMAGE S
F I G. I I .—Vishnu (Ash tabhuja) Con jeeveram .
VISHNU
Fm . 12 .—Vishnu ; Bel lary.
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES
F IG . r3.-Vishnu Paramesvaramangalam.
VISHNU
I l is teni ncarnat ions.
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES
from A riyam bakkam i n th e Ch i ng leput dist ri ct i l lustrates thes i tt i n g form o f Vishnu wi th the goddesses S ri an d Bh fi an d
two kneel i n g devot ees.
II
The more popular forms o f Vi shnu , wo rsh ipped i n th e
temp les, general ly refer to h is num erous avatars or i n carnat ions. Th ere are ten such avatars recogn i zed as of prim aryimportance ; but of these only fi ve are common ly represen tedfor worsh ip . Th ey are (I ) Varaba th e Boar i ncarnat ion(2) Naras imha the Man - l ion i n carnat ion (3)Vam an a
“th e
Dwarf i n carnat ion ,” develop i ng eventual ly i n to Triv ikram a ;
(4) Rama, th e hero o f th e Ramayana ; an d’
(5) Kr ishna, th epastoral god an d th e ch ief actor i n th e great war of th e
Mahabharata. Th e o th er fi ve i n carnat ion s of Vishnu , vi z . ,th e F ish , th e Torto i se , Parasuram a, Buddha and Kal k i thoughrepresented largely on wal ls , p i l lars an d ce i l i ngs of t em plesbei ng e i th er carved o r pa i n ted , are not gen eral ly wo rsh ippedas the ch i ef de i ty i n a temple.
1
III
Varaba,also known as A d ivarah a, D h aran ivaraha o r
Bh t‘
ivarah a, is beaut i ful ly i l l ustrate d by th e im age i n the
Varaba-Perumal cave- temple at Mahabal i puram . Here theboar- faced Vishnu is seen stand i ng wi th h is r i ght foot rest i ngon the hood o f th e serpent-god S é sh a. O n th e r i ght th igh isseated th e godde ss E arth ,2 supported i n pos i t ion by th e two
lower arms o f th e god . He wears a h i gh crown an d h as
i n h is two upper han ds th e d iscus (hel d s i d eways) an d th e
conch . A s these images however have recen tly been coveredwi th a th i n coat i n g of p laster and pa i n ted fantast i cal ly i nvar i egated co lours , i t is not poss i b le to say what sculpturalpecul iar i t i es the o r i g i nal m ay have exh ib i ted . Fo rtunate ly , a
pane l represent i ng th i s sam e Varaba-
avatd r o f Vishnu (fig . 15)with atten dant dei t i es, is foun d i n anoth er rock- cut mandapaat that v i l lage an d is dec i dedly a t rue copy o f th e sculptures
1 Parasurama,
“the a .e-Learer , Rama is supposed to be the fo under o f the
west-coast country ,having m i raculously reclaim ed i t from th e encroaching sea.
H e is, therefo re, o ften w orshipped in Malabar i n special shrines dedicated to h im .
S iva tem ples with th e nam e Parasuramésvara are comm o n and these are bel ievedto owe thei r existence to Parasurama . I n th e Kach ch hapésvara tem ple at Conjeevetam , on a stone set up u nder a t ree
,t here is a representat ion o f th e To r to ise
i ncarnat ion o f Vishnu , w o rshipping S iva. This is repro duced by M r . R ea i n h isMadras A rchaeo lo gi cal S u rvey Repor t for 1910
—1 1,P late V
,fig . 1 .
2 Th e B ra/zm iy a-S z
'
lpa states that Lakshm i (i.e . S rt) is a lso to be depictedon the side o f Varaha.
VISHNU
VISHNU
F IG, 16.—Narasimha bursti ng fo rth from the pi l lar Ahobalam.
UGRAN ARAe HA .
LAKSH \1I ~
SOUTH- IND I AN IMAGES
by Vish nu i n h isVarah a-avatar . H iranyakasipu th en becam e
th e k in g o f the dem ons an d vowed eterna l war w i th Vi shnu .
H is young son , Prah lada, however, becam e a devoted adh er
ent of Vish nu and was a lways pra i s i n g h im as the all
pervad i ng lo rd o f th e un ive rse. E xasperated w i th th is ,H iranyakasip u asked th e young boy whethe r h is god Vishnu ,i f he was all-p ervas ive, coul d be foun d i n th e p i l lar i n fron to f h im ; an d then h acked at i t w i th h is sword . Th e p i l larc l eft i n twai n and out burst from i t , to th e aston ishment o fH iranyakasip u ,
th e angry god i n th e shape o f a Man - l ion ,(fig . who for thwi th tore to pie c es th e imp ious demon k in g .
The angry god is cal l ed Ugra (th e terri b le)-Naras im ha(figs. 17 an d Wh en , how ever , h is anger subsi ded at th e
earnest p ray ers o f Prah lada h e becam e serene an d i n th i s formh e is known as L akshm i -Naras im ha . Yoga-Naras imha (fig . 19)
NA RA SI‘I HA ; is anoth er fo rm i n wh i ch th e god is seen squatt i n g i n a
YGGA
N A RASIM HA .
m edi tat ive mood . S im hachalam i n th e Vizagapatam d ist ri c t ,A h obalam i n th e Kurnoo l d istr i ct and Nam akkal 1 i n th e
Tri ch i nopo ly di stri c t m ay b e ment ioned among th e placessac red to Naras im ha. The usual Va ishnava sym bo ls , sank/1a
(conch ) and c/zakra (d iscus), are seen i n th e two upper handso f th e im age of Naras im h a i n all h is form s . Th e mono l i th i cUgra-Narasim ha foun d i n the rui ns of V ijayan agara was
th ere establ ish ed by k i ng Krish naraya i n A .D . 1528. It m ay
be not ed that h ere th e god , though cal l e d Ug ra-Naras imh a,is
not represented , as m ay be expected , i n th e posture of spl i tt i n gopen the bowel s o f th e d em on H iranyakasip u .
Hemadri states th at Naras imha must b e represen ted withm uscular shoulders , a stout n eck and a sl en der wa ist . Ha lfm an and hal f l ion , h is face must be fiery an d so also th e
m ane round i t . S tandi ng w ith h is ri ght foot bent forward(cilidha) he sp l i ts with h is sharp na i ls the b reas t o f
th e tyran t H iranyakasip u , who , as th e w i se m en say , is
an embodiment of i gnorance . The Pd nc/zardtrdgama thusdescri bes th e form of Naras im ha sui te d for m edi tat ion .
(Terrib le) l i ke flami ng fire , h e h as a l ion - face with a hum anbody , furious fangs, a prot rud ing tongue , an open mouth , a
th i c k m ane an d m uscular chest . H e stands i n th e d lidka
posture i n an an gry mood an d spl i ts th e breast o f the g iant,
th rown flat upon h is th i gh , with th e sharp na i ls of both h ishands . In h is two o ther hands he ho l ds th e sym bo ls
’
of th e
c lub an d the d iscus.
” The Mayamata , whi le g iv in g a lmost
1 A detai led descri pt ion o f th e images i n th e ro ck-cu t tem ples at Namakka lis given i n th e Madras E pi graph ica l Repo rt fo r 1906, Part I I , pp . 75 and 76 .
VISHNU
F IG I 7.—Ugra-Narasimha ; Ahobalam .
SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 18.—Ugra-Narasimha (meta l) Mad ras M useum .
VISHNU
F IG . 19.—Yoga-Narasimha ; Tirupat i H i l l .
SOUTH- IND IA N IMAGE S
the sam e descript ion o f h im , states that th e cruel form o f
Naras im ha is i nstal led on m ountai n - tops , caves , forests or
th e enemy’
s terri tory when th e en emy h as to be destroyed ;when i nsta l led , however , i n v i l lages an d towns h e has fourhands
, two o f which wear th e conch and th e d iscus.
V
VAMA N-
A or Vam ana or th e Dwarf i n carnat ion of Vish nu is wor
{h e DH,
“sh i pped i n its ult im ate m an i festat ion , under th e S anskr i t
m cam auon '
nam e Triv ikrama o r th e Tam i l Ulagalanda-Perumal. Theform e r m eans “th e god who took th ree stri des an d th e latt erth e lo rd who measured the un iverse (w ith three str i des) ”
Th e story is'
that a powerful dem on k i ng named Bal i , thegreat - grandson of H iran yakasip um ent ioned above , conqueredthe th ree worlds and ruled them , i n sp i te o f h is b i rth , i n char i tyan d with just i ce . In dra, th e ch i ef o f gods , was thus superseded . Vish nu as th e avowed destroyer of th e demon s(dd navas) and th e upho l der of th e gods h ad to restore In drato h is leg it imate pos i t ion . Vishnu could n ot go to war agai nstBal i , as h e was a vi rtuous k i n g . So he went i n th e gu ise of a
Dwarf Brahm ana , a'
studen t o f th e Vedas (brakmaclzd r in ) , an dbegged of Bal i for three feet o f lan d on wh i ch h e coul d sit
and meditate on Brahm an und isturbed . Th e generous Bal igranted th e request . But wh at was h is aston ishm ent wh enh e saw th e cunn i n g god grow to a h e i ght transcen ding th eworl d , take i n at on e step the who le earth , cover in g the sky
TR IVIKRAMA . with th e n ext , an d dem and in g o f Bal i to show h im room for
the th i rd . True to h is prom i se, Bal i o ffered h is own h ead,
on wh ich th e god p laced h is foot and sen t h im down to th e
lower reg ions. Great ly p leased w ith th e k in g’
s nob i l i ty and
fi rm n ess o f character , Vi shnu is st i l l supposed to be guard in gas h is servant th e palace of Ba l i i n th e worl d below .
There are not m any tem p les dedi cat ed to th is god . A t
Ti rukkoy i lu r i n th e S outh A rco t d istr i c t is a cel eb rate d shri neo f Triv ikram a. A nother on e is th e Ulagalan da
- Perumal
templ e at Kanch i . In t he Varah a-mandapa at Mahaba l ipuram , on th e pan el Oppos i te to th e Varaba—avatardescribe d above, is a fin e re presentat ion of Triv ikram a
1(fig .
Here th e god h as e i gh t hands. The foremost arm on
th e r i ght s i de is art ist i cally m ade to support th e l i n tel , wh i l eth e rema i n i n g th re e ho l d th e d iscus, club an d the sword . O f
th e arms on th e l eft s i d e two ho l d th e bow and th e sh i el d ;
There is 32115 0 a panel i n the rock -cu t temp le at Namakka',represent in g
Trivikrama w ith more detai ls.
VISHNU
V ISHNU
F IG . 2 1 .
— Trivikrama ; li umbakfinam .
33
34 SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
F I G . 2 2 .— Vamana Namakkal .
VISHNU
th e i r nat ional harvest fest ival , th e Onam , i n whi ch theyworsh ip a c lay figure of t h is h igh -minded emperor. It issupposed that the k i n g is permi tted by Vishnu to v is i t everyyear the fa i r earth over wh i ch he once rul ed and to sat isfyh imsel f that th e people are qu i te as happy and glad as i n h ist ime .
VI
We now come to the avata‘
r of Rama, Ram achandra or RAMA IncarRam abhadra, the hero of th e beaut i ful ep i c Rdmdyana,
wh ich natiom
i n its var ious aspects h as permeat ed th e l i fe of the Ind ianpeop le an d moulded th e i r charac ter to a great exten t . Ramawas th e el dest son of Dasarath a, th e k ing of A yodhya (Oudh ).A s such , h is im ages do not , l i k e tho se of t he avata
‘
rs so far
descri bed ,— avatd rs wh i ch were sudden outbursts of div i n een ergy— exh ib i t e i th er t h e four arm s of the gods or thed ist i ngu ish i ng Vaish nav ite sym bo ls o f conch , d iscus, c lub andlotus. Hum an i n fo rm , but god i n essence
,Rama is alway s
rep resented as a royal personage o f bewitch i n g beauty ,wel l
developed i n body , havi ng broad eyes, long arms , curly t resses,ornam ents and ausp i c ious m ar ks that i n di cat e h i gh b i rthand nob l e characte r. Pa i n t i ngs o f Rama’s l i fe are numerousan d cover th e who l e period o f h is h i story from h i s b i rt h to h i spass i n g away bod i ly from th is worl d i nto th e depths o f theSarayu r iver. In m any South- I n d ian temp les m ay be observedscenes from the Ramayana, ei ther pa i nt ed on th e wal l s or cuti nto panels, form i ng cont i nuous b elts round th e c entra l shri n eor the prdkd ra wal l . 1 When represente d as the consecrat eddei ty with i n a t empl e , Ram a is genera l ly seen to be a standi ngfigure with h is queen S i ta on th e l eft an d h i s fa i th fulbrother L akshm ana on th e ri ght . He an d h is broth er ho l dbows and arrows. The bow is cal l ed ko
’
danda an d so Ramawith th e bow is som et im es known as Kodanda-Ram a.
In th e accom pany i n g i l lustrat ion of metal l i c im ages fromRam esvaram (fig . 23) th e pos i t ions o f S i ta and L akshm ana are
i n terchanged an d the arrows and quivers are miss i n g . Th e
two images at e i ther extrem e represent the i r fa i th fu l servantHanuman (see below p . A s state d i n the Sz
'
lpasangraha,
th e figures of Rama are d ist i n gu ish ed as i n depen dent an d
dependent . In th e form er case h e stan ds alone and h as fourarms , two o f wh i ch ho l d th e bow an d th e arrow and the othe rtwo ,
t h e conch an d th e d iscus . In th e latte r he h as two arm s
and may be accompan ied by h is three bro th ers , h is queen
1 F or exam ple,in the Hazara -Ramasvam in tem ple at Ham pi i n th e
Ramasvam in tem ple at K umbakonam and i n the Tennapuram temple at C hand ragi ri
,Chi ttoo r d ist ri ct .
3-A
SOUTH- IND IA N IMAGE S
V ISHNU
S i ta, th e monkey hosts an d th e Rakshasa ch iefs h eaded byVibh ish ana. Ram a with S i ta on h is s i de is general ly contemplated upon as seated i n the aer ial car Puskpalea i n th e virdsanaposture w ith i n a go l den pav i l ion an d un derneath the celest ialt ree (ka lpa In h is front stan ds Hanuman read ing
,
wh i l e Rama is exp la i n i ng th e m ystery o f ph i losophy to thecrowds o f sages who gather round h im along with h is roya lbro thers Bharata, L akshm ana an d Satrugh na .
l
V II
Kr ishna is th e n ext avata‘r of Vishnu 2 which is h ighly vener Km snm
ated by th e H i n dus. The Bhagavata Parana wh ich describes“mam a
i n deta i l th e early l1fe of Krishna i n Brin davana (Bri ndaban)ion
h as prov i ded more mater ial for i cono logy than h i s subsequentcareer as th e mov ing sp i r i t of th e Mahabharata-war , th e authoro f th e D iv i ne S ong Bhagavad
- Gitd or th e ben evo l en t ch iefo f Dvaraka (Dwarka, Baroda).Three stages i n th e l i fe o f Kr ishna have been m ark ed
out to b e th e m ost prom i n ent . A s a baby , not yet wean ed fromh is m other’s breast , h e is represented i n th e arm s o f Vasoda.
Th is fo rm of Kri shna rece ives th e nam e S antana-GOpala . S ANTAN AA lso as a baby d iv i ne , i den t ified wi th Supreme Vishnu
,G5PALA °
he is somet im es p i ctured as ly i ng on a banyan - leaf (Vatap a VATA PA'
I RA
trasay in ) suck i n g the toe o f h is leg h el d by th e hand . These 55m“pi ctures o f th e baby-
god are comm on ly seen i n pa i nt i ngs .
Kr ishna is a lso represented as a W i nsome boy , ful l o f
fun an d fro l i c and fond of th i ev i n g mi l k and butter fromth e n e i ghbour i n g cottages o f co-wh erds l ivi n g at Bri ndavana. It i s sa i d that on on e occas ion Yasoda pun ished h imby ty i n g h im up to a mortar. The ch i l d then ran a long ,dragg i ng th e mo rtar b eh i n d h im ; but i n try i n g to pass betweentwo tal l an d stout trees standing c lose togeth er, th e h eavymortar was caught between an d fe l le d th em down ; when 10 !
This co nception o f Rama is perhaps to be t raced to th e fac t that in the wo rkcal led Rama is stated to have given lessons i n ph i losophyto h is fam i ly priest Vasish tha . Th e sto ry o f the Ramay an a as described byth e poet Valm iki , is said to be referred to i n th e Mantra o f the R i g-Véda,beginn ing with th e wo rds blzaa’ré bizadm y é , etc . Th e exp lanato ry commen t(m
'
m kta) is ,however , n ot inc l ud ed i n Vaska’
s N z’
ru l ’ta . The h is to ri cal development o f Rama and Kri shna. c u l ts have been fu l ly deal t wi th by Dr . R . G. Bhandarkar i n h is Sh ir/ism , etc .
2 The verse wh ich is u sual ly quo ted in connexion wi th the ten avatars o f
Vishnu , mentions Balarama or Haladhara th e bearer o f the pl ough ,” as the incarnat ion wh ich cam e next after the epi c hero Rama. K rish na ,
th e you nger bro ther ofBalarama, being , however , consi dered to be Vishnu h imsel f, receives divine honou rsi n p reference to Balarama. The famous tem ple at Pfi ri- Jagannath contains figu reso f Balarama and K rishna w ith theirsister Subh adrastandi ng between them .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
the trees assumed th e shape of the two sons of Kubera, the godo f ri ch es, who bei ng cursed by th e sage Narada to assume th eshape of t rees h ad been wa i t i n g long to b e thus restored by th eLord Kr ishna to the i r or i g inal form . Th e fi rst part of th isi n c i dent is represented i n fig . 24 .
In S outh In dia p ic tures of Kr ishna with a pot o f butterunder h is l e ft arm an d eat i ng out o f a bal l of i t p laced i nth e palm o f h is r igh t hand are not uncommon . On e i th ers i d e of h im are represented shepherd g i rls of Brindavana-1
Th is form of Krishna , though very often med i tated upon and
sung about even i n nursery rhymes, i s rarely worsh ipped as
th e ch i ef figure i n templ es— a famous except ion to th is bei n gUd ip i i n th e South Canara d istri c t , where a b i g templ e , r ich lyendowed , is m a i n ta i n ed for th e wo rsh ip of th e god BalaKr ishna.
2In th e Madras Museum are two metal l i c images o f
danci n g Kr ishna, one of wh ich ho l ds i n its ri ght hand a bal lof butter 3 (fig . A peacock ’s feath er stuck i n to th e tuft ofha i r knotted overhead is, alon g wi th the oth er go l den jewel l erypecul iar to chi l dren , a spec ial. feature of Kr ishna as a boy .
Go l d and s i lve r im ages of th is form of Krishna i n m i n iatureare among th e set of i do ls worsh ipped dai ly i n an orthodoxBrahmana’
s house . Va i shnavi sm in its var ious forms preva i li n g throughout In d ia pra ises th e ch i ld form o f Krishna i n th esweetest o f stra i ns with an overflow o f devot ion pecul iar tothat creed a lone .
A no ther sto ry o f th e boy Kri shna i s represented i n h isdan ce on th e head o f a serpent named Kal iya (th e black ).Kal iya was h i d i ng i n a pon d i n th e Yamuna ri ver and mak i ngth e who le nei ghbourhood po isonous to all l iv i ng bei n gs .
O ne day th e catt le tended by Kr ishna an d h is compan ionsstray ed i nto th i s reg ion an d were th ereby po isoned . Krishnathen p lunged i nto th e pond an d ho l d i n g th e vi per by th e ta i l
1Th e name given to th is figure i n the S z'lpam tn a is Santana-Gopala, al ready
referred to . K rishna under th is desi gnat ion is desc ribed as a you ng playfu l babydeco rated wi th th e jewels o f ch i l d ren
,ho l d ing fresh butter i n h is hand and sur
rounded by Gbp i-w omen . H e wears also a neck lace wi th a pai r o f t i ger’s c lawsdeco rat ing i t . A variet'y o f th is sam e K rishna is som etim es represen ted to be ridingo n a char io t and to have fou r arm s i n two o f wh ich are seen th e Vaishnava sym bo lssank/mand clzaéra .
9 Krishnaraya , the wel l kn own Vi jayanagara king o f the six teenth centu ryA .D . , is stated to have instal l ed in th e Krish nasvam in tem ple near Hampi , an
image o f Bala-K rishna which h e had brou ght as a t rophy from Udayagiri (Nel lo redi st ri c t) and to have gi ven m any o rnamen ts and vi l lages to i t .
3The B f r
'
i l un iya-S zlpa refers to th e dance o f K rishna cal led N avan ita-nn
’
l la
th e bu tter-dance i n ! wh ich th e god bends his legs and dances st retch in g out oneo f h is arms’.
V ISHNU
VISHNU
i n one hand began to danc e heavi ly on h is ra ised hoods. Thedemon wri the d under th e p ressure of th e god’s t i ny feet ,vom i t i n g b lood profusely from each o f h is several m ouths ,an d was complet ely exhausted an d overcome . Then at lastth e serp ent Kal iya recogn i zed the L ord an d took h imsel faway to a remo te is land i n th e far- off sea . Th e eso t er i c senseo f th is is cl ear. The serpent represents the embod im ent o fall that is v i le an d wick ed i n th is wo rl d ; th e danc e of Krishnarepresents the fight w i th ev i l and its fina l conquest by th eD iv i n e Sp i r i t. Kal iya-Kr ishna is found on ly as a deco rat iv efigure i n t emples but not as th e ob j e ct o f worsh ip i n th e centra lshri ne . A s i n t he case of Bala-Kr ishna, m i n iature figures o fKal iya-Kr ishna are often found am ong th e images of worsh ipi n a Brahm ana’
s house. A copper i do l represent i ng th issport of Kr ishna was d iscove red some years ago am ong thetreasure trove foun d at Kattu- E dayaru i n th e South A rco td ist ri c t (fig . The figure h as two hands , a jewel l edcrown and th e usua l o rnam ents . Be i n g a copper im age i tm ay b e i nferred that th e i do l was used on ly for p roces
s ions i n the tem p l e to wh ich i t o ri g i nal ly belonged . A ccordi n g to th e S ilpasa
‘
m th e r i gh t foo t o f Kalingam ardana
Kal iya-Kri shna) is s l i ght ly bent and th e left ra ised up .
O f th e two arm s th e l eft is stre tched out i n th e abhaya postureand th e r i ght ho l ds th e ta i l of th e serpent . The figure is ful lydeco rate d w i th ornam en ts an d is dark i n co lour. Th e i l lustrat ion from Kattu-E dayaru shows th e sam e features except thatthe pos i t ions o f th e r i gh t an d left l egs are i nterchanged .
The th i rd an d t h e most d ivi n e sport of Kr ishna lS'
l‘l lS
moon l i ght dance on th e sand- banks o f th e Jumna i n thecom pany o f th e damsels o f Brin davan a. Th e i nsp i red poetL i lasuka, descri b i n g th i s dance , says that
“there , i n th e c i rc l eof dance rs (fi l l ed w ith love for Kr i shna) was seen betweendamsel and damsel a Madh ava (Kr i shna) an d betweenMadh ava and Madh ava a damse l ; an d i n th e centre o f th egroup aga i n , was th e son of Devak i p lay i n g upon h is flut e,
”
th ereby i n d i cat i n g i n poet i c language th e myst i c s i gn ificanceo f th e dance . O f th e many Go
'
pz‘
(cow- herd) g i rls thus i nattendance on Kr ishna i n h is early l i fe i n Brin davana th emost beloved was Radha
,so m uch so that Radha-Krishna is ali ena
th e nam e by wh i ch h e is addressed b y the m ost ecsta ti c of“R“HNA '
th e zealous Va ishnava cult .Im ages o f th e flute- p lay i n g Kr ishna gen eral ly cal l edWEN ?
Venu-Gopala (Muralidhara) wi thout , however, th e c i rcl e of“OPA L“
dancers , are large ly worshipped i n tem ples . H e s tands on
h is left l eg w ith th e r i gh t ben t across and rest i ng on the toe,
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG. 26 .—Serpen t -dance o f Kal iya-K rishna (metal ) Madras Museum .
VISHNU
and p lay s upon the flute. When the figure is i nten ded for
worsh ip i n templ es th e two upper hands wi l l ho l d the conchan d th e d iscus and there wi l l usual ly al so b e th e im ages of h istwo consorts R ukm in i an d S atya on ei ther s i de (fig . I nth e hundred- p i l lared mandapa o f th e Varadarajasvam in templeat L i tt l e Con j eeveram is a figure of th e flute-p lay i n g Krishnawith ten arms (fig . Th e Pd nclzard trdgama cal ls th isform of Kr ishna by the nam e Madana-Gopala . In pa i n t i ngs MA DA NA .
Venu-Gopala I S often represented as lean i ng aga i nst a cow ,
GBPALA '
with on e foot be n t crosswise an d rest i ng on th e toe.,Cows
and cow-h erds are al so often shown gather in g round h im . Th e
dance with Go'
p is, with wh i ch th e flute- play i n g Kr ish na is
i nt imately conn ected , is found on ly i n drawing s. The eso
teric sense of th is flute- p lay an d th e dance is th e supreme joywh ic h the devo tees experi en ce i n mom ents of overflow i n glove i n th e presen ce o f th e ob j ect o f thei r devo t ion .
A no ther wel l - known sport o f Kr ishna duri ng h is boyhoo d GOVA Rwas th e l i ft i ng up of th e h i l l ca l le d G6 vardh ana . H e is sa i d to 1
&1nhave hel d th e h i l l aloft so as to g ive sh el ter to th e cow - herdsof Brindavana from a cont i nuous down -pour of ra i n sent downby In dra i n anger i n order to flood the i r sm al l v i l lage . A
beaut i ful o ld represen tat ion of th is sc ene comes from th e
S even Pagodas (fig . 29) where, i n th e so- cal l e d Kr ishnamandapa, Kr ishna stands i n th e centre with h is left handra ised stra i ght up to support th e h i l l , wh i le h is r i ght hand ish el d i n the posture of o ffe ri ng boons (varada) .2 A ll round th egod are seen cows an d cow-h erds, men and women , th e latte rcarry i n g pots of m i l k , butte r , curds or o ther cooked offer i ngsto th e god ,
and l ead i ng th e i r young o nes by th e hand o r
accom pany i n g the i r husbands . Th e ornam ents o f Kr i shna i nth i s p i cture are very spar i n g . They are th e usual large earr i n gs pecul iar to th e S culpture of th e F a l lava per iod , brace lets,arm lets and th e wa ist- band . The h i gh crown on the head isa lso a no t i c eable feature . Th is representat ion d i ffers , h owever, from th e descr ipt ion g i ven i n the S ilpasdm where th egod is descri bed as having on e han d w i th flute rest i ng on h is
wa i st and the o the r support i ng th e h i l l .
1 A t Turaiyur i n th e Trich i nopo ly d ist rict th e god wo rshi pped in the sh rinehas only two hands H émadri states that th e image o f (ropala playing on the fluteis made wi th th e head o rnam en t o f peacock feathers, bl ue body and two arm s.
Th e S ilpamngraiza adds that h e is chiefly fo und in a standing att i t ude ,
IL‘r . Vogel says that th e cent ral figu re o f the grou p is Balarama (Baladéva) ,
the bro ther o f K rishna (A rchaeo logical Su rvey Repo rt for 1910—1 1 , p . 51 , noteHe is seen th row ing h is left hand round th e neck o f a cow-herd boy wh o
'
rests
h is han ds crossed on the head o f a long hat chet .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F I G. z7.- Vénu-Gopala Madras Museum .
VISHNU
F IG. 28 .
— Ma.dana-G6pala L i tt le Conjeeveram .
45
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
VISHNU
A ga i nKr ishna on th e tree is a famil iar figure i n pa i n t in gs G6PIVA STRA.
and decorat ive sculptures of t empl es. The story is related i n “HERA“the Bhagavata-Purd na h ow one day Kr ishna saw t he cow-herdg i rls bath i n g naked i n the Jumna leav i ng the i r clothes on thesand banks of th e r iver an d how h e too k away the i r c lothesand got up a tree standi ng near by . He di d not restore th ec lothes to th e g i rls t i l l they confessed the i r error i n bath i ngnaked aga i n st th e teach i n g o f th e Scisti'as. O ne of th e usualp rocess iona l vehic les i n Vishnu tem pl es is th e pzmnai- treewi th th e naked Grip is standi n g round i t an d beggi ng for th ereturn of the i r clothes (fig .
A fter leavi ng Brin davana , Kr ishna becam e th e c lever an d PAR '
I‘HA .
astute statesman and warr ior of Dvaraka and took an act ive“RAT“part i n the war betw een Kauravas and Pandavas descr ibed i nt he Mahabharata. H e was on the s i de o f th e Pandavas ; hewas an i nt im at e friend o f A rjuna (or Partha) an d even servedh im as h is chario t eer on th e bat t l e-fi eld . Hen ce Kr ishnais also known by th e nam e of Parth asarath i, th e nam e ofth e god i n th e famous t emp le at Trip l i cane . It was on th isoccas ion i n th e batt l e-fi eld , when A rjuna was d ism aye d at
th e prospect of a bloody war w i th his relatives, that thed iv i ne char ioteer Kr ishna is sa i d to have de l ive red to A rjunathe famous discourse k nown as the B hagavad—Gitd . A fin ei l lustrat ion of th e scen e comes from the Kesavasvam in templeat Pushpag ir i (fig . Th e story runs t hat A rjuna an d
Kr ishn a were bosom fri e nds i n far earl i er ages, when underth e nam es Nara and Narayana they are suppose d to haveperform ed penance i n Badarikasram a.
VII I
Two o th er avatars of Vishnu , v i z . , Buddha and Kal k i B U DDHAm ay be no t i ced . Th e lat ter is on ly a prospect ive i n carnat ion and KM
,
”
i n wh i ch th e god is expected to appear as a powerful h erom oam auo ns'
r i d i ng on horse-back , swo rd i n han d , to suppress th e growingwickedness o f th e Mlech ch h as. Th e Buddha
'
incarnation o f
Vishnu is, no doubt , counted among the ten avata‘
rs but israre ly found worsh ipped i n H i n du t empl es .
l Buddha is
l The B ré fi rfziya-S ilpa does no t i nc l ude B uddha i n the avatars of Vishnu .
I t mentions K rishna i n the place o f B uddha. Th e M an asr'
im gi ves a com pletedesc ri pt ion of th e figures o f B uddha which i t says m ust be m ade o f wh i te stone, verymuch l ike th e images o f J ina (below , p . z6af. ) seated or standing on a l ion- pedestalu nder th e pipal or th e w ish -givi ng celest ia l t ree, w ith two hands, us/in is/za (crown )a yel l ow clo th , broad fo rehead , long ear- lobes, b ig eyes, high nose, sm i l ing countenance, long arms, broad chest , fleshy l imbs and body. When standing, h is armsmust be made to hang down loose ly.
VISHNU
F IG . 3 I .—Parthasarathi teaching the B kagavad -Git r
’
i to A rj una Pushpagi ri.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
regarded by some as an avatar des i gned to l ead the asuras
i n to ru i n by g ivi ng th em bad advi c e. O thers l i k e Jayadevaregard h im r i ghtly as an i n carnat ion of mercy wh o cam e to
t each th e peopl e the essent ial cruel ty of an imal sacrifices .
IX
O ther tu rm s Besi des th e avatars m ent ioned above, th ere are o ther fo rm s
fjcxl’
ggg‘lnm‘
of Vish nu wh i ch are also o ften found i n South - Ind ian tem p les .
the avatars The most im po rtant of such is‘
h is rec l i n i n g form ,known by
egm m q th e nam es A nan tasayin (or Seshasay in ), Padmanabha an d
pAD
’
MANABH A R anganath a.
1 Th e t emples at S ri rangam and Trivandrum01
_
RA NGA m ay be spec ial ly ment ioned as th e p laces where th is form ofNATH A '
Vishnu is worsh ipp ed . In Tami l h e is known as Palligondan .
A good i l lust rat ion (fig . 32) comes from th e o ld sculptures at
Mahabal i puram . In th e so- cal l e d Mah ishasura-mandapa , on
t he proper r i gh t wal l of th e front veran dah is dep icte d th escen e under reference. Here on th e co i ls of th e serpent A nantasl eeps on h i s back a gi gant i c figure of Vish nu wi th two arms .
The r ight han d i s -carel essly thrown on the body of th e serpentwhi l e the l eft hand is ra i s e d up at th e elbow . Th e god wearsa c loth round th e waist , wh ich reaches down to the fe et . Theusual udam bandhana is al so t i ed round the lower part o f th estomach i n th e form of a g irdl e , i t s ends graceful ly hangi ngdown an d touch i n g the righ t s i de o f th e serpent couch . Th e
garland round th e nec k th e vanamc‘ila
‘
) h as s l i pped downth e r i ght arm of the god , thus emphasi z i ng h i s sl eep in gposture. By th e s i de of th e serpent couch , n ear th e feet o fVi shnu , is th e figure of L akshm i kn ee l i n g down an d
worsh ipp in g h im with fo lded hands. In front o f he r are two
oth er figures also seat ed by th e s i d e of th e serp ent couch .
Thes e m ay be th e two co l l eagues o f Vishnu , vi z . , Brahma andS i va, or t he atten dan ts Jaya and Vi jaya . A bove th e s leep i nggod i n the air are two fly i n g figures , on e a femal e and th e
oth er a fat figure , probably a gobl i n . Beyond h is feet andlook i n g h im strai ght i n th e face are two sta lwart figuresstandi ng on e i n a defiant att i tude with a c lub i n h is hand andth e other d i ssuadi n g h im from what looks apparen tly l i kea murde rous at tack on the god . The Padm a-Purd na g ives a
Th e (Wayamala says that th e serpent,the co uch o f A nan tasayana, may be
o f five or seven hoods,its whi te co lour ind icat in g great b l iss. Padmanabha means
h e o f th e lotus navel and we see,in figu res o f Anantasayana, the navel o f
th e god sending fo rth a sto ck at the end of which is a lo t us flower and i n i t th efo u r-faced B rahma. Ranganatha is th e lo rd o f th e ranga ,
the assembly-hal l .”I t m i gh t be no ted that in the i l l ustrat ions o f Anantasayana th e cent ral figu re o f
V ishnu is su rrou nded by all th e o ther go ds as i f in an assemb ly-hal l .
V ISHNU
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
descript ion of Vishnu , whi ch com es very near to what has beendep i cted above . It says : The god of gods s leep s on th e
serpent . O ne o f h is legs l i es on the th i gh o f L akshm i , wh i leth e other is p laced on th e body o f th e serpen t . H e h as twohands , on e of wh i ch is stret ch ed along th e ri ght th i gh an d the
o ther is p laced over h i s head . Brahma is com fortab ly seatedon th e lo tus wh i ch spr i ngs from th e navel of Vishnu.
E ntangled i n the stem of th e lo tus stand th e demons Madhu an dKaitabh a. The symbo ls o f the god , vi z. , th e conch , discus,club and lotus are all
‘
rep resen ted about h im ,each assum i n g a
body .
” 1 A s im i lar descri pt ion is g i ven by H emadri under th eJALASAYANA term Jalasayana .
God Vishnu seated com fortably on '~ th e serp en t couch isVangUNTuA named Vaikun th a-Narayana 9 (fig . 33 ) Th e l eft l eg isNA RAYA NA '
stretch ed down and th e r i gh t is b en t at th e kn ee ; the l efthan d rests on th e knee- jo i nt , wh i le th e ri ght hand restscarel essly th rown back on th e head o f th e serpent ; th e two
bac k hands hol d th e weapons sank/1a an d el m/era . The im ageis decorated with jewels an d b y its s i de are h is consortsL akshmi an d Pr ithvi .
L akshm i -Narayana is ano th er o f Vishnu ’s seat ed formswhere , to th e le ft o f th e god , by h is s i de or som et im es on h is
th i gh , is found seated th e image of L akshm i th rowing h erri gh t hand round th e n eck of th e god wh i l e Sh e ho l ds i n herleft a lotus . Th e l eft han d o f Vi shnu s im i larly passes roundth e wa ist of Lakshm i . A fem ale de i ty cal l e d S i ddh i standsn ear, with a fly-wh isk i n h er hand . Th e veh i c l e Garuda is
on the ri ght s i de at th e foo t o f th e god . The sank/m and
chakra not be in g hel d by th e god are carri ed by two dwarfma l e figures stan di n g i n fron t of h im Brahma an d S iva alsostand by ,
worsh ipp i n g Vishnu w i th fo l ded hands3 (fig .
Vasudeva described by I I émadri as a stand ing V ishnu figu re o f four arm s,
ho l ds i n th e two u pper hands th e lo tus and th e conch and i nstead o f having i n th etwo l ower, th e weapons c/zaém (d iscus) and gadr
'
i (club ) , h e places the palms o f thesehands on the heads o f two dwar f figures, one m ale and one female, ho l d in gc/zau r is i n thei r hands and looking at th e face o f the god These dwar f figu res areS tated to be th e personified weapons clzakm and gadfi ; (see M ay zi rab/zanj a, fig . 16,on plate facing p . XI) . Th e descri pt ions given by th e same au tho r o f
Sankarshana, Pradyum na and A n iruddha— o ther stand ing fo rms o f Vishnu— referal so to personified weapons.
2 See th e Madras E pi graph i ca l Repo rt for 1906 , p . 76 . Th e B rai n/dy a
S tlpa cal ls th is same figure Adim t’irti and describes h im as bein g attended , by
go ds and f z'
sh z'
s in a wo rshipping at t i t u de.
3 H émadri , A cco rd ing to the S z'
lpam ngm /za,Lakshm i-Narayana has four
arm s in wh ich h e d isplays th e conch and th e discus and th e pro tecti ng and the
boon -giv in g post u res. M r. R ea po rt rays a fi ne pictu re o f Lakshm i-Narayana fromN ilagunda (Bel lary dist rict) on Plate L I I I o f h is Cha lukyan A rc/zz
'
tectu i e.
V ISHNU
F IG . 33 ,
—Vaikun tha-Narayana ; Namakkal .
53
SOUTH- INDI AN IMAGE S
F IG . 34 .— Lakshm i-Narayana ; Namakkal .
VISHNU
The Silpasdm ment ions an image cal le d Garuda-Narayana Gam mawhere i n Vi shnu i s seen ri d i n g on Garuda, ho l d in g a bow an d NARAYAN A '
arrow , conch and d iscus . A n i l lustrat ion from Ch i dambaram(fig . wh i ch is muti lat ed , i s apparen tly on e of GarudaNarayana. On a p i l lar i n the Ramasvam in t empl e at Kumbakenam is a fin e rep resentat ion of th i s form of Vishnu i n th eatti tude of bl ess i n g the el ephant (gajendra) after rescu in g i tfrom the attac k of a crocod i l e . The scen e is general ly known GAJEN DRAas Gajendra-moksha (fig .
MOKSH A '
F i gures o f Vishnu , with four arms seat ed i n a meditat ive Yecasvxm .
posture , are probably t hos e of YOgesvara-Vishnu , descr i bed VI SHNUo
by Hemadri as seat e d on a lotus , with eyes ha l f-closed and
d i rected towards th e t i p of th e no se . A n image (fig . 37) fromth e ru in ed Vi shnu templ e at Havinah adagalli (Bel lary d ist r i ct)i l lust rat es th is form. A no th er image , probably o f th i s sameform of Vishnu but seate d on th e serp ent couch , comes fromKumbakonam (fig . Here th e god is bath ed by two
goddesses with pots i n th e i r hands .The twenty - four wel l-known names of Vi shnu repeat ed by Twen ty -fou r
th e Brahmanas i n th ei r dai ly pray er known as sandhydvandana,
general.
f°'ms
o f stand ingare represente d each by a stand ing figure of the god W 1th four Vishnu .hands ho l d i n g t he four symbo ls sank/1a (conch ), clzakra (d iscus),gadd (c lub ) and padma (lotus), i n d ifferen t combi nat ions.
Consequently we may often find i n Vi shnu templ es imagesnamed Trivikram a , Vamana, Padmanabha,
Naras imha or
Krishna rep resen ted as p la i n stand i ng figures of Vishnu ,w i thout referenc e to any of the Purd nic scenes connectedwi th these gods . Four of the above men t ion ed twentyfour form s, v i z. , Vasudeva, Sankarsh ana , Pradyumna an d
A n iruddh a are som et imes represen te d by d ifferen t weapons.
The two i l lustrat ions i n th e accompany i n g p lat es (figs . 39and 40) show ano ther form o f standing Vish nu , known as pANDURANGA
Pan duranga or V ith oba: The character i st i c feature of the or V ITHé BA o
image is t hat i t h as two arms wh i ch , bei n g b ent at th e e lbow ,
are placed on i ts h ips . A poem in pra i se of th is form o f
Vishnu , ent i t l ed Pd ndurangdsktaka, is attr i buted to Sankaracharya o f about th e e ighth century A .D .
H ayagri va is st i l l ano ther form o f standi ng Vish nu , HAYAGR IVA .
represented w i th the head of a horse . Hemadri descr i bes h imas havi ng a wh ite complex ion , and plac i ng h is
'
feet on th ehands of th e goddess E arth . He has e igh t hands, i n four ofwh ich are he ld the Vaish navite symbol s con ch , d iscus, c luband lotus. With th e ot hers h e carr ies th e four Vedas person ifi ed . The Pcincharcitrdgama ment ion s on ly four hands i nwh ich are seen the conch , rosary ,
book and th e j ncina—madré .
V I SHNU
F I G . 36 .—Garu da-Narayana and Gajendra -moksha Kum bakc
’
mam .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 37 .
—Y6gésvara-Vishnu ; H t‘ivinahadagalli.
VISHNU
F IG . 38 .- Y6gésvara
-Vishnu (P) Kumbakc’
mam.
59
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG. 39.
-Panduranga ; Tirupat i.
VISHNU 61
VE NKATESA .
PRADvUM 5IA ,
KAMAD EVA or
MA NMA 'I‘HA .
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
Venkatesa or Venkataram an a (also cal l e d S rin ivasa) is a
name of Vishnu app l i ed to th e god on th e Ti rupat i H i l l .H e is i n form l i ke one of th e twen ty- four im ages o f Vishnudescri bed above .
1
X
Pradyum na, wh i ch is m ent ioned am ong the twenty- fourgeneral names of Vishnu , occurs i n th e S anskri t l ex iconAmarako
‘
sa as a synonym o f th e god Kam adeva or Manmatha,
wh o is recogn i zed as a son of Kr ishna-Vish nu . H is conso rtis Love (Rat i ) . Th i s god of L ove was reduced to ashes byS iva. H is form that was thus dest royed is st i l l al ive but isv isi b l e on ly to Rat i . The m etaphys i cal mean ing o f th e story '
is more o r l ess cl ear . Rat i an d Manm atha are often foundamong th e sculptures i n a templ e . Th e lat ter is rep resentedas a graceful youth of unparal leled e l egan ce . H e h as e i gh th ands i n four of wh ich h e ho l ds
'
th e conch , lo tus, bow and
arrow . The four other arm s em brace h is four beaut i fu l w ivescal l e d Rat i (love), Pri t i (pl easure), S akt i (power) and BhedaSakt i (j ealousy) . Kama has five arrows , each arrow be i n g a
fragrant flower ; the crocodi le (makam ) is h is banne r . Moreoften h e is represented w i th two hands , r i d ing on a char iot (ora parro t) with h is ch ief queen Rati by
"
h is s i de (fig .
Vasan ta ,th e Spri ng , is h is i nt im at e fr i en d and a l ly . H is five
arrows are the flowers of lotus, aso‘
ka , mango ,jasm i ne, and
blue- l i ly ; and h e shoo ts th em wi th h is graceful how o f
sugarcane . Mayamata says that Manm ath a’
s arrows are madeof th e cruel teeth o f wom en an d are ca l l ed tripan i,
“th e
tormentor,”dakini th e consumer , sarvamo
'
hin i“that wh ich
complet ely i n fatuates, vised -mardin i th e all- dest royer and
mdm n i“th e k i l ler.”
XI
V ishvaksena, a synonym for Vishnu also found i n th elex icon Amara/301m , is recogn iz ed as a Va ishnava god wh o , l i k eGanesa of the S aivas (descri b ed below ), is worsh ipped by th eS ri-Va ishnavas , at th e beg i nn in g of every ceremony i n orderto avo i d obstac l es . H e h as h is face turn ed towards th e southand is a guardian de i ty i n Vi shnu tem pl es . In th ree o f h is
hands he ho l ds th e usua l Vaish nav ite symbo ls , v i z. , th e conch ,
1 I t is bel ieved , and perhaps on reasonab le grounds , that th e image on the
Tiru pat i H i ll is a combined form o f Vishnu and S iva. Th e name Vrisha-sai la,
i. e. ,B ul l -h i l l appl ied to th e mo untai n on wh ich th e temple is si t uated , i nd icates
also the Saiva nat u re o f the god . I n later t imes, the name Sesha -sai la “th e
hi l l of th e serpen t god Sesha came to be appl ied to i t .
VISHNU
F IG . 4 r.—Rat i-Manmatha; Ch idambaram .
V ISHNU
F IG . 4 2 .
—Garuda ; Tanj o re.
SUDARSANA .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
dedi cat ed to h im he is always th e h ero i c Hanuman , wh o , on
see i ng h is beloved masters Ram a and L akshmana fa i n t w ithfat i gue on the bat t l e fie l d of L anka, flew in an amaz i nglyshort t im e to th e H ima layas and , uproo t i ng a whol e h i l lcontai n i ng drugs t hat have power to raise a dead m an to l i fe,returned to rev ive Rama and L akshmana an d with them a lsot he mi l l ions of dead mon keys: H is hero ism , strength and
devo t ion are a lways admi red an d th e one aim of sculptors i ncutt i ng a figure o f Hanuman is to g ive eff ect to th ese th reespec ial characterist i cs. No wonder that even th e Muh am
madams (or, rather Muh ammadan converts of later ages) wh oset h i gh val ue on phy s i ca l strength an d i n d iv i dual hero i smcame to apprec iat e th e story o f Hanuman an d to erec t shri nesfor h im . There is i nscri pt ional ev i dence to prove that i n th eCeded d ist ri cts , where the Muhammadan i nflue nce h as beenvery strong , certa i n c lasses of Mussalman s are st i l l devot ed toth is hero i c servant of Rama. Th i s must also have been th eobj ect of Ch i efs i n erect i ng shr i nes for Hanuman at the gateso f the i r fo rts, vi z . , to i n fuse i nto the hearts of the i r fight i ng m en
th e sp i r i t of loyal attachment to the i r mast ers and in dom itabl e h ero i sm . S omet imes Hanuman may al so be representedw ith hands showing th e abhaya and th e t iarada postures.
O f the Va i sh nava symbo ls and weapons referred to i n th eprev ious paragraphs as be i ng somet imes person ified , thed i scus (chakra) under the name Sudarsana deserves spec ialment ion , i t b e i ng separat e ly worsh ipped i n th e S ri -Va ishnavat empl es under the name Chakra-Perumal (figs. 43 and
The S ilpascira descri bes Sudarsana to be bri l l iant as fire , w i ths i xt een arms ho l d i ng the weapons conch , d iscus, bow , axe,
sword , arrow , tr i de nt , noose , goad, lo tus, thunderbo l t , sh i el d ,plough , pestl e , c lub an d spear. The figure has prot rud ingteeth , fiery hai r an d three eyes. I t is ful ly deco rated and
stands i n front of a skatko'
na or hexagon . Danc i ng thu samidst th e flames of the d iscus , th e Sudarsana i s supposed tok i l l all en emi es. Somet imes th e image may b e rep resentedw ith e igh t or four arms hol d i n g the discus i n all of th em .
Mr. Lo nghurst has suppl i ed two o th er photographs (fig . 45)i n the first o f wh i ch Sudarsana appears to be s imi lar i n all
deta i l s to the Ti rupat i figure No . 43 , but h as at th e back of i t anequ i lateral tr iang l e w i th i n wh i ch i s the seated figure of
Nrisimha i n th e yogasana at t i tude (see above , fig . 19) with flamesof fire proceeding from h is crown. Thi s form of Nrisimha is
VISHNU
F IG . 43 .- Sudarsana ; Ti ru pat i .
P. h!“68 SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
F IG . 44 .— Sudarsana, back view Ti rupati .
V ISHNU
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
evi dent ly what is popularly known as Jvala-Nrisimh a the
fiery N risimh a.
” It may‘
be not ed that th e famous Chakrapan i templ e at Kumbakonam i s ded i cated to th e d iscusSudarsana of Vishnu .
A part from th e various forms of Vishnu deta i l ed above,every H i n du worsh ips ce rta in forml ess ston es , cal ledSal i grama, as th ese more sat isfactor i ly answer to th e i dea o fthe formless Brahman . The Sal i g rama stones are general lyp i ck ed up from t h e bed of the river Gandaki (i n North Bihar) orare made of a part i cular k i n d of stone procurab le at Dvaraka.
The former are perfect ly smooth and rounded pebbl esand are heav i er than ord i nary stones. The bel i ef is thatw i th i n them is found go l d or o th er heavy me tal . The Sal igrama stones are bel i eved to possess certa i n myst i c an d
sacred virtues . In th e country of A vant i , at th e foo t of th esacred h i l l known as H ariparvata, is stat ed to be a b i g pondcal l ed Chakratirtha , from wh ich flows the r iver Gandaki .
On rare and ausp i c ious occas ion s , with in th is pond , are
produced th e Sal i grama stones, wh ich , after remai n ing foryears i n wat er , become th e abode of Vishnu , who th en
assuming the form o f a br i l l ian t l i tt l e i n sect cal l ed vaj rakita
enters i n to them an d bores a hol e wi th h is mouth , formi ngtherei n a d i scus (chakra) o f numerous vari et i es. The ston esare of many co lours and s i ze s and are dist i n gu ished by thesechakras to represent ei th er Vasudeva (wh ite co lour), Hiranyagarbh a (blue), Pradyumna (red), Vi shnu (black), S ri -Narayana(dark -green ), Naras imha (tawny), or Vamana (deep-b lue).E i gh ty- n i ne vari et i es are recogn i zed , each b ear i n g a di fferen tname o f Vishnu. On e wel l- known test of the i r su i tab i l i ty forworsh ip cons ists i n p laci n g them i n mi l k or i n r i ce , when ,a genu i ne Sal i grama is supposed to i ncrease i n s i ze and i nwe i ght. A strange feature about these ston es is that
,wh i le
they most ly repre sent th e forms of Vishnu , some are stat ed tobe also forms of S iva, Sakt i , Surya (Sun ), Ganapat i and theP lanet s . The Saligramas are n ever fixed on pedestals as th efi ngers o f S iva (see be low , p . 72) or as th e images o f othergods. In many of th e S outh- In dian templ es of Vi shnu
,
garlan ds of Sal i grama stones are hung roun d the n ecks o f
images. Sal i grama forms th e mos t important obj ect of da i lyworsh ip i n every orthodox Brahmana
’
s house i n Southern India .
The wate r poured over i t is most ho ly and l i k e th e Gangeswat er wh i ch Brahmanas gen eral ly preserve i n the i r homesi n seal e d ve ssels, is off ered to th e dy i n g m an i n order that
VISHNU 71
h is soul may become pure and depart i n peace . Th e g ift ofSal i grama stones to Brahmanas i s con s i dere d on e of th e mostmer i to r ious acts and is as h i gh ly prized as th e presentat iono f ‘go l d i tse l f. S tr i c tly rel i g ious p eople never se l l or purchase Saligramas but on ly acqu i re th em by g ift or by transfer.O f the sec tarian Va i shnavas o f th e South , v i z. , th e Sri
Va ishnavas and t he Madhvas, the latt er show greater respectto th e Sal i g rama ston es than even for sculp tured images o fVishnu.
SIVA 73
sin ce th e who l e creat ion finds its o r i g i n an d rest there, i trece ives th e name lz
'
nga.
” 1 In th e i ntroduct ion to h is tran slat ion o f th e Vishnu-Parana (p . l x i x) Professor H . H . Wi lsonm akes the fo l lowing remarks on th e lz
’
nga—wo rsh ip i n In dia
“The linga is two fo l d , external and i n te rna l . The i gnorantwh o n eed a v is i b l e s i gn , worsh ip S iva through a ‘mark or
‘type’ wh i ch is th e proper m ean i ng of th e word lz
'
nga—of
wood or stone but the w ise look upon th is outward emb lemas no th i n g an d contemplate i n the i r m i nds the i nv is ib l ei nscrutab le type wh i ch is S i va h im sel f. Whatever m ay havebeen the ori g i n of th is fo rm of worsh ip i n India, the not ionsupon wh ich i t was founded accord i ng to the im pure fanc i es ofE uropean writers are not to be trace d even i n th e S aivaPuranas .
” Mr. Havel l th i n ks that i t “was i n all probab i l i tyo ri g i na l ly der ived from th e vot i ve stfipa of Buddh ism .
” 2 If
Sa iv ism is , however , gran ted to be o l der i n its ori g i n thanBuddh ism— th e Sakyas them se lves am ong whom Buddha wasborn be i n g m ent ioned as hav i ng S iva for th e i r tutelar dei ty— th i s theory can no t b e uph el d . Various forms o f th e Iz
'
nga
are wo rsh i pped , from the crude uncut con ica l gneiss usual lybel i eved to be svayamb/zz
'
z o r sel f-bOrn 4to th e h i gh ly po l i shed
an d hand-made shaft o f 8 , 16 , 32 or mo re facets of th e Pallavaperiod .
L z’
ngas, wheth er self-born or art ific ial are equal ly venerated ,th e latte r be i ng assoc iat ed as regards the i r o ri g i n wi th th e
Sun , Moon , th e L ords o f t he quarters or anci e n t sag es of by
gone mi l lenn iums. (Th e linga is gen eral ly fixed in a c i rcularor quadrangular re ceptac le on a h i gh m ono l i th i c p edesta lknown as yo
'
m'
, pa‘
m'
vattam or avadaz'
yaaCIt is a common adage that S i va I S as fond of bath i n g as
V ishnu is fond of deco rat ion an d th e surface of th e pedesta lwh ich rece ives th e lz
'
nga is so fash ioned as to dra i n off th e
large quant i ty o f wat er 5 poured over th e god every day
from a copper vesse l w i th a ho l e at its bot tom ,hun g d i rec t ly
1 I n S z’vara/zasya , a chapter o f S aura i t is stated tha t th e linga hasa fivefo l d si gni ficance an d deno tes the prim eval energy o f th e C reato r. A t the end
o f the creat io n all go ds find thei r rest in g place i n th e l inga ,— Brahmabeing abso rbed
into th e righ t , Janardana (Vishnu ) i nto th e le ft and Gayat ri into th e heart .2 [ deals of I n d ian A rt, p . 87.
3 See E pigrap/zz'
a I n dira ,Vo l. V , p . 3 .
Th e S ilparatn a describes th is to be a long or shor t shaft of shat teredappearance, fiat l ike a board and many co rnered with c rooked ho rns. Banaisano ther kind o f l inga wh ich is shaped by natu re and no t by th e chisel .
5 A cco rd ing to th e rl/[ ay am ata all ki nds of pedesta ls , whatever may be th ei rpat tern , m u st have a duc t on
.
thei r left side to car ry o ff the sur face water. Theseduc ts are to be wel l deco rated .
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES
over th e shaft . In a linga cons i dered as a symbo l of
Brahman , th e quadrangular bo ttom o f th e shaft is bel i eved torepresen t Brahma,
the octagonal m i ddle Vishnu an d th e
c i rcular upper po rt ion S iva .
1 S omet imes a s i n g le lz'
nga is
known by th e nam e S ah asra th e t housand - linga (fig .
It is d iv i ded i nto twenty -fi ve facets , each of th ese latter havi ngmi n iature represen tat ions of forty fi ngers and mak i ng up thust he number one thousa
III
Round the sanctum of a ~S iva temple , on its outer wal l , are
usual ly en shri n ed i n spec ial ly formed n iches th e images o fGanapat i and Daksh inam t
‘
irti on th e south , L ingodbh ava (orsometim es , Vishnu) on th e west , and Brahma and Durga on
th e north . In th e enclos i ng verandah round the cen tral shr i n emay be i n stal l e d the images of th e s i xty-three Sa i va Sai n ts ,lingas wh ich devout adheren ts might choo se to estab l i sh for th emerit of themse lves or of th e i r ancesto rs, th e n i n e P lanets
wh i ch , s i n ce the t ime astro logy was establ ishedi n Ind ia , have been rece iv i ng d iv i n e hom age , and a host ofoth er gods and goddesse s such as Kumara (S kanda), Virabhadra, Bha i rava, e tc . Nataraja or Sabhap ati the lord of th ed iv i n e congregat ion is p laced i n a separat e shri n e , gen eral lyth e Sabha-mandapa or
“the assembly hal l .” The goddess
Parvati , the consort of S iva, who rece ives all k i nds of fanc i fulnames an d surnames accord ing to local t rad i t ions, is alsoen sh r i n ed separat e ly . Somet imes i t is found that everyimportant subord i nate de i ty has a separat e shri ne for i tse lf,smal l er, of course , i n s i ze than the sanctum .
I t may be note d that , whi l e worsh ip is offered i n thece ntra l shr in e o f a S i va t emple on ly to th e forml ess stonelinga, for proce ss ional purposes images made of metal areused ; and th ese are of var ious fo rms an d go by var iousnames, such as Semaskanda, Vrishart
‘
rdh a, Gangadhara,Kalyanasundara, A rdhanar i , Bh ikshatana , Nataraja,
etc .
In stances are not uncommon where images of S i va i n one
o f h is process ional forms rece ives mo re at tent ion from th eworsh ippers than th e linga i tse lf. In Ch i dambaram , for
example, the image of Nataraja rece ives more at tent ion and
The sirbvartana or th e shaping of the top o f the ting : which , acco rding toth e S ilparama , may be cucumber-l ike, umbrel la- l ike, crescent-l ike, egg
-l ike or
bubble- l ike, dist in gu ishes the fou r d ifferent lingers wo rshipped by the fo u rcastes. The same work sets down that images may also be carved on the l inga .
Super ior lingers are stated to vary from 7 to 9 cub its in hei gh t . F i xed lingers are
wo rsh ipped in tem ples and movab le lingas i n houses.
S IVA
F IG. 46 .
—Sahasra-l inga Tiruvottiyt'
ir.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
is m ore famous than th e movabl e li'
nga of p ebbl e wh i ch isknown as R atnasabhap ati, or th e stone linga of M t
‘
i lasthana .
A t Bh ikshan darkey il i n th e Tri ch i nopo ly d istr i c t th e men d icant form o f S i va is wo rsh ipped . A rdhanar i is th e god
wo rsh ipped at Tiruch chengodu (Sa l em ) an d so is th e bronzeimage o f S omaskan da (under the nam e Tyagaraja) worshi ppedat Tiruvart
'
i r.
IV
Before descri b i ng som e of th e popular S i va—images ] i tmay be useful to give a general de scrip t ion of S iva when hei s represented i n th e f im age. The common nam ethen appl ied to h im i
_
H 6”
h as four h ands, ofwh ich th e two upp e dhakka (kett l e- drum )an d th e deer, th e two lower hands show i ng th e abhaya and
th e varada postures . H is m atted ha i r is m ade up i n the fo rmof a crown (j atamakuta) on whose left sh i nes th e crescen t o f
th e moon an d whose ri ght is deco rated with the j ewel knownas arka-
pushpa. Thef ace of a wom an of th e goddessGanga represent in g th e r iver Ganges) appears ove r the matte dha i r , on the ri ght s i de . H e has three eyes , wh i ch represen tth e Sun ,
Moon and F i re , th e last be i n g on th e foreh ead . H e
is c lo thed wi th a t i ger sk i n above h is knees an d wears an
undergarment an d a scarf and th e usual ornaments, n eck laceand torque, gi rdle round th e waist , wristl ets , wai st- zone ,arm l ets , arm - ri n gs, fi nger- r i ngs set wi th gems, anklets , andthe sacre d th read . Th e left ear of t he god wears a wom an ’sornament calledM a whi le the r igh t wears a m an ’so rnament calledflaleaZE -kundala. 1 The le ft s i de of th e n eck ism arked w i th th e b lue scar (caused by h is hav i n g swal lowedth e po ison kalakz
'
tta Th i s general form o f S iva may be
represented e i ther stand ing or seat ed on th e lotus- pedestalw i th an aureo la ,
and with or without h is consort Parvation th e left s i de . The pedestal m ay also somet imes be themaha-pitha, when , i nstead of th e aureo la beh i nd th e image,
th ere may be th e cel est ial t ree (kalpa-vr ikslza) .
S i xteen o f these are m ent ioned in th e S z'
lpasa'
m . They are Sukhasana,
Vaivah ika ,Umasah ita (acco rdi ng to the Al ayawata Umaskan da) , Vrishariidh a ,
Tripuran taka or Pu rari , Nataraja, Chand rasekhara, A rdhanari , Harihara ,
Chandésvara (xi/ny am ata gives Chandesan ugraha) , Kamari , Kalanasa,B aksh i
nam fi rti, Bh ikshatan a, Sadasiva (M ay am ata gives Mukhalinga ) and Lingedbhava .
The [I af af fa'
gama m ent ions twenty -five .
2 Hemadri describes Ru dra as r iding on a bul l and hav ing five faces all o f
which are m i l d- looking , except the o ne on th e ri gh t si de o f the cen tral face . H e
has ten arm s and wears garlands o f sku l ls.
3 See below , p . 137 f. , under Srikan tha.
S IVA
S tand i ng image s o f S i va general ly be long to th e c lass ASHTAMfJRTUknown as A sh tam t
‘
i rtis or Ekadasa-Rudras. The form er have 811ifm ”
general ly four hands an d three eyes an d wear the j atamakuta . RU DRAS .
Th e fore -arms exh i b i t th e pro tect i ng and the boon - g iv i ngpostures wh i l e the h i n d arm s ho l d th e tan/ea an d th e ante lope .
The E kadasa-Rudras are a lmost s imi lar to Rudramurti i nfo rm , wi th th e b lack scar on th e neck , th e crescent on thehead an d th e scarf o f t i ger-sk i n . I n p lace of th e dhakka
i n the ri ght upper hand is seen th e axe (parasu) . A
form o f S i va com bi ning five bodies i n one is known as
Panchadeh am t‘
i rti. Though not found i n any o f th e temp les PANCHAD EHAexam i ned so far , i t is often m ent ion ed i n th e Tan jo re in scrip MUM"t ions as havi ng been i n stal l e d i n t he R ajarajesvara (i.e th e
modern Brih ad iSvara) tem ple by th e Chola k i ng Raj araj aor h is subord i nates , i n th e first quarter o f th e e l even th centuryA .D . Th e Panchadeham t
'
i rti cons ist e d of fi ve images , four ofwh ich stood i n th e four direct ions and the fifth was placedi n th e m i ddle
, its h ead be i n g h i gher i n leve l than th e oth ers.
2
On e o f these was ca l led A gh Ora . The Iiuga with five facescal l ed Pan chamukha- lz
’
nga is on ly th e five-bodi e d Panch adeham t
‘
i rti trans lat ed i n term s of th e symbo l i ca l phal lus.
3 It h asthe heads o f four S iva- im ages figured on its four s i des. Thei l lustrat ion from Tiruvanaikkaval (fig . 47) does no t show any
face at th e top . The S kanda-Pura‘
na m ent ions a seated MA HAform o f S i va cal led Mahakailasa or Maha-S adasiva wh i ch is fiffilfi
s
figrepresented wi th twenty -five faces and fifty hands , wears SA D /3 5 1m .
a garland o f skul ls and is c loth ed i n t i g er’s sk i n .
V .
Im ages answeri ng to th e two names Nataraja an d Sabha N ATAF AJA O f
pat i , i n the H i n du Pantheon , are i den t i ca l i n des i gn . Nataraja SA BH A PATI ’
j the pri nce o f dancers) is t dan cing’
TbTm'
of
god S iva. It h as four arm s an d a
as
—h e—
s
—
im‘
e back arm on th e r i ght s i de ho l ds th e k ett l edrum (udukleai, as i t is ca l l ed i n Tamil ) wh i le th e oth er presentsth e ra ised palm of prote ct ion (abhaya) . O f th e pa i r on th e
l eft,th e upper ho l ds a fi re-
pot and th e lower is bent round
A cco rd ing to H émadri these may be subst i t u ted by the cl ub an d th e t rident}Jaina images ca l led Chaturm uk/za o r C/mum ué/zi are o ften made o f a single
stone. The fo u r ident ical im ages on th e fo ur si des are surmounted by a series o f
um b rel las comm on to all, wh ich appear l ike the spire o f a temple (see Ep igraph iaI nd ica ,
Vo l . X , p . Th e B uddhists also seem to have possessed such figu res ;see Nagendra Natha Vasu’
s Jl/ayfi rab/zan ia, p . 4 1 .
3A linga placed at th e entrance into an o ld S iva temple at Raich t
'
ir (Hydera
bad S tate) shows a combinat ion o f five l ingers , fou r on the si des and one at the
t0p .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F IG . 47. Panchamukha-linga Tir uvanaikkaval.
S IVA 79
across th e breast to th e ri ght sidu sa fingerL gracefully f
w h itewami ih. e_ _ i s , rai sed ~ —ia —a‘danc i n posture . The pos i t ion of th i s h a
gaj a- lzasta,the elep ’
h g p tztrt tn The ec stat i c and vio l entnature of
_
the danc e , describ ed as A nanda-tan dava i n thesequel , wh i rl i n g qu ic k ly roun d on one l eg , p laced
NW
T—“
TW
o f th e demon Musalagan or A p asmara I S 1n d1cated by th ematt ed ha i r (j ataI s tretchin gmut h n b oth sides of th e h ead i nwavy l i n es one above the o th er and by th e c lo th , part ly t i e d _
a lso fly i n g i n the air (fig . The right hand wh ich showsthe abhaya h as on i t s wrist a se rpent , which i s the usualornament of S iva and m ay have 1 , 3 , 5 or 7 hoods. A notherserpen t, i n th e hand o f th e demon be low, is exp lai n ed byM r . Havel l (Ideals of Indian A r t, p . 79) to be th e correspondi ngwrist ornament on th e l eft arm wh ich h ad dropped down i nth e dance . We are to l d i n the Kasyapa-Sz
’
lpa of the AmsumatTan tra that a serp en t wi th ra ised hood is to be shown p lay i n gn ear A p asmara on h is l eft s i de , the r i ght han d o f th e demonpo i n t i n g towards i t (pya
'
la-mudra‘
f}. The head of S i va wearspeacock ’s feathers , or an ornament fash ionedm h em , wh ichW c
‘
ialf hafact—
er ist icof the image . The aureo lawh ich every metal l1e image n ecessar i ly h as, 18 , in th i s case ,somewhat pecul iar and s i g n ificant , be in g surmounted all roun dwi th flames of
‘
fi resimi lar to th e one wh ich i s h el d i n thep ot or _
cup i n one of the-“
two‘
l e ft arms o f_th e image .
2 Thep eZIestaPon wh ich t he figure rests is a doubl e lotus flower
“fi laced back to back . Somet imes th e j atas are no t spread outbut are tied and made up i n the form of j atamakuta (fig .
S iva is sa i d to dance i n the even i ng i n th e presence of
t he goddess Parvati i n order to re l i eve the suffer i ngs of th edévas . The dan ce of Nataraj a is bel i eved to sym bo l i ze th e
fi tmm ergy_
ip _
EE atifi gf preser—
vi n g and des
troying the v isi b le—Gfi iverse.
"
T‘
E’
ETM ZZE say that duri ng"
these—dances
_
th e who l e congregat ion ofb
gods, demigodsand sa i nts present themse lves to render th e i r obei sanceto iva. Henc e th e n ame S abhap ati,
“th e lord of the
Rai Bahadu r V . Venkayya describes him 5 a hi deous m al i gnan t dwar f, whosprang from the sacri ficial fi re o f th e fi sh
'
s o f the Darukavana fo rest and was subdued by S iva by bein g pressed under th e t i p o f h is foo t Vol . I I , In troduct ion , p . 33 , foo tno te). Perhaps h e is the perso n ifi cat ion o f th e d isease epilepsywherei n the vict im is enveloped in com plete men tal darkness.
The S ilfiaratna remarks that th e au reo la o f Nataraja represents the ravi
mandala or the sun ’s d isc .” This perhaps accounts for the flam ing rays proceeding from the au reo la,
S IVA
F IG . 49.
- Nataraja (metal ) Ramesvaram .
82 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
assem bly of gods .
1 Th e aster ism A rdra o ccurri n g i n thebri gh t hal f o f th e so lar m onth Margali (D ecem ber-January )is sac red to Nataraja. A ll S i va tem ples celebrate a fest iva lon that occas ion by tak i ng out i n process ion min iaturerepresen tat ions o f Nataraja or, wh ere such do no t ex ist , th ech i ef pro cess ional image o f S i va . I n Ch i dam baram , o f course,where th e w orsh ip o f Nataraj a is th e most p rom i nen t an d
where th e Sabha- znana'
apa (assem bly ha l l ) is covered w i th gol dp late, th e fest iva l is th e grandest hel d i n the year .Two m a i n fo rm s o f dan c i ng S iva m ay be d ist in gui shed :
one with th e raised leg as shown in the i l lustrat ion s givenabove an d th e o ther w i th th e sam e
‘l i fted up h i gher, to th e
l eve l o f t he h ead . The lat ter is cal l ed Urdh va- tan dava— a
dance wh i ch is local ly bel i eved to have b een first p erform edby S i va at Tiruvalan gadu near A rkonam . Th e or i g i n o f th isform o f dance is as fo l lows. There was once a d ispute betweenS i va and h is consort Kal i as to who was better i n th e art of
danc i ng . S i va dan ced m any a dan ce an d Kal i successful lyfo l lowed h im ; t i l l at last , i n orde r to suppress h er pri de , S i val i fted up one of h is legs to th e l evel o f h is crown an d dancedon . Kal i was too m odest to im i tate S i va i n th i s perfo rm ancean d sh e accepted the super io r i ty of S iva (fig . Images o f
Nataraja are som et im es also seen wi th a sm al l antelopepranci n g on h is left s i de n ear th e foo t , th e Ganga (Ganges)an d the crescent deco rat i n g th e h ead ,2 the sages Patan jali
1 Th e Kara/zagam a has th e fo l lowin g abou t SabhapatiOn th e top o f th e Kai lasa m o untai n
,i n front o f th e goddess Gau ri
(Parvati) wh o is seated o n a j ewel led throne, S i va wi th th e crescent on h is headdances i n th e eveni ngs. A ll th e a
’évas at tend th e dance ; B rahma plays on cym
bals ; Hari (Vishnu ) , on a patalza Bharat i (Sarasvat i ) , o n th e l u te th e Sun and
M oon , on fl utes ; Tum b uru and Narada supply vocal musi c ; an d N andi an d
Kumara (Skanda) beat d rum s.
"The fli ny am a/a also ment ions o ther go ds and
goddesses i n . the congregat ion , such as V tgh n ésa (Vinayaka) , Kal i an d th e
Seven M others. I t adds that S iva then per fo rm s th e dance cal led B /zztj tmga lrasz'fawi th th e serpent Karkotaka on h im ; see B urgess’s E lma Cave Temples, PlateX L I I I , fi g . 5 .
Th e descri ptio .1 o f th e image o f Adavallan (i .e“th e expert dancer ,”
Nataraja) given i n th e Tan jo re In scri ptio ns , m ent ions fou r arms, nine braids o f
hai r (j ata) , th e goddess Ganga-bhattarak i on the brai ded hai r and seven flowergarlands. Th e goddess Umaparam ésvari wh o fo rm ed a part o f th e gro up wasstanding on a separate pedesta l . ” A no ther im age o f a sim i lar descrip tio n i n th esame temple was Tanjaio A lagar with whom was connected also th e figure o f a
Ganapat i . O f th e sages Patanjali an d Vyagh rapada who usual ly accompany th edancing image o f Nataraja ,
th e Tanjo re I nscrip t ions describe th e form er as a
so l i d image which m easured “th ree-quarters and on e-ei gh th (o f a mu lam ) i nhei gh t from th e tai l to the hoods I t had five hoods ; one face i n th em idst o f these hoods, on e crown (maku ta) , two divi ne arm s, abo ve th e navel
,
a h uman bo dy, and below the nave l th ree co i l s Vo l . I I, I nt ro duct ion ,
F IG . 50.—IIrdhva-tandava ; Ti ru ppanandal .
F IG . 51 . Patanjali Ch idambaram .
SOUTH- INDIAN.
IMAGES
F I G . 52 .—Vyagh rapada Chidambaram .
F IG . 53 . (al ika- tandava (m etal ) Nallfir.
89
a campai g n i n th e north . It is wel l known that as a sacredp lace of p i lgrim age Ch i dambaram is i n t imate ly connected withthe Sa iva sai n t Man ikyave
‘
tchaka (Man ikkavasagar), th e
Par iah sa i n t Nandanar— both of whom at ta i ned the i r salvat ionthere— and with the Sa iva ph i losopher and scho lar A p p ayaD iksh ita wh o was much devoted to that temple . The p laceis m ent ioned i n the S aiva hymns of the Dévc
‘z'
ram , i n wh ich i tis cal l ed Ti l la i . Th e Brahmana fami l i es of Ti l la i (wh ichmay have once l i ved th ere but have at present dwi n dle d downto a few hundreds) claim S iva to b e on e of them and worsh ipNataraja as the i r fami ly de i ty .
VI
The Agamas mention , as a l ready state d , 1 twenty-five spo rt iv e fo rm s (lild of S iva, most of wh ich are usua l ly metwith i n South- Ind ian temples. O ne o f th e more important ofthese is Daksh inamurti. In Chola t emples th i s image general lyoccup i es a n i che i n th e south wal l of th e centra l sh ri n e .
Daksh inam fi rti or Dharma-Vyakh yanamurti is the form o f S i va DAKSH INA
engaged i n yéga or ph i losoph i c contemplat ion . O nc e upon a“GR“
t ime Daksha, th e fath er- in - law o f S iva, i nsul te d h im and h is
consort Uma, by not i nv i t i ng them to a sacrifice wh i ch he was
performi ng . Uma neverthe less went un i nv i te d to h er father’shouse , but b e in g gross ly n eg le cte d jumped i nto the sacrific ialfi re-p i t and destroy ed h erse l f. S iva was fur ious ; he createdout of a loc k of h is ha i r th e t err i b le V irabhadra (see be low ,
p . 155) wh o destroyed Daksha. S iva then ret i red to a forestw i th the reso lve not to marry aga i n and sat underneath a
banyan tree deep ly engaged i n med i tat ion . Th e gods weremuch con cern ed ; for i t mean t that th e worl d woul d looseth e benefit of S i va’
s di rec t i n tervent ion i n its affa i rs . Theyaccord i ng ly i n duced Kama,
2 th e god o f love, to st i r, up onceaga i n i n th e mi nd o f S i va t he dormant em bers o f love . Th e
foo l -hardy Kama i n caut iously approach ed the god engagedi n medi tat ion and shot h is flowery arrows at h im and h i t h im .
S i va th en opene d h is eye of fi re an d looked stra i ght at Kam a ,
when 10 ! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes .
3 S t i l lKama h ad succe eded . F or, soon afte rwards S i va gave up h is
Above, p . 76 , foo t no te 1 .
2 Descr ibed above, p . 62 .
3 This i nc i den t has given rise to th e reco gnit ion of another Sport ive fo rm of
S i va cal led Kamari or Kamadahanam iirti. Th e scene is depicted on one of the
pi l lars of an unfin ished man d apa near th e tank in th e Ekamrésvara tem ple at
Conjeeveram . A cco rding to th e Karawdgazzza , Kamadabanamfirti has fo u r arms i nwhich are seen th e ab/zay a, vam a
’a,a deer and themum. H e is seated on a lo tus
pedesta l and is fierce i n appearance.
SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGES
penance and m arr ied once aga i n Uma, who h ad now i ncarnatedas Parvat i , th e beaut i ful daughter of H im avat (th e Himalavas).Th is is th e story of Daksh inamurti.1 H e is always conceivedto be a youth ful teacher, seated b eneath a banyan tree, teachi n g aged pup i ls an d rem oving thei r doubts by h is very s i lence.
(Th e genera l posture of th e images o f Daksh inamurti showh im with h is ri ght leg bent vert i cal ly at th e knee and placedon th e body of th e dark demon A p asmara2 an d th e l eft l eg ben tacross so as to rest upon th e r i ght th i gh . H e h as a calmcountenance, i n di cat ive o f perfect peace with in . H is mattedlocks are ei ther d ishevel l ed or are form ed i nto a j atdmakuta t iedtogether by a serpent (fig . Th e body is besm eared w ithashes and all th e usual o rn am ents of S i va dsages Narada, Jam adagn i, Vasish th a and
feet on th e r i gh t s i de, recei v i ng i nst ruct ion , w h i le Bh aradvaja ,
S aunaka, A gastya an d Bhargava sit on th e left . Th e bul lveh i c le o f th e god , th e den i zens o f th e forest , Kin/ram s and
oth er dem i - gods are a lso seen on th e Ka i lasa mounta i n on
wh ich th e god is seated .
3 (His r i ght fore- arm po in ts th e j ua‘
zm
mudra (th e pose convey i n g ph i losoph i ca l k now l edge) an d th eback arm ho lds th e rosary (or , th e serpen t ) ; th e left fo re—armshows th e boon -Conferr in g (varada ) att i tude or is som et im es
freely stretched , th e back o f th e palm rest i ng i n e i ther case onth e l eft knee.
‘Som e i l l ust rat ions show a book i n th e plac e o f
th e varada posture . Th e rema i n i n g hand o n th e left s i de ho l dsthe fire-
p ot , th e deer, th e kett l e -drum or th e rosary) Wh enDaksh inamurti ho l ds i n h is fore- arm s th e lute (vine?) and
changes th e posture o f h is left leg— apparently for keep ingth e vind j n posi t ion
— h e is ca l led V inadh ara-D aksh inamurt i
(fig . LJnanamurti is ano th er fo rm o f th e sam e god i n wh i chthe symbo l j nd /za-mudra
'
o f th e r i gh t fo re- arm is ra ised closeto t he heart w i th th e palm of th e hand turned i nwards . Th e
nam e Y0gam t‘
1rti (or Y oga-Daksh inamurti) is app l i e d when th elegs cross i ng each other from th e roo t o f the th i gh are h el d i npos i t ion by th e bel t yo
’
gapatta, passi n g round the wa ist and th e
1 Have l l , [ deals of l xd z'
an A rt , p . 83 f.“2 Th e S z
'
lgfasangra/mmentio ns a serpen t play i ng by th e side o f A pasmara .
3 Th e descri pt ion o f Daksh inamfi rti given in th e Tanj o re inscri ptions is veryi nterest ing and i nstru ct ive. They say that th e m ountai n on which the god is seatedh ad two peaks on which there were two Kz
’
m zaras and two A’
z’
nmar is. Underthe foo t o f th e god wasMusalagan . On th e mountai n u ere fo ur f ir/11's , a snake, twoA
'
armrprfivr z’
tas devo tees o f S iva (P) m entioned in th e R c‘iw éy ama ,wh o had
ear- l obes w i th h o les bi g enough to al l ow thei r hands to be passed thro u gh i n th eact o f worshipping) and a t i ger . A banyan tree was also o n th e m ountain and
had nine mai n b ranches and fo rty-two m i no r o nes. A wa l let was suspended fromthe tree and a bunch of peacock’s feathers was o ne o f the accompaaiments o f
the god Vo l . I I , I ntroduct ion , p . 33 .
SIVA
F IG . 54 .
—Daksh inamfi rti ; A viir .
S IVA
fore- l egs, a l i tt l e b e low the knee . Th e front arms are i n th iscase, stretched out an d rest free ly on th e kn ees, wh i l e th eback arms h o l d th e rosary and th e wat er pot. Th e i l l ustrat ion(fig . 56 ) di ffers, however , i n th e sym bo ls. In th is , the upperh ands ho l d th e wat er-p ot and th e antelope an d th e lowerhands th e rosary (with j na
‘
na-mudra'
) an d th e book/ A
fine o ld p icture (fig . 57) comi ng from Tiruvengavasal (Pudukkottai S tat e) shows Daksh inamurt i i n a d ifferen t posi t ion andwith di fferent symbo ls.
V II
L ingodbh ava t he linger-man i festat ion , is a fami l iar figure m oo .
of S iva seen on th e west wal l of th e c entral shri n e of S iva BHA VA .
t em pl es bui l t i n Chola t imes. A s h is name imp l i es , he isrepresented w ith i n a huge linga, th e po rt ion of th e feet belowth e ank l es b e i n g h i dden i n th e linga . Brahma i n the form of
a swan i s seen soar i ng up on t he l eft s i d e o f S iva wh i l e , onth e r i gh t s i de , Vishnu i s delvi n g below into th e depth s of theearth i n th e form o f a boar.1 A l so th ese gods Brahmaand Vishnu) i n th e i r t rue glory stand on e i ther s i de of S ivawith fo l ded hands. The figure emanat i ng from the mi ddl eo f th e linga (fig . 58) h as four hands l i k e Chandrasekhara(descr i bed b elow) an d ho l ds i n its back arms th e axe and th eante lope and i n th e front hands , th e abhaya and th e varadaposture s . In th e i l lust rat ion g iven ,
’
th e l eft han d i s , however ,seen rest i n g free ly on th e wa ist .
\
In th e Tan jore i nscr ipt ions,L ingodbh ava is ment ioned by th e name L ingap uranadeva,
i.e. , th e god of the L inga-Purd na whi ch descr i b es the greatnessof the linga. The story runs that a d isput e aros e betweenBrahma and Vishnu as to who is th e greater of th e two .
S i va to l d th em that whoever first saw the top or th e bottom o f
h is own fiery linger- form 2and came back to report , h ewould be
con s i dered the great er. Brahmasoared on h is swan to see th etop of th e S iva-linger, wh i l e Vi shnu as a boar dug down and
down to see its bottom . A ges passed away an d ne i the r cameto h is goal . A t last Brahma saw one kétaki flower com ingdown . It h ad fal l e n from S iva’s h ead ages ago . Brahmasuborn ed i t to g ive false ev i dence and th en cam e back and
uttered a l i e , say i n g that h e h ad seen the top of th e fi nger,c i t i ng th e kétaki flower as h is wit n ess.
' S iva knew the lie and
cursed Brahma that h e shou l d thenc eforward go without anyworsh ip i n t emp les . Brahma h ad five h eads at th is t ime .
1 The swan and the boar are i n some pict u res fou nd to be half-man and hal fanima l .
2 On th e east main gapam o f the Chidambaram temp le is an image o f Lingodbhava surrounded by flames o f fire,
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 56 .—Y6ga
-Daksh inamfi rti ; Conjeeveram .
S IVA
F I G. 57.
-D aksh inamt'
irti ; Tiruvengavasal .
S IVA
S iva also cut off th e head wh i ch uttered the lie.
‘The flowerketalai too , wh i ch abett ed th e crime , was ex c luded from th eflowers dear to S iva. On an apo logy be i n g o ffered; the lat te rwas however accepted , as a Spec ia l case, duri n g th e worsh ipon th e n igh t of the S ivaratri fest ival wh i ch fal ls on thefourteenth day of th e dark hal f o f Magha (January -February)i n each year and i s he l d sacred i n honour
'
o f the lingum an i festat ion o f S i va.
Perhaps , images cal led E kapadamurt i o r E kapada E k an ux
Trim t‘
trti, i n wh ich the gods Brahma an d Vi shnu,with fo l ded MGR”
hands and charac ter ist i c symbo ls, are represented as p roceedi n g out of th e body of S iva at h is wai st as i n
'
th e Tiruvottiy t‘
tr
image (fig . 59) o r from beh i nd h is knee as i n the image fromTiruvanaikkaval (fig . 60) are e i ther deve lopm ents of L ingodbhava where i n the superior i ty of S iva over th e two othe rmembers of the H i n du Triad was establ ish ed , o r an i nvent iono f th e Ind ian sculpto r i n wh i ch
,
is symbo l i zed the un derly i n gun i ty of the three gods.
2 The Ka' randgama ment ions E kapada '
m t‘
trti as one of the Sport ive forms of S iva and descr i bes h imas having one foot , th ree ey es and four arm s i n wh i ch are
seen the tanka an d deer an d th e vdrada and th e abhaya postures .
On th e ri gh t and l eft s i des o f S i va, alm ost touch ing h is
shoul ders , are Brahma an d Vishnu ho l d i n g th ei r symbo l i calweapon s i n two hands and wo rsh ipp i ng S iva with the othe rtwo .
The s ing l e foo t wh ich is th e charact erist i c feature of th esefigures, is , i n the case of th e Tiruvanaikkaval image , placedon the back o f th e bul l . In i t are also se en th e veh ic l eof Brahma, v i z. , th e swan , at t he r i gh t bottom and , at thecorrespond ing l eft bottom , the stand i ng Garuda veh i c l e of
Vishnu and a sage— perhaps Narada. A pparen t ly Eka
padamurti h as to be connected wi th A jaikapad , a namegiven i n the R i g-Veda to one of th e E kadasa-Rudras.
3
The story o f L ingodbhava i n troduces us to another form B H IKSHA
of S iva ,known as Bh ikshatana, very o ften seen i n South TA“
lndian temples . When S iva cut off one of t he heads of
l The Karan figam a ment ions a Spo rt ive form of S iva cu ttin g off one o f the
heads o f Brahma. The image is stated to have fo u r am is ho l din g the thunderbo l t and th e axe i n th e ri gh t hand an d the' t r ident and B rahma’s sku l l i n the left .
A ccordin gly, we som et imes find Vishnu occu pyin g th e cen tral place. O n
p . 73 above, foot no te t , i t was no ted that the goddess Gayat ri was abso rbed intothe cent re o f th e fi nger wh i le B rahmaand Vishnu entered the sides o f i t .
3 See Nagendra Natha Vasu’s I nt roduction , p . xxxi.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F 1G .
’
59.—Ekapada-Trimfi rti Tiruvottiyfir.
S IVA
F IG . 60.— I
_
£ kapada-Trim iirti ; Tiruvanaikkaval .
99
S IVA
F IG . 6 I .— Mobin i (metal ) Valuviir .
IOI
SOUTH- IND IA N IMAGE S
F IG . 62 .—Bh ikshatanam t
'
1rti (metal ) Valuviir .
S IVA
Kankalamurti i s a form closely al l i ed to Bh ikshatana and
almost s im i lar i n appearance . A ccord i ng to th e Mayamata,
Kan kalamurti is draped i n a fine c lo th and is surrounded bylovely women . In h is upper righ t hand he ho l ds th e p eacock ’s feathers and skeleton (kankd la) and i n th e upper left th etan/ea . A serpent is co i l e d round h is lo i ns ; and he h as a kn i festuck i nto th e g i rd l e on the ri gh t s i de o f h i s waist (figs. 63 and
H e is general ly atte nded by demon s . Bi rds an d beastsfo l low h im i n expectat ion o f get ti ng som eth i n g to eat fromh is hands . The descri pt ion g iven o f Kan kalamurt i i n thed yapa-Sz
’
lpa o f th e Amsumat- Tantm is d i fferen t. H e h as a
j atdmakuta1 decorat ed with serpents, th e crescent-moon and
flowers ; h e is ho l d i n g th e kett le -drum i n h is l eft fore-arm and
a st i ck (to beat i t wi th ) i n th e correspond in g r i gh t th e o th err i gh t hand is i n th e pose , simha-kar na an d touches the moutho f the ante lope, wh i le th e l eft carr i es a bunch of p eacock ’sfeathers on a staff . H e a lso wears a n eck lace o f skel etons(kankd la) wh ich accord i n g to th e Ad i tya-Purd na are supposedto be those of Vishnu i n h is various i n carnat ions. Som et im es
h e m ay be represente d also as carry i ng on h is shoulder akankd la (ske l eton ) t i e d by a rope to th e staff .
X
The form o f S i va, decorated as a bri degroom , is cal l ed KAw ANAKalyanasundaram t
‘
i rti or Vaivah ikam t‘
t rti. S i va i n th i s formis represented as a fa i r youth , with th ree ey es and fourarm s. H e is clo thed i n th e be st of garments and wears a
garland of blue l i l i es . On h is r i ght s i de stands Parvat i , h isbri de, whose ri ght hand he ho l ds with h is own . In h is backhands are seen th e sym bo ls. tanker (or somet im es the axe) an dth e b lac k buck . The left lower han d shows th e boon - g iv i ngposture . H is m at ted locks are made up i n the fash ion o f aj atdmaleuta on whi ch is s tuck the crescent o f th e moon . Thegenera l posture o f the god is what is cal l ed samabhanga, or
th e med ium bend , where i n th e figure stands wi th th e r i ghtl eg s l i ght ly bent and th e left leg p laced firm ly on th e ground .
Th e goddess on the ri ght s i de is represented as a ful ly developed mai den . Sh e has on ly two han ds, one of wh ich ho l ds a
l i ly . Brahma, havi ng i n h is four hands th e rosary , water-p ot,
1 The b rai ded hai r (j att'i ) o f Bh ikshatana , on the o ther hand , is genera l lyfound in i l l ust rat ions, arranged i n a ci rc le . j atc
'
imuku ta is th e arrangem ento f the j aws in the fo rm o f a makma o r crown . The former is, perhaps , what isknown in th e Silpa-wo rks as j al ci mandala .
S IVA
F I G . 64 .— Kankalamfi rti ; Dharasuram .
106 SOU TH- INDIAN IMA GE S
F I G. 65.— Kalyanasundara ; Madura.
107
th e sacr ific ial ladl e (sr z'
le) and the spoon (sruva) (or, th e book),is seated on a lotus flower i n fron t of a square fi re-p i t fac i n gnorthwards, and offering ob lat ions to the sacrific ia l fire , wh ichis burn in g i n front wi th five flames. Menaka and H imavat ,th e parents of the goddess, are standing to her ri ght , carry i n ga go l den pot, from wh ich they pour wat er i n to th e hands of
S iva and Parvat i i n token of g iv i ng away the i r daughter i nmarr iage to h im . The sages Sanaka and Sanandana stand toth e l eft of the god with fo l ded hands . Vi shnu is present w iththe who le congregat ion o f gods an d goddesses. Th is des
crip tion o f Kalyanasundara is found i n all its deta i ls i n a
figure from E l ephanta. Th e Kasyapa-S ilpa of th e AmsamntTan tra and th e S z
'
lpasangra/za say that Vi shnu i n the tr ibhangaatt i tude faces south an d stands on th e no rth s id e of th e sacr ifi cial fi re-p i t w i th conch and di scus i n h i s back arms . Hepours with h is two oth er hands water from a go l d pot i n to th ehands o f S iva an d Parvat i (fig . Th e Mayamata descri besParvat i as stand in g by th e s i de o f L akshm i . It looks as i fMenaka and H imavat are somet imes subst i tute d by L akshm ian d Vi shnu . A fi ne image of Kalyanasun dara comes fromth e Ch i dam baram templ e (fig . Svayamvara is th e nameg iven i n the S z
'
lparatna to the figure o f Parvat i as a br i de .
S he ho l ds a garlan d of flowers an d wal ks towards Sambhu(S i va) to choose h im as her husband .
XI
SOmaskanda is t he most comm on of all th e sport ive fo rms SomasxANDA .
o f S iva. Its des i gn i s as old as the Pallava period and i t may
be found on th e bac k wal l of th e sanctum immed iat e ly beh i n dth e linga i n almost every templ e wh i ch preten ds to belong tothat age. Th e group , eg . , is foun d engraved on th e backwal l of a n i ch e i n the secon d storey of the Dh armaraja- ratha
at.
Mahaba l i puram wh ich , acco rdi ng to an i n scri pt ion cuton th e l i n tel , was apparen tly i n ten ded to b e a shri n e for theS iva- lz
'
nga cal l e d A tyan takama-Pallavesvara. It is also seenon the back wal l of th e S i va shri n e fac i n g th e sea, i n th eShore Temple .
” The Saluvankupp am cave , ca l l ed A tiranachanda-Pallavesvara, al so h as th e same image . A s imi larpane l i s also found in th e Kailasanath a t empl e at Kanch i .L ater Chola t em ples, however , do not show any such pan el onthe wall beh i nd th e lz
'
nga. O n on e an d th e same p edes ta lare seen S iva and Uma with th e ch i l d S kanda stand ing (orseated) between them . Both the god and th e goddess are
s eated comfo rtab ly (sukhasanal , with on e leg (r ight i n th ecase o f S i va an d l eft i n th e case of Parvati ) hang ing down
S IVA
F IG . 67. somaskanda (metal ) Sivankfidal .
SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGE S
and the oth er b ent crosswi se so as to l i e flat on th e pedestal .The god ho l ds i n h is upper hands th e tanka (or, th e axe) andth e deer an d i n th e lower exh ib i ts th e t iarada an d th e abhayapostures. Th e goddess ho l ds a l i ly i n h er ri ght hand and
shows th e varada or th e kataka pose 1 i n h er l eft (fig . Sh e
may somet imes also b e represented as rest in g the palm of herl eft hand on th e pedesta l by th e s i de of her left th i gh wh i l e th er i gh t h and , as before, ho l ds t he l i ly . S kan da h as the crownkarandamakuta and ho l ds i n on e o f h is hands a flower, a
wood- apple o r a mango . A ccord i n g to th e Karanagama th egroup must be flan ked by two stan di ng or seated figurescal led BhOga-Sakt i an d Vi ra-S akt i on th e left an d r i ght s i desrespect i ve ly .
2 It is al so stat ed that th e r i ght s i de of th ep edesta l on wh i ch the god s i ts is to b e sl i ght ly h igh er thanthe le ft .
A photograph from Mahabal i puram (fig . 68) is worthnot i ng i n th is connex ion . It shows S i va i n th e comfortab lyseated posture. In h i s upper hands , how ever, th e symbo ls,ev i dent ly of tan/ea an d th e deer , are miss i n g . Th e r i ght loweris i n th e posture of abhaya and th e l eft lower i n that of
kataka. It is also poss i b le that th e latt er is rest i ng free ly on
th e th igh . Parvat i is seat ed on S i va’
s left s i de, turn i n g h erface towards h im and ho l d i ng th e ch i l d S kanda on h er kn ee.
In th e upper corners are seen fly i n g dwarfs, apparen tly ho l di ng flywh isks i n the i r hands . The who l e group is flank ed bytwo four-arm ed gods ra is i n g respect ive ly th e upper l eft andr ight arms and po i nt i n g th em towards S i va.
A mong th e Mahabal i puram sculptures we find st i l l ano th erscen e of Sa i va p i ctures apparently a l l i ed to Semaskan da justd escri bed , vi z. , Sukhasana or Umasah ita men tioned i n foo tnote1 on p . 76 . Here , on a pedestal supported by two l ion—p i l larsand th e recumban t bul l between them , is a seat ed figure ofS i va with a robe of ornamental fri n g es , hang in g loosely fromabove h is right shoul der. In h is ri ght upper han d h e ho l ds afurious serpent . What th e pos i t ion of h is le ft upper han din di cates , is not cl ear. O f the two oth er hands, th e left lowerrests free ly on h is r i gh t leg and th e l eft th i gh , wh i l e the ri ghtlower exh i b i ts a pos i t ion o f th e fingers wh i ch suggests thatth e god must have he l d some weapon . The h i gh j ata
‘
makuta,
the d iv i ne halo (c i rc l e o f l i ght) round th e face , the neck laces ,pendants , ear- r i ngs, waist- band , r i ngs on hands an d a th i c k
Th e actual posi t ion o f th e hand as desc ribed i n the Agn i/m s,however, is
sim Iza-karna or“l ion’s ear ” wi th the fingers sl igh t ly c l osi ng on th e palmside.
S iva is su pposed to have th ree S akti: at tached to h im,viz . , Yéga-Sakti ,
Bhaga. Sak ti and Vira-Sakt i ; see below , p. 185, foo tnote 1 .
SIVA
S IVA
chord across th e breast represent in g th e Brahm an i ca l t hreadyaj no
'
pavita, are th e oth er j ewe ls seen on th e figure of S iva. To
the ri ght of S iva’
s shoul der is Brahma w i th the water—pot inone hand and th e erec t rosary i n th e o th er. Th e sacred th reado f Brahma h as four str i ngs. Be tween the heads of Brahmaan d S i va is a c i rcular d isc wh i ch perhaps represents th e Sun .
Near th e l eft shoulder o f S iva is Vi shnu ho l d i n g the d iscusan d th e conch in h is two upper hands. H ere aga i n
, th e pos it ion o f th e two lower han ds is not clear. Th e sacred threadof Vishnu h as th ree str i ngs . H is crown though h igh l i k e thatof th e two o ther gods is shaped somewhat d i fferently . Parvat i(S i va’
s conso rt) w i th the ch i l d S kanda on her ri ght lap is
seated on th e l eft s i de of S iva . H er l eft foot is placed on the
back o f the couchant bul l . Sh e as w e l l as her ch i l d have on lytwo arms each . C lose to her l eft foo t , beh i n d th e bul l , is a
fem ale at tendant o f Parvati , wh o ra i ses her ri ght hand rest i n gi t on th e back of th e bul l . Between th e h ead o f th e goddessand that of Vishnu is se en what is perhaps to b e i nterpret edas th e crescent of th e Moon , correspond i ng to the Sun on theo ther s i de. But the short handle at tached to i t at th e bot tomseems to show that i t m ay be an um bre l la o f honour h el d overthe head o f th e goddess (fig . A s im i lar group , cal led Uma UMA-MA HESMahesvara accord i n g to H emadri, cons ists of S iva an d Parvat i ,“RA
t he former hav ing ei ght faces and two hands . The left handof th e god is stretche d ove r the shoul der of th e goddess an d ther i ght han d of the goddess over that of th e god . The Karanagama describ i ng th i s group stat es that th e go ddess Parvat ishoul d be seated on th e l eft s i de of S iva with th e bul l i n fronto f th em ,
In dra an d o th er gods beh i nd , Vishnu an d Brahma on
th e s i des and th e devotees Bh ringi, Narada, Bana, Bha i rava,
Ganapat i , S kanda and V iresvara i n th e ei ght card i na l po i nts.
R ai Bahadur Venkayya cons i dered th is descrip t ion to beth at of R ish abh avah ana (V rish avahan a)
‘m ent ioned i n th e
next paragraph .
XII
Vrishart‘
i dha is a figure of S iva seat ed on t he bul l wi th the VR IsuAr i ght l eg hang i ng down and the left bent so as to rest on th e“D HA
bul l. H e h as Ganapat i on h is r i ght s i de and Gauri on h is
left .2 H e ho l ds i n h is two upper hands th e tanka and theante lope . When , however , S iva is made to stan d lean i ng
Vo l . I I , I nt roduct ion , p . 33 , foo tno te 1 .
Q Th e S ilparatn a and th e A’
a'
syapa -S ilpa state that mo re o ften Gaur i is seeno n th e ri gh t si de of th e god .
8
SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGE S
aga i nst th e bul l an d is not m oun ted on i t, th eKasyapa-S ilpa
cal ls h im Vrishavahana. In th i s case th e elbow (kfirpara) of th er i ght hand of S iva rests on th e head of th e bul l as i n the i l lustrations (fi gs . 70 and Th e Mayamata a lso g ives the sam e
descript ion , but adds that th e bul l stands beh i n d the seat onwh ich th e god an d goddess sit . Th e r ight lower hand of S i vaho l ds th e t ri dent wh i le th e two upper hands hol d the axe and
th e deer.
XIII
Chan drasekh aramurti 2 (the crescen t- crested lo rd) m ay ,
accordi ng to t he Ka' syapa-S t’
lpa of th e Amsumat- Tantra, b e
rep resen te d i n two d i fferen t forms , ei ther alon e or i n com panyof th e goddess Gauri . When a lon e , he stands on th e p e
destal with l evel feet ho l d i ng the antelope an d th ek ett l e- drum (or , axe) i n h is back arms an d present i ng th e
abhaya and th e varada postures i n th e‘
fore-arm s. The crescent decorates th e j ata
‘
makuta of th e god , e i ther on its r igh ts i de or on the l eft . I n other respects th e im age is a p leasi n g representat ion (fig . 72) of th e genera l form o f Rudradescrib ed above. Wh en accompan ied by th e goddess h e
may also be seat e d (fig . The ri gh t lower hand showsth e abhaya posture and the l e ft lower passes round th e backo f th e y i e l d i ng goddess an d touches her breasts . Som e
Agamas do not perm i t the han d to be stretched so far, but onlyup to the l eft arm o f the goddess . The i l lustrat ion from Bagal i(fig . 74) answers to th is descr ip t ion but ho l ds the tr i den t andthe kettl e-drum i n th e upper hands i nst ead o f th e axe and th e
deer. The goddess also wi th h er ri ght hand touches th e rights i de of the wa ist-band of the god from th e back an d ho l ds a
flower i n her l eft . S h e m ay also be seen pass in g h er handover h is shoulder. Such figures of Chandrasekhara are cal l e dA linganam t
'
trti or the embrac in g fo rm . They are also knownas PradoSh am t
’
i rt i, s in ce i n all wel l-m a i nta i ned S iva tem ples ,
1 Th e i l l ustrat ions given show two and four hands respectively for S iva, wh ostanding wi th h is legs crossed and leaning against th e back of th e bu ll , has thekfi rpara of h is ri gh t hand placed on th e head o f th e bu l l . A fine image fromCeyl on figu red as N o . 29 in Par t I I of Vz
'
srzaéarma is evident ly one o f Vrisha
rt'
idha as described in th e M ayamata. Th e t r i dent in th e ri gh t lower hand,th e
bu l l and th e goddess are m issi ng.9 Th e great Chola k ing Rajaraja I is represented in th e Tanj o re i nscri pt ions
to have been devo ted part icu larly to th is fo rm o f S iva. Th e figures o f the kingand of Chandrasekhara recei v ing wo rshi p from h im ,
were set up by the managero f th e temple befo re the cl ose of th e 29th year o f that king, i.e. , before A .D .
1013- 14 .
S IVA
F IG . 7o .—Vrishavahana ; Chidambaram .
F IG . 72 .— Chandrasekhara (metal ) ; Tiruvottiyt
'
tr.
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGES
F I G. 73.—Cnandrtsekhara
S IVA r19
F IG . 74 .
—Chandrasekhara (Alinganamfi rti) ; Bagal i
F IG. 75.—A rdhanari ; Madura.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 76 .—A rdhanari ; Kumbakonam .
F I G. 77o—A rdhanari ; Tanjo re.
S IVA
beh i nd) an d a c i rc le of l i ght i n the back ground . Th is isapparent ly an unusual form (fig . S t i l l ano ther unusualform com es from Ti ruvad i n ear Tan j ore , i n wh i ch th e ri ghthal f is woman an d the l eft hal f mal e (fig .
XV
A s im i lar compos i t e image of S i va is th e one cal l e d HAR IHARAHari hara or Sankaranarayana. In th is imag e the l eft hal f isVishnu and th e ri gh t hal f S i va. A ccord ing ly we see on th el eft s i de of th e figures of Har ihara, the conch , th e pearl- necklace , th e mark S r ivatsa an d the br i l l ian t ear- r i n g charac te ri st i cof Vishnu and on th e r i gh t s i de the skul l , th e garland of
bones, the r iver Ganga, th e serpen t co i l of th e ear- r ing an d
th e tr i den t or axe, characterist i c o f S iva . So too th e co lour ofth e body is b lue on th e l eft an d wh i te on th e ri ght . S im i larly ,
Garuda,the veh i c l e of Vi sh nu , m ay be seen stand i ng on th e
l eft an d the bul l of S iva on th e r i ght . S ankaranayinarkOyil
i n the Ti nnevel ly dist r i ct h as a famous t emp le ded i cated toth i s comb i ned form o f S an kara (S iva) an d Narayana (Vishnu).The i l lustrat ion g iven (fig . 81 ) comes from Namakkal . A
S im i lar but m ore fin ishe d figure of San karanarayana is foundat Ch i dambaram i n wh i ch atten dan t sages an d demi -gods are
al so dep i c t ed .
XVI
F i n e images of S iva represented as th e s layer of th e Gy m }.
e lephant- demon are not uncommon i n S outh - Ind ian tem ples .
MUM"In th is form he rece ives the nam e Gajah am t
‘
i rti. Th e
image h as e igh t hands general ly , but m ay have occasionally on ly four. The two uppermost hands are stretchedout and ho l d th e h i de of the el ephant w i th its ta i l bentupwards i n the form of an aureo la, wh i l e on the s i des o f
th is aureo la are seen . the legs o f th e e lephant hang i ng .
I n th e three r i ght hands are held th e tr i dent , th e kettl e-drum(or the sword) and th e noose (or th e tusk o f the el ephant).Two o f th e three left hands ho l d th e tusk (or S h i el d ) an d th eskul l (Impala) , wh i l e th e th i rd exh i b i ts the posture i n di cat i n gaston ishmen t (vismaya) or som et imes ho l ds a bel l . Th e leftl eg is p laced on th e el ephant-head of the g iant and th e ri gh tis ra ised up w as to reach the l eft th igh . A goo d figurean sweri n g to th i s descr ip tion com es from Perur n ear Co imbatore . The Valuv fi r image (Madras A rchaeo logi cal S urveyReport for 191 1
—12, P lat e IX , fig . 2) and th e Tirutturai ppundian d th e Dharasuram images (h ere
'
i l lustrated ) Show thecontrary pos i t ion of th e l egs. Th e god h as a t err ib le facewi th prot rud i n g teet h ; and by h is s i de is seen stan d i n g the
126 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
1
F IG . 79.—A rdhanar i ; Dharasuram .
S IVA 127
F IG . ESQ — A rdhanari ; Tiru vadi ,
S I VA
frightened goddess Uma with the young S kanda bes i de h er(fig . The Karanagama ment ions th e weapon s tanka an d
deer and th e po i nt i n g-fi nger-pose (sac/iv} Th is las t postureo f th e hand is not i ce d both i n the Ti rutturai ppundi an d th eD harasuram stone im ages. The former h as perhaps fiveheads (of wh ich three a lone are vi s i b le on th e p i cture ). It h as
ten hands an d more attendant figures (fig .
XVI I
Gangadhara, th e bearer of Ganga(th eGanges), i s a fI
GANGAof S iva wh ich i l lustrat es a wel l-known Puranz
'
c story .
”HA“story o f the descent of th e h eaven ly Ganges i n to th eto puri fy th e ash es of th e s i n ful son s of S agara, a k ing o fth e So lar race , is related i n the Ramayana. A t th e pray erof Bh ag irath a, a late r member o f th e same fami ly , the r ive rof th e gods consented to d i re c t her course to th e earth , buther force was such that th e earth was unab l e to bear th eshock . So
,Bhag i rath a pray ed to S iva and the latt er con
sented to rec e ive th e Ganges on h is m at ted locks . The r iver,proud of h er m ight , came down wi th all her force as i f tocrush S iva, but found herse l f lo st al togeth er i n the tang l edmaze of S i va’
s lock s . Ganga th en b ecame humb l e an d S ival et her flow forth aga i n from h is locks i n a t i ny tr i ck l e . Ther iver- goddess, the h eaven ly Ganges , is bel i eved S i n ce then toab i de i n S iva’
s matt ed ha i r as one of h is consorts. This lattersub j ect of l ett i n g th e Gangesflowout of h i s matte d hai r as a
t i ny r ivule t is represen ted i n figures general ly known as
Gangavisarjanam t‘
i rt i. No d ist i n ct ion , however, h as be en GA NGAVI SAR .
m ade i n the Agamas betwe en Gangadhara and Gan ga- JA NAM‘I RTLv isarjana. He stands on a lotus pedesta l wi th th e r i ght l egst rai gh t an d th e l eft sl i gh tly bent . Th e im age is representedas embraci n g th e goddess Gauri , conso l i n g an d assurin g h erthat h i s affect ions woul d not b e tran sferred to th e rivergoddess.
2 One ri gh t arm ho l ds up a lock of h is ha i r, on
whi ch i s se en th e goddess Ganga. A l e ft arm ho l ds th ean te lope. The goddess Gauri with a de j ect ed face (vz
'
rahz'
t
anafza) is repre sented i n the samabhanga posture wi th h er l eftl eg p laced stra i gh t on th e p edestal and th e r i ght l eg S l i ght lyben t. Her r i gh t hand stret ch es down or i s somet im es hel d
1The S iz
’
pam tna defines th is as a pose o f hand i n which th e second finger(tarj an i) is kept st raigh t whi le th e o thers are bent inwards. I t is also ado ptedwhen images are made to ho l d th e goad or o ther sim i lar weapons.
2 The S z'
lpasangr a/za says that the righ t lower arm of S iva may be i n the
post u re o f giv ing boons. The i l l ust rat ions, however, Show i t ho l di ng th e face of
the go ddess Gau ri .9
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F IG . 82 . Gajahamiirti Dharasuram .
SIVA
F IG . 83 .- Gajahamt
’
irti ; Tirutturaippt‘mdi.
S IVA
F I G. 84 .—Gangadhara Gangaikondasolapuram .
133
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
F I G . 85. Gangadhara. (metal) Vaidisvarankoyil.
S IVA
F I G . 86 .— Gangadhara j Tanjore.
S IVA’
beyond h is S i xte en th year . H is fath er was very d isconso lateas the boy approach ed th e end of h is appo i n ted t im e on earth .
But Markandeya was not afra i d and Spent all h is t ime worsh i pp in g S i va. Whi le thus engaged , the god of D eath (Kala),whose duty i t i s to take th e breath of l i fe away from th e m o rtalbody at th e appo i n ted t ime , cam e up to th e boy ,
with h isweapons, th e c lub and th e noose , r i d i n g on h i s fie rce buffalo .
He was not daunted by th e fact that th e boy was engaged i nho ly duty but at once threw h is re l ent l ess noose on th e boyan d began to pul l h is l i fe out . The boy was fr i ghten ed at
th e S i ght of th e terr i ble god o f D eath an d caugh t hold o f th eS iva- linga wi th both h is hands. S i va th en burst out fromwi th i n th e linga an d , with one foo t st i l l p laced 011 the lz
'
nga,
he k i cked wi th the o ther th e tran sgress i n g god o f Death ,p ierced h im with h is t r i den t an d vanqu ished h im .
1 Th is_
i s th eP ura
‘
m’
c story of Kalaharam t‘
irti. A ccord i ng to th e Agamas
h e is represente d as plac i ng h is r ight l eg on th e linga i nth e same att i tude as that of th e dan c i ng Nataraja. H is l ef tl eg , wh i ch i s bent and ra ised , is p laced on th e breas t of
Kala. Th e god wears a j atamakuta and has an angry look ,protrud in g teeth , th ree eyes an d four (or somet imes e i gh t)han ds. The fore-arm on the right S i de ho l ds th e tr i dentpo i n ted downwards and ra i se d to th e l evel of th e ear . Theoth er r i ght hand ho l ds th e axe wh i le th e two l eft handsexh ib it th e varada (wi th skul l i n pa lm) an d th e m
’
smaya2pos
tures (fig . The Karanagama adds that h e m ust also beaccompan i ed by th e goddess . The god of D eath h as two armsan d pro trudi ng teeth . H e ho l ds th e noose and i s ly i n g flat onthe groun d with l egs st retched out wi de apart . In the sketchfrom Chandrag i r i (fig . 89) is seen Markan deya with th e nooseroun d h is neck and embrac i ng the lz
'
nga. S iva also i s seenho l d in g the tr i den t i n two hands wh i l e Yama is at tack i ng th eyoung sage wi th a t ri den t .
XIX
N ilakan tha, S rikan th a and V ish akan th a are th ree synony N ILAKANTHA
mous names of S iva , g iven to h im on account of h is hav i ng 0”
“Si;swal lowed the deadly po i son (lea
‘
lakuta) p roduced at th eK
churn in g of the ocean by the dévas and da'
navas under instruot ions from the Creator, i n o rder to obta i n d iv in e n ectar. The
1 See Burgess’s E lam Car/e Temples, P late XX IV .
1’ In place of th e varada some figures show the sac/u and in place o f the
v ism aya , the hand ho l d ing th e deer . A cco rdi ng to th e S ilpasaxgra/za the symbo lsmay be th e t r i den t and th e kett le—dr um in -theri ght hands and th e boon-givi n gpost u re and th e axe in th e left .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 88. Kalaharamfirti ; PattIsvaram.
S IVA I 39
axe) and the deer respect ively . The locks are arranged i n theform of a j atamakuta and th e goddess Gauri stan ds on th e l eftS i de . The accom pany i n g i l lustrat ion from Ch i dambaram(fig . 90) answers to th is descript ion of Tripurantaka. Theal t ernat i ng pos i t ions of th e l eg , th e ex ist en ce or non - ex isten ceof the demon A p asmara undern eath one
'
of th em an d th efash ion of ho l d in g the bow and th e arrow, y i el d five oth erforms of Tripuran taka, who m ay a lso be represented w i the i ght or t en arms. Somet imes (when with ten arms), th e godis seated i n a chariot w i th h is r i ght knee touch in g the sud/1a,
th e l eft l eg wh i ch is ben t at th e knee b e in g p laced firmly i nfront of th e r i gh t. In th e char io t , at its fron t , is seate d thefour- faced Brahma an d below h im is a whi te bul l drawin g th ecar. A sandal-wood carv i n g publ i sh ed i n the Journal of Indz
'
an
A r t and Industry, Vol. XV, No. 1 19, fig . 12 , shows th e actualfight between S i va and th e demon cal l e d Tr ipura .
Kiratarjunamurti is that form of S iva i n wh i ch he i s KwaTARsuppose d to have appeared before A rjuna, on e of th e h eroes JUNAM fJRTIof th e ep ic Mahabharata, when the latter was do i n g p enanc eto obta i n from S iva a powerfu l weapon with wh i ch h e coul ddestroy h is enemi es. God S iva wi shed to try personal ly i f h i sdevot ee A rjuna real ly deserved to wiel d the matchl ess weaponPasupata, whose pres i d i ng de i ty was h imsel f. To th i s endS iva and Parvati assum ed th e forms of a hunter and a huntressan d with the i r ret i nue of demons and hobgobl i n s att i re d for thechase
,drove before th em a wi l d boar, wh i ch rushed to attack
A rjuna wh o was then perfo rmin g h i s penance. A rjuna, th e
pract ised warr ior , se ized h is bow and i nstan tly shot thean imal . S imul taneously also came anoth er arrow from thepsuedo-hunter S iva. P i erced by both th e arrows, th e an imald i ed . The hun ter cri ed out that th e quarry was h i s and askedA rjuna h ow h e dared to shoo t at i t . The royal h ero of th eLunar rac e coul d n ot brook the i nsul t from th i s w i l d hunter ofth e woods. A fierce fight between th e two was the result .A rjuna was amazed to see that the hunte r was more than h ismatch . Arjuna
’
s neve r fa i l i n g arrows fa i l e d h im n ow an d hechal l en ge d th e hunter to a hand- to- hand contest. S ore and
beaten , A rjuna worsh ipped the c lay linga of the god S ivathat h e had before h im , when , 10 ! the flowers he threw on th elinga fe l l on th e p erson of the hunter. A rjuna st ruck th ehun ter at the head with h i s powerful bow cal l e d Gandiva and
drew b lood . But the bow was myster iously snatche d awayfrom h im . In the end A rjuna was overcome by a gen tl e toucho f th e mighty god . A rjuna th en k new h im an d begged
pardon and th e god gave h im th e des i re d weapon Pasupata.
142 SOUTH- I NDIA N IMAGE S
F IG. 90.-Tripuran takam ti r ti Chidambaram .
S IVA
Th is story i s th e sub j ect matter of th e exqu is i t e poem Kz’ratarjaniya of th e Sanskr i t poet Bharavi. Th e Tan jore i nscr ipt ionsrefe r to an image Kiratarjunadeva ; 1 and from the descr ipt iongiven of i t i n a m ut i lated passage, i t appears as i f th ere was a
re ference there , to a linga or to some ob j ect con n ec ted with i t .Images o f Kiratarjunam fi rt i answerin g to the story describ edabove are not very frequent . A n i l lust rat ion (fig . 91) wh ichcomes from Pushpag i r i i n th e Cuddapah d istr i ct repre sentsev i dent ly th e last par t of the dram a , when S iva and Parvat iappeared before A rjuna an d gave h im the weapon . S ivaho l ds i n h is bac k hands th e axe an d th e tri den t . In h is ri ghtfore-arm is th e arrow Pasupata, th e l e ft fo re -arm rest i ng freelyon the wa i st . To th e left of S i va stands the goddess Parvat iwi th two hands , ho l di n g a lotus flower i n her ri ght . In fron tof both , is A rjuna i n th e modest posture of rece iv i ng w i th bo thhands th e d iv i n e g i ft o ffere d h im . A p i gmy figure standi ngbetween S iva and A rjuna i n th e i l lustrat ion m ay be on e of
th e attendan ts of S iva. The Karanagama g ive s th e sam edescri pt ion but makes S i va wear bo t h th e arrow an d the bowand ho l d the ante lope i nstead of th e tr i den t . An i l lustrat ioncoming from Ch i dam baram (fig . 92) answers to th is descript ion . In i t m ay also be seen the figure of A rjuna i n a
worsh ipp i ng posture as descri b ed i n the Karanagama . It
may b e not ed that th e h istori c “A rjuna’
s Penance at
Mahabal i puram is supposed to represen t th e Mahabharata
sto ry relat ed above.
“2
XXI
Ch andesanugrah am fi rti is a form of S iva whi ch was
assumed by h im in o rder to confer b l ess i n gs on h is ferventdevotee Ch an desa descr i bed i n the seque l .3 H is figures are
occas ional ly found dep i cted i n som e of th e South - Ind iant emples. From Gangaikondasolapuram i n th e Tri ch i nopo lyd ist r i c t comes a beaut i ful i l lustrat ion (fig . 93) o f th e story .
1 Dr. A nanda K . Coomaraswam i publ ishes an image o f S i va from Tanjo rei n h is A rt Journa l Vz’svafcarm a (Part I I , N o . I n th is th e posi t ions o f the fourhands i ndicate the natu re o f th e weapons that m ust have been hel d by them .
A l thou gh th e image is cal led Gangadhara by D r . Coomaraswam i,the poses o f
the fingers suggest that th e image m ust b e one of Kiratarjuna,possibly the very
ido l ment ioned in th e Tanjo re i nscrip tions, si nce its two fo re-arm s are so adj ustedas to receive into them the bow and th e arrow . The upper arms in th is casem ust have hel d th e axe and th e deer . M r . R . D . Banerj i describes i n the
D i rec tor-General ’s Arcbwological S urvey R eport fo r 191 1- 12 , pp. 16 1 ff , certai n
scu l ptu res from Chandimau wh ich relate to th is sto ry o f A rjuna’
s fight wi th S iva.
These are at t rib u ted by M r. Banerj i to th e Gupta period .2 Havell
’s I dea ls Of I nd ian A rt , pp. 14 7 to 151 .
3 See p . 16 1 , below.
S IVA
F IG . 92—Kiratarjunam iirti ; Chidambaram .
145
146 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F I G .—Chandésan ugrahamfi rti Gangaikondasé lapuram .
S IVA
H e re S iva i s seate d i n th e sukhasana or th e comfortab l eposture on a ra i se d pedesta l , as i n th e case of Semaskanda
figures, h is left l eg hangi ng down and rest i ng on a footstoo l . The goddess Parvat i too is seated to th e l eft of S ivaon the same pedestal , h er r i gh t leg be i ng ben t at th e kneeand p laced on th e pedestal wh i l e th e left i s hang ing downto rest on another foo t- stoo l . S i va h as four arms . In h is two
back hands he ho l ds th e axe an d the deer an d wi th th e twofront arms h e is seen decorat ing with a flower garland th elocks of h is se rvant , th e devo ted Ch an desa . The latterS i ts on th e ground at the foo t of S i va, with bendi n g kne esan d fo l ded arms, and re ce ives the d iv in e favour w i th grat itude . The images are wel l ornamented . A bove the groupare seen fly i n g gods and demi - gods who have evi dent lygathered round to see th e k i ndness o f S i va S hown towardsh is devotee . A ccord i n g to th e Mayamata Ch an desa h as
beh in d h i s fo l ded arms th e weapon parasu (axe). On the eastgo
'
pura of th e Ch i dambaram temple is a figure of Chandesanugraham t
‘
i rti i n wh i ch Chandesa is represen ted withth e axe between h is fo l de d arms .The S i ze of th e image of Ch an desa must , i t is stated , b e
sma l l so as to reach t he arms of S i va an d is to be bedeckedwi th the ornaments of ch i l dren . The Kasyapa-Silpa statesthat be tween th e god an d th e goddess may be p laced th efigure of S kanda, at th e sculptor
’
s opt ion . Ne xt to Daksh inamurt i ,
” i t says,“th e figure of Ch andesanugraha i s the most
famous.
”A group of images un der th e name Chandes
varap rasadadeva was set up i n the Tan jore templ e by k ingRajaraja I , an d con s i st ed of (I ) th e god Ch andesvarap rasadadeva with four arms , (2) the demon Musalagan with two arms,(3) th e goddess Umap aram esvari , (4) Mahadeva (th e lingaworsh i pped evi dently by th e boy Ch an desa), (5) th e devoteewi th two arms , (6) h is father also with two arms represente das hav i ng fal l en down an d ly i n g on th e ground and (7)Chandesa rec eiv i ng w i th h is two arms th e boo n of a flower
garlan d from S i va.
l Th is descr ipt ion agre es wi th th e s toryre lated i n th e Per iyapuranam , a comp i lat ion of th e th i rt eenthcentury A .D . The Karanagama, whose dat e i s not known ,was al so apparent ly fami l iar w i th th e story .
Some part i cularly fierce forms of S i va may now bedescri bed . F i rst i n fi erceness comes th e form of t he fabulou
1 Son ia-I nd ian I nscr ip tions, Vol. I I , I nt roduct ion , p. 39.
I o -A
BHA
150 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F I G . 95.— Pasupatam t
'
11ti Chi dambaram .
SIVA
an d th e Skul l . He h as terr i bl e prot rud in g teeth an d a darkSh i n i ng body (fig . The S ivatattvaratnakara men tions a
form of A gh Oram fi rti with th i rty- two arms an d the Pancharatragama, anothe r wi th twelve arms. Th e image wears a
garland of Skul ls an d treads on th e h ead o f Kalamunda,the
v i l e god of D eath .
Bha i rava, bo rn of th e b lood of S iva, is anoth er god of BHA IRAVAth is c lass . The Tan trasara mentions e ight forms of Bha i ravawhi ch are fi t for worsh ip . H is genera l form Shows d ishevel l edmatt ed ha i r, th ree eyes an d a red- co loured body . H i s symbo ls are th e tr i den t , sword , noose and the kettl e- drum . H e
is nak ed an d is represen ted as be i n g fo l lowed by all k i n ds ofdemons and sp i r i ts and r i d i ng on a dog (fig . H emadri
descr ibes Bhai rava as a p ot—be l l i ed god with round re d eyes,
terr ib le face, prot rudin g tee th and wi de nostr i ls . He wears agarland o f skul ls an d ornaments o f snakes , 1 thus fri ghten i n geven h is consort wh o stan ds by h i s s i de. The upper half ofh is body whi ch is dark i n co lour i s covered wi th th e elephant
’
s
h i de . H e h as m any arms and hol ds all dest ruct ive weapons.
The S ilpasara makes h im seated on a j ewel l ed th rone underthe celest ia l tree mandara,
c losely embraced by th e goddess .The same work m ent ions th ree other forms o f Bha i rava, v iz . ,Panch avak tra-Bha i rava , Gov i nda-Bha i rava an d S am hara G6VIN 1)A
Bhai rava. Th e second of these h as four arms and ho l ds gffifiifif.’
th e conch , d iscus, dr i nk i ng cup an d th e mace. H e h as thre e B HA IRAVA ,
eyes an d is young , serene an d naked . O n h is s i de is thegoddess Vaish nav i -Sakt i and h is veh i c le is the b i rd Garuda.
The th i rd has five faces and t en arms and am ong h is weaponsare also th e Vaish n av ite conch an d d iscus.
A ccord i ng to th e Sz'
lpasara Kala-Bhai ravawears a g i rdle KALAo f t i ny bel ls on h is wa ist and ho l ds th e swo rd,drum and th e dri nk i ng cup i n h is hands. He h as a fearsom e face w i th protrud i ng teeth , a garland of skul ls an d
d ish evel led ha i r. In th e i l l ustrat ion from Durg i (fig . 98) th e
dog wh ich is h is veh i c l e is see n b i t i n g a human head hel d byth e l e ft lower han d o f th e im age . The goddess with hercom pan ion is stand ing to the ri gh t , ev i dent ly fri gh tened at
the serpen t o rnaments and th e terri b le form o f Bha i rava.
Mahakala,st i l l ano the r fierc e form o f S iva,
is qui te l i k e MAHAKAI A
Bhai rava, but ho l ds a serpen t i n the p lace of th e noose. Inth e work ent i t led L alz
’
to'
pakhyana h e is descri b ed as aecom
p an ied by Kal i , em brac i n g her an d dri nk ing wi th her from
1 F i gu res o f Bhai rava w ith th e dog vehicl e and th e five-hooded serpen t overhead
, are rep o r ted to ex is t i n some o f th e ancient tem ples o f the Be l lary d ist ri ct .
F IG . 97.—Bhai rava Pattisvaram .
154 SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F IG.—Kala-Bhai rava ; Du rgi .
S IVA
t he cup wh i ch is th e mundane egg , th e w in e wh i ch is th eessen ce of creat ion . H is faces (evi dent ly five ) are terr ib leto look at, l i k e those of death , an d t hreaten to swa l low theun ive rse .Kalagn i-Rudra the terr ib l e or fiery Rudra descr ibed i n KALAGN I
the Kasyapa-S z'
lpa, c losely resembl es Bha i rava and is perhaps R UM “on ly anothe r form of h im .
1 H e ho l ds th e weapons swordan d sh iel d , the arrow an d th e bow an d wears a red c loth .
The i l lustrat ion from Durg i (fig . 99) is very l i ke ly one of
Kalagn i-Rudra .
XXIII
V irabh adra is on e o f th e many S a iva demi-gods (ganasj 2 ViRA BHADRA
He i s sa i d to have sprung from a lock of S i va’
s ha i r when , asa l ready stated , S i va h eard o f th e su i c i de of h is wi fe S at i i nh er father’s sacr ific ial fire an d flew i n to a rage . From th e
fire o f h is anger came i n to ex istenc e th i s t err i b le form , as o f
D eath man i fest , who destroy ed th e sacrific ial c eremon i es ofDaksha an d s lew D aksha h im se lf. The Pancharatragamadescrib es V i rabh adra as b lack i n co lour , hav in g three eyes
and ho l d i n g i n h is four arms a sword , arrow , bow an d c lub .
He wears a garland of skul ls and h as sandal s on h is feet . A
yel low garment is t i ed round h is lo i n s.3 Th e S z‘
lparatna
descr i bes h im as havi ng e i ght hands and r i d i ng on vatala
(a demon) surrounded by h is ganas (fo l lowers). From theBrihad isvara t empl e at Tan jore com es a sculpture d pane l(fig . 100) i n wh ich a wom an , pe rhaps the wi fe of Daksha, is
seen fly i n g i n alarm w ith upraised hands at seei n g h er
husband decap i tated by V irab hadra before her very eyes an d
th e severed head thrown i n to the sacr ific ial fi re- p i t . On e o f
th e attendan t priests wi th a ladl e i n h is hand is alsorepresen ted i n the ac t o f runn ing away from th e scene. A
fi ne figure of V irab h adra with the bow an d arrow , swordand sh iel d , com es from Mud igondam i n t he Co imbatore d istri ct(fig . Th e god is represented stan d ing on a padma
p it/2a i n front of a prabha-mana’
ala,
“an arch o f l i ght ”. A t the
edge of th e pedestal on th e ri gh t S i de is shown D akshawh o was, however, rev ived by S iva with th e h ead of a Sheepsubst i tute d for th e one th at was burnt i n th e sacrific ial fire .
The R zza’rayamala- Tax lra i ncl udes th e name Kalagn i-Rud ra am ong th e 64
variet ies o f Bhai rava .
2 Karin/ma fia . I n th e lex icon Amarabbsa S iva h imsel f is cal led the dest royero f th e sacrifi ce (Krat ttdh vam sin) .
3 Th e Karauagam a adds tha t he has Bhadrakali by h is side and is fierce .
Daksha wi th th e sheep’s head , two eyes and two arms, stands o n the ri ght side o f
Virabhadra .
S IVA I S7
158 SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
F IG . I O I .—Virabhadra Mudigondam.
S IVA
The figure of Daksha is of comparat ive ly sma l l stature , m eantevi dent ly to i n di cat e by contrast , th e huge form o f V irabh adra .
The S ilpasangraha ment ions three var i et ies of V i rabh adra
(v i z . sattvz'
c, tamasz'
c and raj asz'
c) w i th two , four o r e ight arm s .
1
A ll are dark i n co lour an d fierce look i ng . Seated figures of
V irabhadra are cal le d Yoga-Vi ra,h is standi ng figures, Bhoga
Vi ra and those i n a wal k i n g postur e , Vi ra-Vi ra . In th e first,
V irabhadra ho l ds a sword an d sh i e l d an d is seated with one
l eg fo l ded on th e pedestal an d the ot her hang ing dow n . Inthe second posture he exh ib i ts th e bow an d arrow , sword andkataka. O n th e leg is wo rn th e an klet of heroes . The head isadorned w ith a crown , i n the m iddl e o f wh ich is represente d alinga. A garland o f S kul ls decorates th e n eck . O n th e ri ghtsi de is th e image o f D aksha with fo l ded arms . In th e Vi raVi ra figures, V i rabh adra ho l ds the tr i dent , sword , arrow an d
th e deer on th e r i ght s i de and the sku l l , Sh i e l d , bow and th e
goad on th e l eft. It may be note d that , wh i le images of Vi rabhadra and i n depen dent t empl es erected for h im are verycommon i n th e Te lugu an d Canarese d ist ri cts, tem p l es i n theTam i l d istri cts rare ly conta i n h i s image , an d shr i nes ded icated to h im are st i l l rarer. There is a V irab had ra templ e atMadura,
XXIV
Im ages o f Ksh etrapala o ften met w i th i n th e temples of
South ern Ind ia are d iv i ded in to‘ th ree c lasses, acco rd in g toth e predom i nat i ng qual i t i es sattva, raj as and tamas. Thosebelong in g to th e first c lass have two or four hands ; th esecond six an d th e th i rd e i gh t .2 A ll the figures, i rresp ect iveo f th e c lass to wh ich they belong , are made to stand withl eve l feet The general descript ion of them is
that they have th ree eye s whi ch are round an d pro trudi ng ,re d hai r po i n t i ng upwards, serpent j ewels, a g i rdl e o f bel lsround th e waist and a neck lace o f skul ls. They are nakedan d i nsp i re awe with the i r fierce fangs (fig . Kshetrapala
o ccup i es an im portant p lace amon g th e subs i d iary de i t i es i nS i va tem p les . He is the ch i e f guard ian of th e templ e justas Ch an desa (descr i bed below) is its sup er i n tenden t an d
1 D r . B urgess’s E lu ra Cane Temp les, P late XX I I , F i g . 2 , is a represen tat iono f Virabhadra wi th ei gh t hands. The p late wrongly cal ls th e figu re Bhai rava.
2 One image o f Ksh étrapala wi th ei gh t arms an d ano ther o f Bhai rava, were se t
up in th e Tanjo re tem ple at th e begi nn ing of th e eleventh century A .D . inconnex ion w i th th e grou p o f figu res i l l ust rating th e sto ry of th e Saiva sai ntSirutton da-Nayanar ; see below , p . 259, foo t no te 2 . I n th e Panch anadésvara
temple at Ti ruvadi near Tanj o re is an image o f Ksh é t rapala, cal led Alkor.dar ,wi th eigh t hands, to wh ich people at tach much importance.
S IVA
manager. Ksh etrapala is worsh ippe d first i n every S ivatemple , befo re commen c ing the regular serv i ce for th e
day . Th e Prayo'
gasara says Whoever perform s any
ceremony without first worsh ipp i ng Ksh etrapala , th e fru i t o fthat ceremony i s w i thout doubt destroyed by Ksh etrapala.
”
H is naked form an d th e name Maha-Bha i rava by wh ich he isaddressed duri ng the Sr ibalz
’ ceremony suggests that Kshetra
pala i n h is essence must b e al l i e d to Bha i rava.
1
A ll th ese awe- i n sp i r in g forms of the Sa i va cul t , i nc ludi ngo th ers wh i ch are ment ion ed i n th e figamas, but not often metwi th i n South - I nd ian temples, rece ived spec ial worsh i p fromth e adheren ts of th e early S ai va sub - sect s known as Pasupatas , Kalamukhas and Kapalikas, as wel l as from theL i ngayatas of lat er o r i g i n .
’
XXV
Among the at ten dant ganas of S iva wh o , l i k e th e godsjust descr ibed , are i den t ifie d wi th one or anothe r aspect ofS iva h imse lf , may be ment ioned Ch an desa, Bh ring isa an d CHANDESA .
Nand isa. The first is counted as the foremost o f th e se rvan tsof S i va an d is hence cal l e d i n Tami l i nscr ip t ions an d th ePer z
'
yapuranam , A didasa-Chan desa.
3 The Kasyapa-S ilpa te l lsus that h e is made up o f th e ste rn er s i d e of S i va’s naturean d appears i n each mi l l enn ium (yuga) wi th d ifferen t namesand symbo ls . In the Krita-
yuga he rece ive s th e name Prachanda, is o f angry appearance , ri des on an e lephan t an d has
th e j atamakuta an d S i xteen arms. In Treta-
yuga he is seensmi l i n g , h as e i gh t arm s and d isheve l l e d bra i ds of hai r , an dgoes by th e name Chanda. In th e th i rd or Dvapara
-yuga he
h as four han ds, th e l ion veh i c l e , j'
atamana’
ala,protrud in g te eth
and a fearful face . H is weapons th en are th e tanka, t ri den t ,noose an d th e hook . In th e Kal i -yuga he h as a peacefulappearance and t he bul l veh i c l e
, h as h i s locks made up i n the
M ayarablzanj a , (p . xxx i v , fi g. gives a descript ion o f Ksh étrapala
cal l in g h im Mahakala and Bhairava. The S z'
lpasara in describ ing VatukaB hai rava, cal ls h im also Ksh étrapala.
I n th e famous tem p le on th e S risai lam H i l l (Ku rnoo l d ist ri ct) where the
i nfluence of th e L ingayata sect was once very great , is a pavi l ion adj oi n ing theNandi -m andaf a. A n i nscrip t ion of the fou rteenth centu ry A .D . describes i t as theplace where th e vo taries, eviden tly o f th e Virabhadra fo rm o f S iva, o ffered u pthei r heads i n o rder to pro pi t iate th e fu rious god Madras E pi graph ical Repo rtfor 1914
- 15, p . 92 , paragraph 15.
3 I n E pi graph ic reco rds th e documen tary t ransact ions o f a S iva temple are
stated to be conducted i n th e name o f Chandesa,the supposed manager of th e
tem ple. E ven n ow , visi to rs to a S iva sh rine have to repo rt themse l ves beforeChandésa p rior to leavi n g th e tem ple prem ises and clap thei r hands as i f to showthat they are not carrying w i th them any po r t ion o f the tem ple
.
p roperty.
NAN b iSA .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
form of e i the r a j atamakuta, j atarnandala or késabandha and
stands with leve l feet i n th e abhanga or th e sama-bhanga
posture. He may a lso be found seated wi th the ri gh t leghangi ng down from th e seat and th e l eft l eg bent crosswise so
as to rest upon the seat . H e ho l ds th e tanka (or, axe) i n th er i gh t h an d an d Shows the boon-g iv i ng posture i n h is l eft(fig . Somet im es both th e hands are seen fo l ded overth e breast i n a worsh ipp i ng posture w i th the weapon tanka
(or , som et im es,a flower garland) hel d betw een them . In th is
case h e re ce ives th e nam e A di-Chan desa. A story re lated i nth e Tam i l Per z
'
yapuranam about Ch an desa mak es h im a
fervent devotee of S iva, w ho i n h is hei ght o f devo t ion , cut offthe legs of h is own fath er , because h e wanton ly spi l t th em i l k-pots wh ich Ch an desa had secured as lovi ng offer i ngs toS iva . Sankaracharya. w ho l i ved perhaps i n the early part o fth e e i gh th century A .D . , refe rs to th is S a iva devotee Chan desaas
“th e s i n ne r aga i nst (h is) fath er ,” ev i dently wi th
reference to the sto ry relat ed i n th e Per z'
yapuranam . The fo rmo f S i va known as Chandesanugraham t
‘
i rti, descri bed above ,is ent i re ly based on th is anecdo te .Nandi , Nand isa or Nan dikesvara , now represented by the
recumbent bul l p laced i n front of th e ch i ef shri n e i n a S ivatem pl e , is descr ib ed by H emadri to be on e o f th e attendan tdemi - gods o f S iva. H e is stat ed to have three eyes an d fourarm s an d to wear a t i ge r’s Sk i n . In two of h is hands h e ho l dsth e tr i dent and th e blzindz
’
vala a Sho rt javel i n .
”Th e th i rd
hand is ra ised up over th e head an d th e last shows a
stretch ed finger (tarj an i) , h is eyes bei n g wat chful an d fixedtowards people com i n g from a d istance i nto th e S iva temp l e .Th e Varaha-Parana says that , though or i g inal ly an ascet i c
,
Nand i by h is aust eri t ies an d devo t io n to S iva was b lessedwith a fo rm s im i lar to t hat o f S i va h im sel f an d was p laced at
th e head of th e attendant ganas of S iva. A m etal l i c im age(fig . 104 ) from Valuvnr (Tan jore d istr i ct) represen ts h im i nth is m etam orp hosed form . H e h as four arms o f which th e
two back ones ho l d the tanka an d th e deer an d the two fron tare jo i ned together palm to palm i n a worsh ipp i n g posture .By the s i de of Nan d isvara stands also h is wife wi th two arm s .
2
1 This last is the form o f Chandésa usual ly fo und in S i va tem ples. I n th e
i l l ust rat ion , however, th e left hand rests on th e th igh and th e posi t ion o f th e legsis reversed .
2 A verse i n praise o f Nand i desc ribes h im as th e husband of Suyasa.
H e stands at th e entrance in to S iva temples with a kni fe or go l den cane hel d i n hishands so as to touch th e karpara o f h is r igh t arm . I n one o f the m an dapar o f
th e Ekamrésvara tem ple at Conjeeveram ,Nand i is represented i n th e same postu re
as Garuda, carrying i n h is out -st retched fo re-arms the feet o f‘S iva and Parvati,
It must b e noted that Nan d isa is a favouri t e dei ty of th eSaiva puri tans, th e so- ca l l e d L i n gayatas or Vi ra-S a ivas.
Bh rin gi, Bh ringiriti or Bh ringisa is s imi larly a fervent BHR I NGISA .
devot ee o f S i va . S o exc lus i ve was he i n h i s devot ion thathe is sa i d to have i gnored th e goddess who was part and
parcel of S i va . His Sol e bus i n ess i n l i fe , to wh i ch he hadp l edged h imse lf, was ever to c i rcumam bulat e th e linga of
S iva an d no one else . To test h i s fa i th th e god assumed ' thehermaphrodi te form of A rdhanar i i n wh i ch the goddess , as
al ready descr i b ed , is not separat ed from the god . Bh ringi
was not baflled ; but assumi ng the form of a bee {bhr inga} h ebored i nto the un ited body and cont i nued st i l l to go roundand round th e S iva hal f of th e hermaphrod i te . Th e goddessParvati was en raged and cursed h im to become emac iatedday after day . Bh rin gi, acco rd in g ly , grew very th i n and wasunable to support h im sel f. With th e grace of S iva h e
secured a th i rd leg which suppo rt ed h im . Thus‘Bh ringi is
represented i n p i ctures wi th three l egs (fig . 105).l A n image of
Bh ring isa with three arms an d th ree l egs is state d to havebeen set up i n th e templ e at Tan jore by a subord i nate o f
Rajaraja I i n th e e l eventh century A .D .
Jvaradeva of S a i va my tho logy , wh o is supposed to have JVARA DEVA .
been th e dest royer of the demon Bhasmasura, is descr i be d inth e J gamas as hav i ng th ree l egs , th ree heads, six arms, n i neeyes , and a de jecte d app earance . A n image from Bhavan i i nth e Co imbatore d istr i c t (fig . 106) answers to th is descr ip t iono f Jvaradeva .
XXVI
Ganapat i , Ganesa or Vinayaka, the popular be l ly god,”QAEAPATI.
is, as hi s name i nd i cate s , th e ch i ef of th e Sa iva ganas. H e i s ifhgis
g‘Ki
’
.
sa i d to be th e e l dest son o f S iva and Parvat i , to have thre eeyes, an el ephant ’s head 9 an d ears and four arms. In th e
1 The Vamana-Parana states that Bh ringi was the name con ferred by S iva on
th e demon A ndhaka after th e lat ter had proved himsel f to be a staunch devotee of
S iva. Bh ringi is represented w ith an emac iated body ho l d i ng th e staff in one
hand and th e rosary i n th e o ther . H is eyes are ever di rected towards S i va.
2 On e of th e popu lar sto ries explain in g h ow Ganapati cam e to have the
elephant’s head is as fo l l ows O nce u pon a t im e when Parvati went to bathe, sh emade a figure o f th e t u rmeri c wh ich had been sm eared over her body, gave i t l i feand l imbs and appo i nted i t to keep watch at the doo r. S iva came to see Parvatibut was stopped at th e doo r by th e newly created guard . S iva i n anger cu t o ff th ehead o f th e figure. Th e goddess entreated h im to revive her ch i ld . H e agreedand sai d that the head o f any l i vi ng bo dy sleepin g w i th the head placed nor thwardmi gh t be severed at once an d placed on the t runk o f the t u rm eric figure. A11
e lephant was fou nd sleeping i n th e way described . I ts head was acco rd ingly cu t
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 105.—Bh ringi S risai lam .
S IVA
F I G . I c6 .— j varadéva ; Bhavani .
167
S IVA
F IG . 107 .—Ganapat i standing Lépaksh i.
SOUTH—INDIAN IMAGE S
F IG. 108. J anapati standin g (metal) Pattisvaram.
S IVA
F IG . 109.— Ganapat i seated ; Siyamangalam .
171
S IVA
a lso cal l e d by a thousand nam es. Mr . Havel l exp la i ns Ganapat i to be th e manas, or worl dly wisdom ,
person ifie d . Ganapat i i n H ind tt mytho logy is recogn iz ed as an unm arri ed goda brahmachar z
’
n . But from th e sequ el i t w i l l appear that someform s of Ganapat i have the i r accom pany i n g goddesses, somet imes, recogn ized as A sh ta-S i ddh i s (th e e i ght pres i d i ng dei t ieso f success or ach i evem ent) .Th i rty- two forms of Ganapat i 1 are ment ioned i n the
Mudgala-Purana . The Sz
'
lpasara a lso refers to som e of theseforms . Maha-Ganapat i is stat ed i n the Mudgala-Purana to be MAHAan elephant- face d god , th ree- eyed , wear i n g the crescent o f th e GANA PAT"m oon as h is head-ornament , an d red i n co lour. He is lov i nglyembrac ed by h i s wi fe wh o , seat ed on h is lap , h o lds a lotus i nher hand . The fo l lowin g weapon s and sym bo ls are m ent ioned :th e biiapara, club , sugarcan e-bow , a br i l l iant d i scus, conch ,noose , lotus , ear of paddy , th e broken tusk an d the ruby-
p ot.
Th is l ist i nd i cates that the god must have ten hands.
2 Thei l lustrat ion (fig . 1 1 1) from Madura Shows Maha-Ganapat ir i d i ng on a rat and hav i ng on h is lap th e seate d figure o f agoddess . He h as ten arms but the weapons hel d i n th em are
not qui te d ist i nct . In th e uppermost hand on t he ri ght s i de ,however , is seen th e d iscus. I n th e Visvanatha temp l e at
Tenkas i (Tinnevel ly distr i ct) we have a s im i lar im age seat ed ona pedestal w i thout th e usual rat veh i cl e , th e el ephant trun kbe i n g turned towards th e l eft S i de . Here aga i n on ly the d iscusan d th e lotus he ld i n two o f th e t en arms are c l ear . MahaGanapat i w i th d i fferen t weapons an d two goddesses rece ivesth e name L akshm i-Ganapat i . A fine bronze image of LAKSH M IH eramba-Ganapat i , also descri bed i n the Mudgala-Purana Gé NAPM L
comes from Negapatam (fig . Th is figure h as five e lephant gffififitfaces, th e fifth o f wh i ch , i n th e i l lustrat ion , is represented at
the top .
3 O f h is t en arm s th e two lowest S how the protect i n gand th e boon- g ivi ng postures. The others ho l d th e noose , th etusk , th e rosary , hook , axe, pest le, puddi ng an d th e fru i t . H eri des on a l ion , but no goddess is found , as i n th e two var i et i esjust ment ioned . From Tiruvan aikkaval Jambukesvaram )
1 The Saraa’atz‘laé rz speaks o f fifty -one fo rm s of Ganapati .
2 Th e S ilparatna says that h e is seated on a lo tus-pedestal u nder a kalpa -t reethat h e has ten arms ho l d in g the weapons m ent ioned i n th e Mudgala
-P n raua an d
that h e is su rrounded by gods and ganas. N o . 84 o f th e Tanj o re i nscri ptionsVo l . I I , p . 407) refers to a com fortably seated Ganapat i and ment ions a
t ree as on e o f h is accom paniments. Th e reference may be to Maha-Ganapat i ;bu t th e i nscript ion states that h e had on ly fou r d ivine arms.
3 A stone image of th is fo rm o f Ganapa t i is found at Tiruvo ttiyfi r nearMadras. I t is o f recent make an d has the five heads all arranged i n a ci rc l e.
SOUTH—INDIA N IMAGE S
F I G . I I I .
— Maha-Ganapat i ; Madura .
S IVA
F IG. 112 .—I Ieramba-Ganapat i (metal ) Negapatam .
S IVA
XXVII
S kanda or Kumara i s anoth er of S iva’
s sons known to S KAN DA o r
H i n du my tho logy . H e i s represen ted with six faces (Sha KUMARA '
danana) an d as ri d ing on a peacock . Be i n g supposed to havebeen brought up by the six mo th ers , th e Kr ittz
’
has (P leiades),h e is known as S hanmatura an d Kartt i keya. The Puranasstate that h e was bo rn o f th e fiery en ergy o f S i va i n a forestof grass (sara-vana) , b ecame th e commander of th e arm y of
the gods i n thei r batt l e agai nst the g ian t Taraka, an d that h erent asunder by h is arrows the mountai n Kraunch a. Th e b i rtho f S kanda-Kumara is descr i b ed at great leng th by th e famouspoet Kal i dasa i n h is wel l- known wo rk Kumarasambhava.
S kanda is a lso known by the nam e Subrahm anya i n th eTantras. In some unexp la i n ed way th ere ex ists an i n timat econ nex ion between the wo rsh i p of S ubrahmanya an d of the
serpent . Th e common name S ubba o r Subbaraya foundamong the Telugu , Canarese an d Tam i l peop l e is exp la i ne dto be bo th a contract ion of Subrahm anya and a synonym for
serpent . The s i xth day o f a l unar month (shashthi) i s h el d as
pecul iarly sacred to Subrahm anya , as to th e serpent god .
H is r i di ng on a peacock , h is m arriage wi th th e forest mai dValliyamm an , an d th e fact that h is most famous tem pl es areon h i l l tops, Show that h e is connected w ith the anc i en t treeand - serpen t-wo rsh i p and th e sy lvan de i t i es. The S ilpasaradescribes h im under nam e Subb araya as havi n g six faces, th reeeyes , th e p eacock veh i c le an d th e weapons sakti, thunderbo l t ,sword , etc . The Sz
'
lpasangr aha descri bes h im as hav ing twoarms , th e sacred thread , a tuft , g i rdle , haupina and staff l i k eth e unmarri ed students o f th e Vedas (brahmachar in) . It may
be noted that th e day shash thz’
, sacred to serpent worsh ip i nS outhern In dia,
is c elebrated by feed ing bralzmachar z'
ns and
p resen t i n g c loths to th em .
The Kasyapa-Sz'
lpa se ts down that th e im ag e of S kanda may
b e m ade o f two , four, S ix or twe lve hands and m ay have e i therS ix faces or on ly one. Th e symbo ls genera l ly are th e saktz
’
,
arrow , sword , d iscus, noose, a bunch o f peacock ’s feath ers,sh i e l d , bow , plough , rosary and th e postures abhaya and
uarada. When th e image h as two hands, th e l eft hand h o ld sa cock (kukhuta) an d th e ri ght hand a sakti (th e Tam i l ve
'
l) 1.
Hemadri speaks of h im as wear i ng a red clo th and ri d in g on a
1 ”
Th e fam o us image o f S ubrahmanya on the Pal ni Hi l ls, cal led PalaniAndavar , has on ly two arm s i n o ne o f which he ho lds the rahtz
’
,the o ther resti ng
freely on th e waist .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
peacock . The i l lustrat ion from Tiruvottiyfi r (fig . 1 13) showson ly four hands.
Th e most common vari ety howeve r is the six- facedSh adanana-Subrahmanya ,
showin g i n h is twe lve hands th esymbols and weapons, saktz
’
. arrow , Sword, discus , noose an dabhaya on th e r i ght and a kuhktuta (cock ), bow , Sh i e ld , conch ,plough an d varada on th e l eft . He ri des on th e peacoc kveh ic l e an d may have on e i th er S i de of h im th e att endantsJaya an d Vi jaya (fig . or perhaps th e goddesses Val l i an dDevayana or Devasena,
“the army of gods. A fin e stonefigure (fig . 1 15) of Kumara on th e peacock veh i c l e , with a
s i ng l e face and four arms and at ten de d by the goddesses Va l l iand Devayana, comes from Samayapuram i n the Trich i nopo lyd i str i c t. A S ketch from Ch i dambaram (fig . 1 16) Shows S kandawith th ree v is i bl e faces, ten arms and th e peacock veh ic lefight i n g wi th g ian ts— ev i dent ly Taraka and h is ret i nue . Infour of h is r i ght hands he ho l ds the weapons, sword , axe, arrowand c lub wh i l e t he fi fth is i n t he posture of pul l i n g th e bows tr i ng (missi n g i n the i l lustrat ion ). The uppermo st of h is l eftarms shows th e o ismaya posture , and th e four oth ers ho l d th eShi e ld , bow ,
’
noose and bel l . Subrahm anya may also beS hown with on e face an d t en han ds an d r i d in g on th e peacockveh ic le .
The worsh i p of S kanda i n Ind ia h as been very anc i ent .D r. Bhandarkar i n h i s work Vaishnavism , Saivism ,
etc . , h asput forth l i t erary an d i nscript iona l ev i dence to prove thatS kanda was worsh ipped i n the t im e of Patan jali and i n th eearly c entur ies of th e Christ ian era. S t
‘
t draka , the autho r o ft he drama Mr ichchhakatika, i n troduc in g a th ief as one of th echaracters in h is drama, makes h im , befo re s tart in g on h is
profess ion , i nvoke th e b l ess i n gs o f S kanda. The art isans o fth e present day also reso rt to S kanda as o n e of th e ch iefdei t i es who pres i de over the i r craft . In the south the wo rsh ipof S kanda-Kumara under th e name Velayudha,
Muruga, etc . ,
is most popular . A ll c lasses are equal ly devo t ed to h im , th enon -Brahmans bein g part i cularly so . It may be noted that th eShr i nes sacred to S kanda are a lways s i tuat ed on h i l ls, as at
Ti ruttan i , Paln is, Ti rupparangunram , Kunnakudi or on theseashore as at Tiruch ch endfi r , etc . A n anc i ent Tami l poemcal l ed Tz
'
rumurugarruppaa'
ai probab ly wri tten i n th e earlye ighth century A .D . is devo te d exclus ive ly to descri b i ngthe shri n es o f Subrahm anya i n South ern In d ia. The god hasbeen i ncluded i n A ryan theogony from very early ages . L i k emost Saiva gods h e may be the outcom e of th e fus ion of
the anc i en t A ryan and D ravi dian cul ts and th is may
S IVA
F IG. I I 3 .—Skanda Tiruvottivfir.
SIVA 181
F IG . I I 5.
— Skandaand h is conso rts Samayapu ram .
SOUTH- INDIAN iMAG’
ES
1‘1G. 1 16 .
— Skanda fight ing wi th giants Chidambaram .
SIVA I 83
account for th e large number of devotees he c laims amongthe non -Brahman classes o f S outhern India. L i k e th e otherS a i va attendants descr i bed above , who partak e of the natureof S iva an d are m ade o f h is substance , S kanda is also one of
th e leaders of th e Saiv i te ho sts (ganas) . H e is a guard iandei ty an d is enshr i ned i n almost every S iva t em ple of importance i n Southern Ind ia. H e is par excellence th e god of youth ,o f energy an d vi ri l i ty .
SAKTI—GODDESSES
Germ s of th e en ergy- creed m ay i n deed b e traced even i n th eUpan ishads— the early sacred books of th e H i n dus —thoughits extreme deve lopment took p lace at a m uch lat er per iod .
If
Sak t is m ay be found dep i c ted i n temples i n any one of
th e th ree aspects , th e calm , th e t errib le or th e ug ly , as dis
t inguish ed b y th e part i cular pos i t ions i n wh i ch they are
p laced or th e c i rcum stances under wh ich they are worsh ipped .
When m ere ly represented as the con sorts o f th e gods they are
m i l d and p l eas i ng i n appearance an d have on ly two hands ,i n one o f which is held th e lotus bud . Mo re o ften , however ,th e goddesses have i n dependent ex ist ence. Th e major i ty o f
th ese latter are S a iv i te i n thei r nature , i.e. , wi ld , fearful anddestruct ive an d are often prop it iated on ly by b loody sacr ifi ces .
1 Befo re en ter i ng upon a descrip t ion of these numerousS a iv i te S akt i s, a wo rd may be sa i d o f each o f th e m i l der onesasso c iate d w i th Brahma, Vishnu and S iva. I t m ust be notedthat th e characterist i c feature i n th e worsh ip o f S akt is ,whether S ai vi te , Vaish n av ite or o th erwise, is th e assoc iat ionwith them o f myst i c charm s , or geometr i cal figures cal l edchakras , yantras or pilhas , wi th convent ional an d o ften myst i ci n cantat ions and so lemn cerem on ials w h ich make no appea lto the gent ler feel i ngs o f human nature .
III
S arasvat i o r Vagisvari , th e consort of Brahm a, m ay be SARAsVA nrepresented w ith two or more hands . In the former case She VAG’SVARL
ho l ds the book and th e ro sary , an d i n the latte r the noose an dth e hook i n add i t ion (fig . Vag isvari , who is referred to i nMayarabhanj a (Introduct ion , p . l xxv i ) as a goddess worshippedbo th by the Buddh i st and H i n du Tantr z
'
has, is descr ibed i nth e Panoharatragama as hav i ng three eyes and four handsho l d i ng i n these lat te r the staff , book , rosary and th e wat er-p ot ,wh ich as we have se en above , are th e sym bo ls of th e creatorBrahma. Two o th er a l l i e d fo rms of Vag isvari are Dhenu
Vag isvari and Saubhagya-Vag isvari , bo th of wh i ch are mi ldi n appearance and beaut i ful , but as S ak t is i n essence , th eydisp lay the S aivaite att ri butes of t hree ey es, th e j atamakuto
1 A recognized classificat ion o f the Sakt is under the heads Yega, Bhéga and
V ira has been al ready referred to (abo ve,p . 1 10, no te Th e first is defined to
be th e goddess wh o is i den ti cal w ith the pedesta l o f S i va ; the second is the god(less that stands to the left o f S i va or th e S iva -lingo as his consort and th e thi rdis th e independent goddess generally instal led i n th e th i rd o u ter prahara of S i vatem ples.
9 I n ce rtai n cases where she is represented with four hands, sh e ho l ds thev iua and th e water -po t .
186 SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGES
F I G. 1 17.— Sarasvat1 Bagal i .
SAKTi-GODDESSES 187
and the crescent . The former , wh o is logos (Sabda-Brahma)i n carnat e , is i dent i cal w ith the i l lus trat ion from Bagal i g ivenabove . S arasvati , wh en represente d as th e goddess Sarada(th e form i n wh i ch sh e is worsh ipped at S r i ngeri -matha,
i n Mysore) pres i d i ng ove r the S i xty - four sc i ences (chatushshashtz
’
leala) , has fi ve faces an d t en arm s. The worsh i p o f
S arasvati general ly held on th e n i n th day of th e Dasara isconducted by i nvo k in g h er presen ce i n a l i b rary of books an dofferi n g fru i ts, flowers. san da l and i n cense .
IV
The two consorts o f Vishnu are L akshm i (Weal th ) and LAKSHM I orPr i thv i (E arth ). The former is seate d or stand ing on a red i
m am"R ITHVI o r
lotus pedestal , has four hands , ho l ds two lotus flowers in MA HI .h er upper arms , the o th er two hands bei n g e i ther i n theboon - giv i ng and prot ect i n g postures or ho ld i ng a vessel andafru i t . S h e is sa i d to have sprung from the ocean at the t imeo f its bei n g churn ed for n ectar. Th e latte r, Pr i thvi ,1 has on lytwo hands of wh ich the ri gh t is ra ised i n the abhaya postureand t he left ho l ds th e fru i t o f th e pomegranate. Her l eftl eg is represe nted also as stepp i ng upon a p ot o f treasures .
When L akshm i accompan i es Vishnu Sh e has on ly two hands.
E i gh t form s of L akshm i , known as A sh ta-Mahalakshmi , arere cogni zed . O f th ese. Gaj a-L akshm i is the most popular. GAJAS h e is general ly found figure d on th e l i n tels of door- frames, 11 11115 11 111
has four arm s and i s seate d i n th e same posture as Vinayaka,
on a ful lLb lown lotus o f e i gh t petals. In her ri ght han d sh e
hol ds a lotus flower wi th a long st em wh ich reaches h ershoulder ri n g an d i n h er l eft a pot of n ectar. The two
o ther hands of th e goddess ho l d th e bilva- fru i t an d the
conch . Beh i nd her are represented two elephants pouri n gwate r from two pots h el d by the i r trun ks over th e h ead ofth e goddess. The Manasara descr i b es th e same goddess withtwo hands as Samanya-L akshmi and says that sh e i s figured SAmANYA .
on door-ways . In the S ilpasara th i s goddess is cal l ed th e twohanded Indra-L akshmi . A fin e represen tatio n of Samanya LAKSH M I .L akshmi comes from Mahabal i puram (fig . The centralfigure of th e group is seated on a pedestal of lotus flower,whose open petals are se en hang i ng down and decorat i ngwith the i r edges the rim of ano ther lotus pedestal at the
1rfl anasara desc ribing h er under th e name Mah l says, that she is figured
standing or seated to th e left o f Vishnu w ith a bl ue l o t us i n h er ri gh t hand , theleft hand han ging down or showing the oarada postu re.
9 Al ayz'
iraohanj a, I nt roduction , p . l x vi.
SAKT I-GODDE SSE S
base . Below th i s aga i n is a floral des i gn , also perhaps of’
lotuses , a bud i n the m i ddl e an d ful l b lown flowers on ei thers ide. The goddess h as two hands an d h o l ds i n each of th ema closed lo tus flower . Two femal e att en dants on th e imm ediat e r i g ht an d l e ft s i des are seen l i ft i n g up pots of waterwh ich are rece ive d b y two majest i c el ep hants i n the i r trunks(not ful ly represen ted) and poured over th e head o f th egoddess al ternat e ly . The secon d fem al e att endant to th eleft o f th e goddess carri es a lotus bud i n on e o f h er hands,and the correspon di ng one to th e ri ght , a cup - l i ke vessel ,wh ich i n all probab i l i ty is m ean t to ho l d th e sandal paste ,turm er i c powder or some to i let requisi te i nt en ded for th egoddess. The head dress of th e att endant wom en and th eS imp le ornaments wh i ch th ey wear are worth not i ng and
po i n t to th e mo dest taste of th e Pallava t imes . The S r i-sahtapra ises L akshm i as th e goddess of Prosperi ty standi ng on th elo tus flower , sl i ghtly ben t on account of th e we i ght of h erb reasts, havi n g h i gh h i ps , broad lotus-l i ke ey es and deepnavel p i t , dressed i n wh i te c loth and bath ed by heaven ly e lephants from go l den pots wh i ch are bedecked with a var i ety of
jewels , and ho l d i n g lotuses i n h er hands.
” Havel l cal ls th ep i cture from Mahabal i puram “L akshmi ari s i n g from th e sea
and descr i bes i t i n Chapter XXI o f h is [ deals of Indian A r t.A no th er o f th e e i gh t L akshm is, is Maha-L akshm i who h as Man /1 .
four h ands i n wh i ch Sh e ho l ds a vessel , th e c l ub Kaumadaki, LAKSHM1~th e sh i el d an d the be’l—frui t (sr iphala) . A spec ia l feature ofth is Maha-L akshm i is that she wears a lz
’
nga on h er head.
When stand ing or seated on a lo tus , with lo tus flowers i n h er vim .
two upper hands and th e varada an d abhaya postures i n th e LAKS 11M 1°lower , Lak shm i receives th e nam e Vi ra-L akshm i . In anotherrepresentat ion sh e ho l ds the noose, rosary ,
lot us an d th e hook .
Ko llapura-Mahalakshm i is s tated i n the S ilpasara to have S ix Kor rxpuxxarm s , i n t hree o f wh ich are h eld th e club , sh ie ld an d wine- cup .
MAHA'
A noth er cal l ed A sh tabhuja-V iralakshm i h as e i ght arms, in-
LAKSH ML
wh ich are seen th e noose , hook , rosary , th e boon - conferri nghand , th e han d of protect ion , th e c lub , lotus an d th e vessel .Th e Padma-Purana m en t ions e i ght S akt is (or E n erg i es) of Th e ei gh t
the p rot ect i ng god Vishnu. v i z . , S ri , Bh t‘
I , S arasvati , Pri t i , {1711
522516 5 01
K irt i , Sant i , Tush ti an d Pusht i . A S th e names c l early i n d icate , th ese goddesses of Wealth , E arth , L earn i n g , L ove ,Fame , Peace, P l easure an d S t rength are th e e i gh t channelsthrough wh i ch th e pro tect ive energ i es o f Vishnu are broughti nto play . A ll these goddesses have four hands , ho l d lo tusesi n th e two upp er ones and exh i b i t th e varada and abhaya
postures i n the two lower.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
V
Th e gen eral form of th e goddess Gauri , Parvat i or Uma,th e consort o f S iva, as g iven i n th e Kasyapa-Sz
'
lpa and
th e Manasara, is th at sh e h as two hands when accom
pany i ng th e god S iva and four when represented in dep endent ly . In the former case she is ful ly deco rate d , is stand i n gor seate d on a lo tus p edestal , ho l ds a blue l i ly i n th e r i gh thand , wh i l e her l e ft hangs down loose
“l i ke th e ta i l o f a
cow .
”Sh e wears a ban d on th e forehead cal l e d phalapatta,
h as one of h er legs S l i ght ly bent (kunchz'
ta) and th e oth e rplaced stra i ght (lambz
'
ta or svastz’
ha} on the pedestal ; Sh e standsto th e left o f t he im age of S i va or th e S iva-lingo and wearsth e head- dress karandamakuta, kir itamakuta or késabandha
(fig . In th e latter case also sh e is ful ly decorate d , h asa j atamakuta l i ke a male de i ty , an d presents with h er lowerhands th e varaa’a an d abhaya postures, wh i le i n th e upper twosh e ho l ds th e Bed and t he b lue lotuses. E arl i er authori t iesstat e that sh e may also exh i b i t In th ese hands th e l i ly and
th e rosary . The i l lust rat ion from Paramesvaraman galam
(fig . 120) shows i n the upper hands th e noose and th e hook ,
Gauri is usual ly represented wi th the ornam ents of an
unmarri ed g i rl somet imes do i n g p enanc e w ith th eob j ect of secur i ng S i va for her husband (fig . and i n th isform Sh e is worsh i pped by th e Mahesvaras.
The S aiv i te goddesses, wh o are e i the r the i n dependen tman ifestat ions o f Parvat i or th e dependent groups o f h erfo l lowing , are too many to ment ion .
l Most of the v i l lagegoddesses ment ioned i n Chapter VI , below , wi l l be counted bythe orthodox Brahmana among th ese c lasses.
We m ay beg i n th e descript ion o f th e Sa iv i te Sakt i de i t i eswith the group of goddesses known as S ap tamatrikas , 3 or th e
S even Moth ers. They are z— Brahm i , Mah esvari , Kaumari
Vaish nav i , Varah i , Mahendri an d Chamunda.
3 These wi thMaha-Lakshm i , descri b ed below , are som et imes coun ted as
“E i gh t Mo th ers . They have general ly two hands , are red i n
1 I IEmadri. fo r i nstance, has i nc l u ded names such as Vama, Jyesh tha, Ran dri,Kal i
,Kalavikarani, Balavikaran i, Balapramath an i, Sarvabh fi tadamani and Manon
mani wh ich are m erely differen t synonym s o f S iva, wi th th e fem inine term inat ionsadded on to them .
2 See Burgess’s E ln ra Cave Temples, Plate XXX I V .
11 Narasimh i w ith th e face o f the man - l ion god Narasimha is sometimes
m ent ioned in place o f Cham unda. I t is also somet imes stated that th e SevenMo thers are bu t d ifferen t fo rms of Chandi (i.e. Chamunda).
F IG. ”gm—Parvati Belumampatti.
SAKT I-GODDESSES
F IG .-Parvati i n penance Pattisvaram.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
co lour and hol d a skul l an d a lotus . Som e author i t i es l i ke th eS ilpasangraha state that as represent i ng th e act ive energy of
Brahma, Mahesvara, Kumara, Vi shnu , etc ., they have th e sam e
veh i c l es as th e i r lords an d ho l d th e same weapons. Brahmi(also cal l ed Brahman i ) consequent ly h as four faces , S ix arm s
1
an d th e swan veh i c l e , and Sh e is o f yel low hue . Mah esvari
(Bha i ravi ) r i d es on a bul l , h as five faces , th ree eyes an d ten
arms, and is decorate d w ith th e cresc ent . Kaumari h as s i xfaces and twelve arm s and rides o n a peacock . Vaish n av i
is of blue co lour and r i des on Garuda, h as“
six arms an d th e
garland of flowers cal l ed oanamala (pecul iar to Vi shnu).Varah i h as th e face of a sow? is black in co lour , h as a b i gprotrudi ng bel ly and r i des on a buffalo .
3 Mahen dri (In dran i )has a thousand ey es, l i ke her conso rt In dra , is o f p leas i n gappearance and of go l den hue , an d ri des on an e lephant . Sh e
h as apparently also six arms and d isplays the sym bo ls varada.
noose an d thunderbo l t i n h er r i gh t arm s and the abhaya,
vesse l an d lo tus i n h er l eft . Chamunda‘1’ i s b lack and fearfu lw i th protrudin g teeth. long tongue , erec t ha i r, emac iat ed body .
sunke n red ey es and a wi thered be l ly . It is stated that sh ecan change her appearance at wi ll . S he r i des on a corpse ,wears a garlan d of Skul ls an d has j ewels of serpents. In h erten arm s sh e ho l ds th e Sh iel d , noose , bow , staff and spear onth e l eft s i de, and th e pes tle, disc , fly-wh isk
,goad and sword
on th e righ t . Th e Mayamata adds that sh e wears a t i ger’ssk i n . h as red ha i r glowing l i ke fi re, an d the banner
'
o f a
k i te . Sh e m ay have four, e i gh t or t en han ds. A cco rd in g toth e same author i ty th ese S even Mo thers are to be flanked byV irabh adra an d V inayaka on e i ther S i de (fi g . In fronto f th e S ap tamatrikas th e god S i va m ay be seated on a lotusflower un der th e banyan tree . Some o f these goddesses are
1 Th e i l l ust rat ion in the E lura Car/e Temples shows o n ly four hands .
2 I n th e panel o f Saptamatrikas (are. Plate XXX IV , N o . 1 ) Varah i is represented w i th a fine human face and th e u sual o rnaments bu t has the sow-vehi c le.
In N o . 3 on th e same plate, however , the goddess has th e face o f a sow.
3 Th e S z'
lpasangraha says that varah i was bo rn of Yama, the God o f Death .
Acco rding to H émadri the go ddess Vamya, evi dent ly i dent ical w i th Varahi , rideson the bu ffalo ,
ho l ds a staff and d rinks blood from a sku l l . Three o ther god desseswi th sow- face are m ent ioned in th e L alitfipahhyan a and the Varah ihalpa .
Dandanatha-Varahi is on e, seated on the go l den lo tus. . She has ei gh t arms anda staff by h er si de. Svapna-Varahi has th e gleam ing tusks of a sow and fou r arms.
Sh e rides on a ho rse. Suddha-Varahi has also t usks and fou r arms . I t may be
no ted that BartaII (Battal i) is a Buddhist goddess o f sim i lar descri pt ion , some
t imes also referred to i n th eH indu Tan tras (j kl ayarabharq'
a , I nt roduct ion , p. xcv) .4 This image has perhaps to be d ist ingu ished from Mah ishasuramardini
Chamundadescribed below .
SAKT I-GODDE SSES
SAKT I-Goop ESSE S
th e weapon ca l l e d sakti. A ccord in g to th e MarkandeyaParana th e goddess that k i l l ed th e buffa lo- dem on (Mah ishasuramardin i ) was m ade up of th e fierce radiance of S iva ,
Vi shnu and Brahm a wh i l e al l th e other gods contri buted th epowers pecul iarly charact er ist i c o f them for th e form at ion o fh er l im bs and ornam ents.
Chamun dal m ay b e represented w i th e i ght , ten (fig . CHAM U N DA.
twe lve or,s i xteen arm s and m ade e i ther of wood or o f mortar .
When i n th e danc i ng posture sh e must have e ight, S ix or four
han ds. Chamunda is known by th e nam e Karal i or Bhadrakal i when sh e h as e i gh t arms , Kalabh adra wh en sh e h as six
arm s , and Kal i , when sh e h as four. Bh adrakali h as a terr i B H ADR AKAL I.ble face , fat breasts, protrudi ng teeth an d a long tongue and
wears a garlan d o f Skul ls . S h e r i des on a l ion an d stam psunder h er foot the h ead of the buffa lo- dem on . H emadri
quot i n g th e Vishnudharmo‘
ttara says that Bhadrakali hase i g hteen arms an d i s seat ed i n the alidha posture i n a car
drawn by four l ions . When worsh ipped by Brahmanas sh e
h as ten arm s,the j atamakuta an d all ornam ents. The second ,
Kalabh adra,h as a beaut i fu l wh i te fo rm but is fierce , bei n g KALA .
worsh ipped i n burial - grounds under the name of Karalabhadra, seate d i n t he virasana posture with th e foo t p laced overth e h ead o f th e buffa lo- demon . The sam e goddess , when worsh ipped by th e Kshatriyas , is cal led Kal i or Mahakal i? In KAL I o rth is form S h e ord inari ly ho l ds a tri dent or sword i n on e hand ”11111 1114 111 1
an d a Skul l or a cup of win e (fire i n the o ther , ri des on
a corpse an d h as a l ean stom ach . Th e ow l is her veh i c l e .S h e wears th e t i ger’s sk i n , a scarf of e lephant ’s h i de an d a
garland of heads ; h as three eyes an d ear-ornam ents Shapedl i ke conches ; an d is fond of fl esh , blood an d l i fe. Sh e is
fo l lowed by evi l sp i ri ts who fi l l th e four quart ers wi th th e i r roaran d sh e roam s about th e earth r i di ng on the i r shou lders.
Hemad ri, ca l l i n g h er also by th e nam e S ivaratri , descri besh er as havi ng four han ds, bei n g black l i ke co l lyr ium , terr i b l ew i th pro trudin g teeth and tongue (but at the same t im ebeaut i ful w i th broad eyes an d slen der wa i st), wear i ng a
garland of t runks (of hum an bod i es) an d a wreath of serpents .
1 Chamunda is su pposed to be th e fo rm o f Parvat i when she k i l led th e giantca l led Chan da-M unda .
‘1 Mahakal i is described in the Chan d ikalpa as having ten faces , ten legs andten arms i n which are hel d all weapons o f war . I n th is fo rm sh e is stated to havebeen invoked/ by B rahma to ki l l th e demons Madhu and Kaitabha wh o wereat tempt in g to smash V ishnu i n h is sleep (see above , p . Th e Karanagama
m entions an eigh t . arm ed Kal i or Mahakalt among th e Du rgas. Kal ika is a goddesssu pposed to be the w i fe of Nairrita (below, p .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
F IG . 123 .—Chamunda(Mahakal i ) Tiruchchengédu .
SAKTI-CODDESSE S
Kal i represented somet imes al so with twe lve or s i xteen armsis worsh ippe d by th e Va i syas and Sudras under th e namesCharchara an d Bha i ravi respect ive ly .
Durga is a very popular de i ty . The nam e is i n d ifferent ly Dunca.
appl i ed to all goddesses wi th a t err ib l e appearance and i n afightin g att i tude. The general descr ip t ion o f Durga g iven i nth e Kc
‘
isyapa-S ilpa represen ts her as hav ing four arms, twoeye s , h i gh h ip s , h i gh breasts, and all o rnaments . Sh e ho l dsth e conch and th e d iscus i n h er upper han ds,
l whi l e her ri ghtlower hand presents the abhaya posture and th e l eft lowerrest s on th e wa ist . S h e stands on a lotus-pedestal and h as a
breast-band of serpents and a red pett i coat . A ccord i ng to
th e S z'
lparatna, Mala-Durga ho l ds i n h er lower hands the bow MGLA .
and the arrow . From Mahabal i puram comes the figure of a DU RGA.
Durga (fig . 124) wh o stands on the buffalo ’s head. S h e h as
e igh t arms, i n the uppermost of whi ch are found th e d iscusand the conch . The o ther weapons he ld are the sword andth e be l l on th e r i ght s i de and the bow and sh i e l d on th el eft . Th e lowest o f the ri gh t hands ho l ds evi dently a sr iphala
or the bél- fr ui t and th e correspond i ng left has a parrotperch i ng on i t an d rest s free ly on the wa ist of th e goddess.
The neck lace, breas t -band and th e garment hanging i nfo l ds down to her feet deserve to be no t i ced . The absence.
o f finger ri ngs on th e e i ght hands of the goddess is p ecul iar. The i l lustrat ion shows also o ther figures surroundi ngthe goddess , v i z. , two mal e devotees with pecul iar h eaddress kneel i n g at her fee t, two fema le attendan ts on e i th ers i de ho l d i ng th e swo rd and th e how , two demi -gods on e
of whom is carry i n g a chaur i, and a l ion and a deer. I nanother mandapa at Mahabal i puram is a sculpture ev i dent ly of
the same goddess wi th the l ion and th e deer, pai rs of demigods on th e s i des and devotee s at th e fe et , one of whomis i n the act of e i the r cutt i n g off h is hai r or h is n eck . Thegoddess h as on ly four arms and s tands on an o rd i narypedestal but not on t he buffalo’
s head (fig . A t S rie
mush nam i n th e South A rco t d istr i c t is an image of Durgawith ei ght arms showing a lmost the same symbo l s as thoseo f the figure at Mahabal ipuram descri bed above , th e on lyexcept ion be i n g that i nst ead of th e b el l i n on e of th e ri ght
l Rai Bahadu r \enkayya. says in S outh /71d . 175557 52 , Vol . I I . I nt rod . , p .4 1 , no te I Durga is represented w i th a sheep’s head standing on th e gian tS imhamnkhasura whom she ki l led . H er head is fiery and ado rned w ith di fferentj ewe ls. On h er fo rehead sh e wears a crescent m ade wi th sacred ashes o f bu rntcow-dung . I n five o f her six hands sh e ho l ds, respectively, a rin g, a swo rd , at r ident , a goad , and a sku l l .”
SAKT I-GODDE SSES
Ka'
rYAvA N t.
SA I LAPUTR I.
SOUTH- I NDIAN IMAGE S
hands she is ho l d ing , perhaps more correct ly , the arrow. Thefigure stands on th e head of a buffalo without any o theraccom pany i n g attendants an d h as an umbrel la overhead (fig .
Images of Durga with four or more arms stand ing on
the head o f a buffalo are general ly foun d p laced i n a n i cheon th e north wal l of the central shri n e of S iva temples i nS outhern India (fig . O ccas ionally , however , they m ay
stand on ord i nary pedestals w i thout th e buflalo’
s head , as at
Tiruvott iyur near Madras . In the Vi shnu temple at Ti rum alisai, Ch i ng leput distri ct , is a s im i lar image (fig . 128) p lacedi n a n i che on th e no rth wal l o f th e centra l shri n e . It is sa i dto be L akshmi but perhaps represents Durga without th ebufl
'
alo’s head . The Mayamata , describ i ng th e figure of
Katyayan i wi th four arms, says that sh e ho l ds th e conch and
th e d iscus i n th e upper hands and exhib i ts th e abhaya and the
varada postures with th e lower . With e i gh t arm s and a parro t ,th i s sam e figure is stated to rece ive th e name o f Durga. Th e
descrip t ion o f th e sculptures from Mahabal i puram and S ri
mushn am agrees with what h as been sai d of Katyayan i i nthe Mayamata .
The Saivdgama spec ifical ly descri b es n i ne var i et ies o f
Durga, all of wh i ch have two arms but d i fferen t weaponsand veh i cl es. The first , known as Sailaputri , r i des on a bul l
,
wears th e crescen t on her head and ho l ds a t r i den t i n herhand ; th e second Brahm acharin i ho l ds th e rosary and th e
water-pot ; the th i rd Ch andakh anda r i des on th e k i te and
h as an angry look th e fourth S kandamata r i des on a l ion andho l ds lotus buds i n h er hands ; the fifth Kashmanda-Durga isd i st i nguished by a p ot ful l o f wine (or blood) wh ich sh e ho l dsi n both of h er hands ; the s i xth Katyayan i r i d i ng on a t i ger
,
ho l ds a drawn sword i n her hands and i s k i l l i n g a g iant ; th eseven th Kalaratri is of fearful appearan ce an d h as a grimsm i l e on her face ; the e ighth Maha-Gauri r i des on a wh iteelephant ; an d the n i nth S iddh idayin i i s att ended by demigods. The Kd rana‘gama quot i n g the Skanda Ya
‘
mala descr i besthese n in e Durgas under d ifferen t names an d say s that on e ofthem has e i ghte en arms wh i le th e rest have s i xteen each .
They are general ly shown s tanding naked wi th one l egp laced on th e head of th e buffalo- demon an d ho l d i n the i r fi sta tuft of th e g iant ’s hai r . O ne of th e D urgas with s i xteenarms cal l e d S h odasabhuja-Durga h as three eyes and serpentj ewel l ery and ho l ds tr i dents i n all h er s i xte en arms .Mah ishasuramardin i (also cal l e d Cham unda, Ch an d1) is
represented i n th e e'
sz'
mhaprdsdda as the youth ful but angryform of Parvati with three broad eyes , a s l ender wai st ,heav ing breasts , on e face an d twenty hands. Below her is th e
SAKT I-GODDE SSES
F IG . 126 .—Durga; S rimushnam .
203
SAKT I-GODDE SSE S 205
F IG . I z8.— Durga-Lakshm i ; Tirumalisaif
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGE S
buffalo-demon with h is head cut off an d rol l i n g on the ground .
A man emerg i ng from the buffalo ’s n eck is seen ho l d i ng a
weapon i n h is han d , ab ject w ith fear. P i erced by th e tri dento f th e goddess, he is vomit i n g b lood. Th e l ion too on whi chChan di ka is r i d i ng attacks the g ian t w i th its mouth w h i l e thenoose he l d by th e goddess is t i ght ly fastened round h is neck .
Th e goddess’s r i ght leg is p laced on th e l ion wh i le th e o thersteps on the body -of th e demon .
1 Th is form of Chandi I S
prop i t iated by those wh o W ish to destroy the i r enemies. Th e
rul in g fami ly of Mysore has Chamunda-Chan di for its tutelaryde i ty .
A goddess with s i xte en arm s k i l l in g the buffalo- demonand as such to be c lassed am ong th e S aiv i t e Sakt is, is a lsocal l e d Maha-L akshmi . The Maha-L akshmi , desc ribed i n theClzandikalpa, h as twenty arm s, ho l ds all th e dest ruct iveweapons and is se en i n the act
.
o f k i l l i ng the buffalo- demon .
2
It wi l l b e observed that th is Maha- Lakshmi is on ly ano therform of D urga.
Var ious postures o f Mah ishasuramardin ii
i n th e . act o f
k i l l i n g the buffalo- demon are dep i cted i n South- Ind ian Sa i vatempl es, some o f them be i ng of exce l l en t workmansh ip . It is
n ot always easy to d ist i ngu ish the images whi ch are thusengaged i n the act of k i l l i ng the buffalo- demon , an d to
say whether th ey be representat ion s of Chamunda, Durga.Mah ishasuram ardin i
‘
or Maha-L akshm i . It m ay , however , besuggeste d that figures with a breast- band stan di n g upri ghton t he severed h ead o f the buffalo are . general ly those o f
D urga-L akshmi , wh i l e those i n th e actual figh t i n g att i tudeare e i ther Chamunda, Mah ishasuramardin i or Maha-L akshmi .
They general ly have e ight arms and ho l d weapons, th econch , d iscus , bow , sh i el d , sword , bel l , noose and t rid ent .The dem on may be shown with a human body , or a humanbody wi th a buffalo’
s h ead , 3 or a buffalo from whose severedt run k procee ds a human figure . Th e i l lust rat ions g ivenshow some of the fight i ng postures of Mah ishasuram ardin i
(fi gs. 129, 130, In th e Mah ishasura-mandapa at Mahabal ipuram is seen a re l i ef on th e proper l eft wal l , wh ich rep re
sents th e fight b etwe en Durga-Mah ishasuram ard in i an d th e
1 Hémadri speakin g o f Katyayan i w ith ten arms, gives a lmost the sam e
descri pt ion .2 Mabel -Sarasvati ment ioned i n th e same w o rk , is said to be an emanat ion o f
Ga u ri . Sh e has ei gh t arms and is engaged in dest royin g the dem on Sumbhaand h is ret i n u e.
B urgess’s E lum Cave Temp les, Plate IV, fig. 7, shows the giant as a, manwi th bu ffalo’
s horns.
SAKTI-GODDESSES 207
F IG . 129.— Mah ishasuramardin i Gangaikondasolapuram .
SAKT I -GODDE SSES
F IG . I3 I . —Mah isbasuramardin i ; Durgi .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
SAKT I-GODDE SSE S
buff alo-demon (fig . 132) D r. Vogel g ives the fo l lowing descri pt ion o f th e re l ief Th e goddess astr i de on her veh i c le ,
th e l ion , is ei ght-arm ed . With two hands sh e sh oots arrowsat the demon k i ng . The em bl em s hel d i n h er rem a i n i n g six
arms are a d isc a bel l (ghan td) an d a swo rd (khadga)to th e r i ght an d a conch a noose (pdsa) and an
i n d ist i n ct ob j ec t, to th e l eft . A quiver is v is i b l e over h erl eft shou l der.
Sh e is surrounded by a host of dwarfs , evi dently the
ganas o f S i va. h er spouse. O ne , beh i nd her , ho l ds a parasolover her h ead , ano th er at h er s i de waves a fi y -wh i sk (clzdmara) .Th e rem a i n der carry weapons , usual ly a round buck l er and a
curved sword , i n sh ape l i ke the kukr i of th e Gurkhas . One i nthe foreground is i n the act of shoot i ng an arrow from a bow .
D ist i n ct from these ganas is a femal e figure fal l e n on herknees i n fron t o f the l ion and ra is i n g a sword w ith her ri ghthand . Possi b ly th i s figure represents Kal i , an emanat ion of
Durga,th ough sh e does not prese nt th e terr ific appearance
pecul iar to th e black goddess .
R i gh t oppos i t e Durga stands the co lossa l figure of th e
buffa lo-h eaded demon - k i ng . H is royal rank also i s i n d i catedby a paraso l h el d over h is h ead He carr i es a h eavy mace i nh is two hands an d h as, moreover , a swo rd fastened to h i s l efth i p . H is att i tude is that of y i e l d i ng to th e on slaught o f th ewarl i k e goddess .
H is army is represented by seven dem ons . Two o f t h eseare prost rated i n the fo reg round— on e s lai n and anoth erwoun ded . Th e latter rai ses , h is ri gh t han d with two fin gersra i s ed . What is th e mean i n g of th is gesture ? Is i t that of a
vanqu ish ed warrio r im p lor i n g h is v i cto r ious en emy to spareh is l i fe ? O f th e rema i n i ng asuras one is ret reat i n g, whereasth e others seem to off er a feeble res istan ce . It is worthy o f
not i c e that wit h th e except ion o f Mah ishasura h imse l f, th edemon s are shown in a purely h um an shape
VIII
Many other Sa iv i te goddesses o f fearful appearance ,worsh ipped by people wh o wish to destroy th ei r enemie s o r torece ive some des i red ob ject o f l i fe , are describ ed i n th e Ta
‘
ntr z'
k
works. S ome o f these wh i ch are ment ioned below may p os
sibly be , as som e suggest , th e A ryan i zed forms of abori g i nalde i t ies st i l l worsh ipped i n th e Pidari temples of th e South .
Kalaratri al ready referred to as on e o f th e n i n e Durgas, KM ARATRY
h as a s i n gle bra i d o f hai r an d j apa-fiowers for her ear
ornaments ; she is naked , ri des on an ass, h as hang ing l ip’s
I 4 'A
SAKr‘
I-GODDESSES
Th is is, as i t shoul d be , i n the case of a goddess who pres i desover th e centres of phys i cal l i fe (prd na) .1
Svasthavesin i i s of scarlet co lour , i nsp i res dread i n those SVA STHAwho see her, dwel l s amidst co rpses, h as three faces and two ”551“arms hol d i ng the kett l e—drum an d th e tri dent
,dark ey es,
l ean body an d three bra i ds of th i c k b lac k ha i r. Sh e is o f thenature o f forest fire .
Satruvidhvamsin i , the destroy er of en emies, h as l i k e SATRUVI DH
wi se thre e faces, i s as crue l as th e flam es o f fire , h as red ey es,” MS!“
fearfu l fangs, re d ha i r , and a capac ious b el ly . S h e is naked .
Ugra-Tara, the goddess presi d i ng over various d iseases, UGRA .TARA
stands i n th e d lidha posture , carr i es a corpse over h erhead and roars t err i b ly . S ho rt of stature , sh e has bra i ds ofb lack co lour mixe d wi th y el low an d is surrounded by dreadfulserpents . In a skull
'
sh e ho l ds th e d iseases o f th e th ree worl dstogether, with the ob ject of k i l l i ng them .
Dh t‘
im ravati or Dh t’
im ra-Kali h as a red body and wears a red DHGMRAc loth . H er ear- ri ngs are l i ke th e t run ks of an e lephant and VA“her fangs , te rrib le. S h e wears a n eck lace of skul ls, issurrounded by dev i ls , and ho l ds i n her hands a drawn swo rdand a skul l .Sal i n i with h er e i gh t arm s, is l i k ew i se a goddess who
i n sp i res fear. S he ho l ds a tr i dent , r i des on a l ion and is
accompan i e d by four unmarri ed g i rls with swords and sh ie ldsi n thei r hands.
Pratyangira has four arm s and a face as terr ib le as that of PRATYAN .
a l ion . H er ha i r stands erect on her head . In her hands sh e GIRA°
ho l ds a skul l , t r i den t , kett l e-drum and the noose (ndgapdsa) .S h e is seated on a l ion an d by her power dest roys all enem i es(figs. 133 an d 13,4).
fl
S italadev i (or Mariyamma), the goddess of smal l-pox ,is Si'r‘ALADEvi .
represented as r i d in g naked on an ass with a win now on h erh ead and a broom and water- pot i n h er hands}Trikantak idev i h as a body wh ich is b lack below the navel , TR IKANTAKI
red between the navel and th e n eck an d wh i te above i t . D E“Th e terri b le fangs pro trudi ng from her four fac es are so longan d crooked that t hey p i erce out th rough h er bel ly . In h erfour hands sh e hol ds two lamps , a conch and a d iscus.
1 Th e go ddess Pranasakti is i nvoked by B rahmanas, i n ceremonies where thei nfusi ng (an image ) w i th l i fe, has to be observed .
2 Th e l ion vehicle is m issi ng in th e Tiruppalatturai bronze . Th e Tiruch ch en
godu figure has the swo rd and shie l d i n place o f skull an d noose and a breast -bandl ike Durga. B o th are cal led Bhadrakali by the people .
3 The i l l ust rat ion o f this image given byNagendra NathaVasu/Pl ay tim bhanj a,Plate, fac ing p . xcvi , fig . 5x) and c lassed by h im as one of th e B uddhist andTan tn
'
k go ddesses, is not naked . Nei ther does sh e carry a winnow on her head .
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES
F IG. t33 .-Pratyangira; Tiruchchengadu
SAKTI-GODDE SSE S
F IG. I 34 .—Pratyangira(7) (metal ) ; Tiruppalatturai.
SAKTI-GODDE SSE S
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
for th e goddess Durga and one for Jy é sh tha were caused tobe made i n that temple.
1 A t Kukkanur i n the N i zam’s
Domin ions, th ere is a c el ebrated Brahm an i ca l temple ded icated to Jy é sh tha. I n S outhern In dia her worsh ip nowadaysis much n eg lecte d , i f not
'
altogeth er avo i ded , sh e be i ngsupposed to be th e goddess of m isfor tune and poverty .
X
In contrast to th e ug ly an d fearsome goddesses ment ionedabove, th ere ex ist i n the H i n du Pan theon o ther S ai v i tegoddesses who are descr ib ed as m i l d an d extrem e ly beaut i ful .Among these m ay be ment ioned Bala-Tripurasundari o f
dazzl i n g bri l l iance , l i k e a thousand suns burst i ng forth at
th e same t ime ” ; S aubhagyabhuvanesvari , of red hue , a
j ewel led crown , a smi l i ng face an d heavi ng breasts, who
ho l ds a p ot of gems i n one hand and a red lotus i n th e o ther(fig . 136) and who p laces h er r i ght foot on a treasure o f gems ;
A NNAPG-RNA. A nnapurna 2o f two or four arms who , i n the form er case ,
ho l ds graceful ly i n one han d a jewel l ed vessel conta i n i ngfood and i n th e o ther a spoon to
_
distr i bute th e sam e (amongher devotees), or i n th e latte r, ho l ds the noose and the hooki n two han ds an d sh ows the pro tect i ng and th e boon - g iv i n gpostures i n the others ; th e goddesses Gayatri ,3 Sav i tri and
1 I n d . A im, Vo l. XX I I , p . 68 . l t may be no ted that M r . T. A . Gopinatha
Rao i n h is E lemen ts of [ l imi ts [ canogm p/zy (p . 391 f) considers the fi gu res o f
S ub rahmanya and h is conso rts w o rsh i pped in on e o f th e chief rock . cu t ~ sh rines o f
the tem pl e to be Jyésh tha w i th h er bul l- faced son on one si de and h er fai rdaughter on th e o ther . Th e figu res are, indeed , m u ch wo rn out and th ei rfeatu res are i ndist i nc t ; nor are the crow- banners character ist i c o f Iyéshtha,
‘
c learly visib le. Two cocks, however , th e banner o f Subrahmanya , engraved on
th e rocky side wal ls o f the sam e shrine and contem po raneous with th e'
images,prove beyond do ub t that the grou p is one o f S ubrahman ya and h is two conso rts andnot o f Jyésh tha. The sh rine o f the lat ter goddess, referred to i n th e i nsc ription ,is i n a di fferent com partment , i n th e lower sto rey o f th e same ro ck-cu t tem ple. A t
Anamalai , not far from Madu ra, is a sim i lar rock -cu t sh rine o f S ubrahmanya bu tw ith only on e go ddess. Th e co ck-banner o f th e god is, agai n , very clearly shownon th e si de wal ls, as i n the Ti ru pparangunram shri ne. People cal l i t S ramanankoyil
“th e tem ple o f S ramana a B uddh ist or a Jai na) thou gh the actualname m ust have been Saravanan -koyil,
“the tem ple o f Saravanan ” which lat ter
name is connected w i th Saravanédbhava, a synonym o f Skanda-S ubrahmanya.
2 L i tera l ly, one wh o is fu l l of food (to give to h er devo tees) . This is th e nam e
o f th e famous goddess i n Benares, wh o is also somet imes cal led Visalaksh i. “the
broad -eyed .”3 Gayat ri is o f the natu re o f fire (or B rahma), has fou r or ten arms and four
faces and ri des on a swan ; Savitrt is o f th e substance o f Rudra, has fo u r arms,
fou r faces, twel ve eyes and the bu l l vehi cle Sarasvati partakes o f the nat u re of
Vishnu, ri des on Garuda , has four arms and one face and holds in her hands theVaishnavite symbo ls, th e d iscus, conch and the c lub as also the palm o f pro tection .
SAKTI-GODDESSES
F IG . 136 .—Saubhagyabh uvanésvari Dharasuram .
219
SAKTf-GODDE SSES
F IG . I 37.—Rajarajésvari ; Ramésvaram .
SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
are always presumed to be stand in g on a c/zakra imbedded int h e earth an d hence th e worsh ip is offefed at th e feet of th ego ddesses . In except ional cases , however, as in - the Kamaksh i-amman t em ple at Con j eeveram , th e c/zakra is p laced i nf ront o f th e goddess . Bala-Sakt i , h o l d i ng a boo k , rosary ,
goad and noose, is th e pres i d i ng goddess of th e s ix chakras
as stated i n th e S z'
lpaseira. Th e parti cular yan tra sacredto h er is known as B d ld -
yan tra wh i ch is described as a geo
metri cal draw i n g h av in g in its centre a dot (bz'
ndu) c losed i nb y a triangl e , a hexagon , a c i rc l e , a lo tus of e i ght petals ,a square an d another square w i th open in gs at th e card inalpo i n ts , consecut ively . The Sr i -chakra cons ist i ng o f a larg ernumber of i ntersect i ng triangles surrounded by circles
'
an d
squares is another such m yst i c figure cons i dere d to be h i gh lysacred to th e goddess L al i ta. The lat ter is stated to haveunder her contro l i n numerabl e fa i ry goddesses, som e of whomare so del i cate th at th ey can enter, by th e o rder of the i rm istress , i nto every atom of creat ion . S ome wi th bra i dedha i r an d beauti fu l tila/eas of kzmkumam on th ei r foreheadsare as sharp as fi re an d ho l d bows , arrows , swords an d
sh iel ds of flam es . They are the p erson ifi cation s of almostevery b en efi cen t ac ti v i ty i n th e un iverse an d are engaged i nputt i n g down th e E v i l Pr i n c ip le. L al i ta is sa i d to havefought an d k i l l ed , with th e aid o f these de i t i es
, severa ldem ons nam ed Bh an dasura, Sumbh a , N isumbh a,
ChandaMunda an d Mah ish asura. A ll these , apparent ly ,
representth e powerful ly p ers istent evi l des i res of m en .
CHAPTE R V I .
V I LLAGE D E IT I E S .
IMost of the Sa i v i t e goddesses descri bed above have been Vil lage
found to be of fearsome appearanc e , fon d of flesh , blood an d dei t iesand thei r
wine ]and i nt imate ly connecte d wi th gobl i ns, sp ir i t s, demons relat ion to
an d d iseases . On e of them Tvarita, i t was seen, was th e Tén tf ik
goddess of th e Kiratas, an d V indhyavasin i was ev i den t lygo
another l iv i n g on the Vi n dhya Mounta i n . A pya (Durga) isdescr ib ed i n the Har ivamsa as th e goddess o f the S abaras,Pulin das, Barbaras and o ther wi l d tr i bes and as fond of winean d flesh . It w i l l not now be d i fficult to trace a connex ionbetween th ese and th e v i l lage goddesses who se shr i nes aregeneral ly th e haun ts of mal evo l ent demons and who are oftenappeased only by th e s laughter of fowls, sheep , goats an d
buffaloes. A lmost every v i l lage i n South Ind ia, h oweveri n s i gn ifican t i t may be , h as a shri ne for one or more goddessesof th i s nature . General ly t hey are s i tuated outs i de th e v i l lagei n groves of trees muc‘h dreaded by the p eop le and are con si
dere d to be th e gn‘
z'
ma-de'
f
uatds, th e guard ian dei t i es of thev i l lage . O ften there are no tem p les properly so ca l l e d , an d
where there are structure s , they are crude an d s im p l eenshri n i ng wi th i n th em rough unhewn stones represent ing th eamma or mothe r sacred to that v i l lage . Somet imes thereis on ly a spear or a tr i dent fixed up strai ght i n the ground i np lace
[
o f th e goddess- stones . The goddesses bear d ifferentnames . Some are cal l e d afte r th e v i l lages where the i r primaryshr ines ex ist , such as Kollapuri-amma, Huskur-amma,
PungPunganur- )amma, Hosur-amm a, Uch ch ang i-amma ,
etc .
O th er popular names among v i l lage de i t i es are th e“S even
Kann iyamar ,”Bh adrakali , Kaliyamma, Mariyamm a
,Mutyal
amma, Pon namma,E llamm a
,
2 A nkalamm a, Kolumamm a,
I n the S ilpasc’zf a ,where the Chaushash ti-n in is are described , some are
stated to feed on dead bo dies, some to wander at ni ghts l ike devi ls and some to
be quarrelsome demons wi th ug ly eyes and erec t hai r on head . E ighteen wel lknown shrines o f th ese goddesses i n I ndia and Ceylon (Lanka) are enumerated .
2 Nagendra Natha Vasu i n h is M ayzim b/mnj a speaks o f a Greek goddess cal ledE l la and connects her w ith A jaikapad ,
one o f th e fo rms o f Rudra ,al ready
mentioned .
ddesses .
VILLAGE DE I T IE S
F I G . I 3S.-Mutyalamma ; Avani .
225
Wo rship o ft hese dei t ies.
SOUTH -INDIA N IMAGE S
patron i zed l i ke th e o th er o rthodox H i n du temp les , they are
cal led sr z‘
ko’
yil. Four var iet ies of th e goddess Pidari are
known from th e records o f Rajaraja I of th e first quarter o fth e el eventh c entury A .D . , v iz . , Punn aitturain angai,
“th e
goddess (l iv i ng on a r iver bank), i n a grove of pannai trees ,”
Poduvagai-ur- udaiyal,“t h e , v i llage de i ty comm on to all
Kuduraivattam—udaiyal th e de i ty surrounded by(c lay) horses ,
”an d Tiruval-udaiyal ,
“th e de i ty o f th e sacred
banyan tree .”
H
The worsh ip i n the shr i n es of vi l lage goddesses is genera l lyperformed by non -Brahman s . In th e Ch i ng l eput an d No rthA rco t d istr i cts are a c lass of pri ests known as Och ch an sl wh oare exc lus ive ly devote d to serv i ce i n Pidari t emp l es. Theysay that they are Brahmanas o f th e Sakta creed and performthe worsh i p accord in g to th e Ta‘ntrz
'
k r i tual . Somet imes, butvery rare ly , Brahmanas al so worsh ip these fearful goddessesi nstal l ed even w ith i n th e sa 'cred prec i ncts of orthodox temples .
2
F or exampl e , Vattap irai-amm an ,“th e mo therwh o wears th e
c i rcu lar -crescent (on h er head ) at Ti ruvott iyur n ear Madras,is a goddess of th is kind to whom an im al sacrifices are offeredon fixed days i n th e year . O n such o ccasions i t is stat ed thatthe Sudra pri est takes th e p lace of th e usual
'
Brahm ana and
an entrance Open i ng d i rectly i n to th e outer courtyard o f th e
t em p l e— kept c losed on o ther days o f th e y ear— is now thrownopen for th e goddess to rece ive an im al sacrifices an d worsh ipfrom her Sudra or oth er devo t ees. A fter th e annua l fest iva lis over, th e goddess is purified . The buffa lo sacr ifices, wh ichthese v i l lag e dei t i es are genera l ly fond o f , i n d i cat e th e i rconnex ion w ith Mah ishasuram ardin i , the s lay er of th e
buffalo -demon and w ith oth er s im i lar Td ntr z’
k goddessesmen tioned above.
Some of th e ceremon ies pecul iar to the t emples of t hev i l lage goddesses , b es i des an imal sacrifices
,are (1 ) fi re
wal k i ng , (2) swing in g on th e sz'
dz'
with a hook passed throughthe sk i n duri ng what is o th erwise known as th e clzakra-paja,
(3) lash i ng onesel f w i th a wh ip, (4 ). pi erc i ng a metal l i c w i re
r i ght through th e tongue o r th rough th e s i des o f th e mouth , (5)s lash i ng at th e breast and forehead with swords unt i l th e blood
1 Thu rston’s Castes and Tribes,
” Vol . V , p . 4 19f.
9‘I n many im po rtant S iva temples of th e So uth , I have observed processiona limages o f vi l lage go ddesses kept in a separate room and wo rshipped . I t isgathered from th e priests of the tem ples that ‘befo re commencing any im portantfestivals in th e S iva tem ple, these images are carried in procession and the vi l lagedei t ies are fi rst appeased , the expense being m et from the S iva temple.
VILLAGE DE IT IE S
spurts out , (6) t hrust i ng a spear through th e abdomen 1 an d
(7) carry i ng on head the karagam , lam ps o f ghee, or earthenpots with b lazi ng fi re i n them . A nnual fest ivals called j d trasare general ly h el d i n honour o f th e vi l lage deit ies . But wh eni nfect ious d iseases am ong m en an d cattle preva i l , spec ialworship is arranged for, to appease the de i t i es by sacr ific i ngan im a ls, offeri ng heaps of
’
cooked r i ce mixed wi th b lood , or
by carry i n g the karagam'
. Th is last is celebrat ed by dress i n gthe selected person wh o has taken a vow to perform th e
ceremony , i n th e y el low clo ths of a woman , putt in g on h imthe ornam ents o f women an d mak i ng h im carry on h is heada pot or pots profusely decorat ed w i th flowers an d margosa
l eaves and supposed to con ta i n i n them the sp i ri t o f th e
part i cu lar goddess for whose prop it iat ion th e ceremony is
gon e through . A class o f Tam i l -speak i n g garden ers , ca l l edTigalas i n Mysore and a l l i e d to th e Pal l is or Vann iyan s of
o ther d istr i c ts , are part i cularly devo ted to th e five Pandavaso f th e Mahabhara ta sto ry , an d to t he i r comm on wi fe , D raupad i . DRAUPAD I
Th e i l lustrat ion from the courtyard of the Draup ad i tem p le tem ples amd
kamgaw .
at Kumbakonam (fig . 139) shows a group , in W t h th e
figure of Bhadrakali wi th ei gh t arms an d a flam i ng crown ,c rush i ng the h ead of a giant under h er left foo t , is d is
tinctly seen . The or i g i na l goddess of the t em ple is, however ,D raup ad i whose meta l l i c figure wi th that o f A rjuna, one
of her five husbands , is pre se rved i n th e central shrin e .
The two huge heads seen i n th e i l lust rat ion , next to Bh adrakal i , are those of the h ero , A ravan— sa i d to be a son of
A rjuna by a Naga pri ncess. He is bel i eved to have beeno ffered as a sacrifice on th e great batt l e-fi eld o f Kurukshetra ,
espec ial ly with th e object o f securi n g success to th e Pandavabro th ers, Substant ial b i g temples are bu i l t for D raup ad i and
the Pandavas under the name Dh armaraja in th e countryround Kolar and Bangalore. Th e karagam- carry i n g cerem onyis perform ed every y ear an d attracts imm ense crowds o f
exc i t ed s i gh tseers . The central figure o f th e ce rem ony is
th e pri est who ,as he madly tr ips a long with the sacred weight
over h is head , l i ke a h i gh tiara decorat ed with flowers , isclosely fo l lowed by a sel ect num ber o f m en
— th e supposedat tendant de i t ies— with drawn swo rds i n thei r hands. Th isscene very strong ly rem i n ds one o f th e goddess Sul i n i , wh oh as been descr i bed above to be on e o f the Td ntr z
’
le goddesses ,
‘Som e o f t hese i nhuman pract ices seem to be but remnants o f the o l derhuman sacrifices which were once qu i te a comm on feat u re of Sakt i wo rshi p .E pigraph ical evidence h as been ad duced to show that vo l u n tary hum an sacrificeswere oflered even to th e male dei ty Virabhadra (abo ve , p . 16 1 , foo tno te 2‘
r5-A
V ILLA GE DE IT IES
fo l lowed by four unmarr i e d g i rl s wi th swords an d sh i el ds i nthe i r hands or o f a form of th e goddess Durga surrounded bymai ds with drawnswor
'
ds . Th e S ap tamatrikas of the Tantrasare also counted among v i l lage de i t i es and are, perhaps , thesam e as th e S even Kann iyamar (unmarr ied g i rls)
”or the
“S even S isters. They are frequent ly appeased by spec ia lworsh i p when any unfo reseen and sudden i l l ness takes ho l dof a man . The -local fo rtune- te l l er , o ften a woman of theKorava cast e , be i ng consul ted, says that the pat i en t is possessed by th e
“s i sters Wh i le wal k i ng alon e i n unt imely hours
of th e day near tanks , gardens or groves. A t once th e goddesses are prop i t iated . A temporary shr in e is constructe d .
S even smal l stones are p lanted i n a row , near a tank , almosttouch i ng th e e dge of the waters,an d a smal l shed erected overthem wi th l eaves an d flowers. Coconuts, p lan ta i ns, fri ed r i ceand pulse are then o ffered to th e stones and no t un frequent lyalso a fow l . E ven Brahmanas wo rsh ip th e S even S ist ers ” i nth i s way , but when a fowl is to b e sacr ificed they get a Sndrato do i t . Th e worsh ip is en jo i n ed to be performed i n wet c lo thafter bath i ng .
The pract i c e o f honouri ng an d even worsh ipp i ng women Sat i -wo rshipwho committe d satz
'
appears to have b een very o ld i n South ern gfe‘fwalkingIn d ia. Kannag i, the h ero i ne of the Tami l poem S ilappadi ceremony.
garam , di ed on hear i n g o f the un just death i nfl i ct e d upon h erhusband by th e Pandya k i n g o f Madura. S he was thencefo rth worsh ipped i n sh ri n es bui l t for her thr
'
oughout SouthernInd ia and Cey lon . In th e latter is land sh e i s known as Pat t in iand is very popular. The moth er of Rajaraja I is stated tohave committ ed sati and i n consequence of th is act , ev i dently ,
an image of her was set up i n th e temp l e ‘at Tan jore . Pé ran u
talamma, a wom an who commi tted sati, is equal ly reputed i nthe Telugu d istr i c ts . Kanyaka-Paramesvari who i s th e tutelardei ty o f th e Va isya (Komat i ) cast e is al so connected w ith thestory of a woman enteri n g the sacred fi re . The fi re-wal k in gceremony pecul iar to th e temples of v i l lag e goddesses m ay
have som e conn ex ion wi th sati.
III
Th e v i l lage gods are not so many i n num ber as th e god A IYANAR .
desses. A iyanar, H ariharaputra or Maha-Sasta is supposed tobe
,as h is nam e im pl i es , a son of S iva and Vishnu .
1 When th eCe l est ia l n ectar was obta i ned by the dévas and asuras afte rchurn i n g the o cean (s e e p . 139f , above) th ey quarre l l ed about
1 F or a fu l ler desc ri p t ion o f A iyanar and h is posi t ion am ong vi l lage deities, seeVo l. I I , I n troduct ion , p . 40, no te.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
th e distr ibut ion of i t . Vishnu assumed the form of a beaut ifulyoung woman , cal l ed Mob i n i , and by her attract ions ent i cedth e asuras and made them agree to depute her to distr i buteth e prec ious l iqu i d equa l ly to all. S h e of course dece ived themand gave th e nectar t0 ‘the gods a lone . S iva saw Mob i n i atthe t ime an d was enam oure d of her. He wedded her, and th eresult of the i r un ion was Harih araputra. This de i ty i s large lyworsh ipped i n Malabar and parts of Tinnevel ly an d Tan jore .In these d i str i cts he is not ass i gn ed the subord i nate pos i t iono f a v i l lag e de ity as i n o th ers. I n th e latter, however, h e isone of the guardian de i t i es of th e V i l lage and , as such , isat tended by bhfi tas an d p isa
‘chas. He h as long curly ha i r, a
‘crown an d ear- r i ngs o f go l d- l eaves . In h is two arms he ho l dsth e bow and th e arrow . H e i s dark o f co lour an d i s seatedon a th rone below a banyan tre e . I n th e i l lustrat ion g iven(fig . 140) th e pos i t ion o f th e hands of what is bel i eved to be
a figure o f A iyanar does not appear to sui t the weapons , bowan d arrow ,
wh i ch h e is stated to ho l d .
1 In th e figure fromValuvur he is seen ri d i ng on an e l ephant i n the very sam e
posture , hol d i ng in h is ri ght hand what looks l i ke a‘
wh ip or
an el ephant goad (fig . In front of h is temple are p lace dfigures of horses, e l ephants and other an imals, made of woodor o f pa i nted br i ck and chunam , wh i ch are supposed to serveh im as vehi cl es i n h is n ightly perambulat ions. A th i rd figurefrom R amesvara
'
m (fi g . 142) represen ts h im as r i d i n g on a horse.
Purana i and Pudgalai are stat ed to be h i s two wives , an d
Madura i-Vi ran an d Pavadairayan , h is genera ls. Madura iVi ran is a h istori cal p erson whose adventures are not i ce d i nth e South A rcot D istr ict Gazetteer .
2 Kuttisattan , Sattan ,
Karup p an , Mundan ’
an d Gul i kan are t h e names of some o f
th e mal i gnant demon s that att en d upon A iyanar.
Karup pannasam i is a s im i lar god worsh ipped by theKallars of Madura. Cha i ns , c lubs, spears
,
and b i l l -hooks are
h is symbo l s ; and these are presented by devot ees at h is
shri nes as vot ive offeri ngs. They are gen eral ly foun d ei th er'
hung on th e trees or stuck into the ground . A s im i lar godmuch dreaded by th e people is Mun isvara whose name isqui te popular. He is represented by a block of stone, a bushor som et imes a tree . Men and wom en cal l e d Mun iyap pa,
Mun isam i, Mun iyamma , etc . , are so nam ed because th ey wereev idently born as th e result of prop i t iat i ng Mun isvara. It
1 We have a sim i lar figu re of stone wi thin th e Nataraja temple at Chi dambaram ,
wh ich people ca l l A rdhajama-Alagar.9 Vol. I , p. I O I .
VILLA GE DE IT IE S
F IG . I 4o .—Aiyanar (metal ) Tiruppalatturai.
VILLAGE DE IT IE S
F IG . I 42 .—A iyanar (metal ) Ramesvaram .
SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGE S
might be noted that Buddha is cal led Mun i i n th e l ex iconAmara/301m and that th e forms of S iva known as Daksh inam t‘trti,Bh ikshatana, V irabh adra, et c. , are often those of wander ingmendicants.
H ero es (virulu) wh o have g iven up the i r l ives underromant i c c i rcum stances. i n th e cause of the i r nat ive v i l lage or
provi nce , are also honoured as v i l lage dei t i es and fest ivalsare ce l ebrate d to prop i t iat e them . Madura i -Vi ran mentionedabove was on e of th is k i nd . In th e Palnad taluk of th eGun tt
‘
i r d istr i ct , temples for heroes are qu i te a comm onfeature.
D ev i l- dances i n connex ion w i th th e annual fest ivals of
v i l lag e de i t i es are comm on i n Malabar and S outh Canara.
The figures o f the dev i ls as represented by th e Tuluva dev i ldancers are descr i bed i n de ta i l w i th i l lust rat ive p lates byD r. Burne l l i n h is art i c le en t i t l ed D ev i l Wo rsh ip of th e
Tuluvas;” i n Indian A n tiquary, Vo lum es XXIII an d XXIV.
CHAPTE R V I I .
M ISC E LLA N E OUS D E IT I E S .
I
O f the misce l laneous gods found i n South- Ind ian temp les,m ent ion m ay be made of th e Navagrahas or
“th e n i n ePlanets headed by th e Sun . They are i nstal led w ith i n th eenc lose d verandah round the c en tral shr i ne o f a temp le w i thor without a spec ial structure erected over them . The Sunstands i n th e centre and the others are fixe d round h im ,
eachi n a spec ified di rect ion . The P lanets are h i ghly respectedan d scrupulously wo rshipp ed by th e peop l e , as th ey are
bel i eved to i nfluence the dest i n i es of human be i ngs.
II
The worsh ip of th e S un i n Ind ia has been as old as th eVedas. Dr . Bh andarkar refers to a spec ial class of sun
worsh ippers i n the North cal l ed Magas whom h e i dent ifieswith the Mag i of an c i ent Pers ia.
l In th e S outh , there does notappear to be any such
"
c lass exc lus ive ly devoted to the Sun .
The worsh ip is common to all. A di tya-
grih as (Sun - shri nes)are ment ioned i n inscrip tion s
'
of the e igh th an d n in th c enturi esof th e Chri st ian era, i n th e n orthern distr i c ts of th e Pres idency ; i n lat er t imes t emples of Traipurush adeva are foundded icate d to Sun , S iva an d Vishnu , with much prominen ceg iven to th e first as i n d i cate d by th e sculptures. E vi dence ofth e bu i l d i n g of separate Sun - t emples i n Southern India,
earl i erthan th e twelfth century A .D . , h as not y et bee n found . Theon ly t emp le thus far known to be dedi cat ed to the Sun and h is
att endan t P lanets exc lus ive ly , is th e on e at S t’
lriyanarkOy il in
the Tan jore distr i ct .2
The image of th e Sun -god , accord in g to th e Agamas, is
always to b e placed i n the cen tre of th e P lanets, look in geastward . Round , red , and decorat ed wi th red flowers, h emus t b e c loth ed i n garmen ts of var i egate d co lours with flagson h is car. Th e car mus t have on e wheel , drawn by seven
1 Vais/mavism , S aivism ,etc .,pp . 15I to I SS.
‘3 Madras E pigraph ical Repo rt for I 908, Par t 11, paragraph 60.
SUN .
MISCE LLA NE OUS DE IT IE S
F IG . I 43 .— S t
’
1rya Kumbakonam .
238 SOUTH- INDIAN IMAGE S
F IG . I 44 .—S iirya ; Chidambaram.
MISCE LLA NEOUS DE IT IE S
that a myst i c d iagram cal l e d the Sfirya-yantra i s i n t im ate ly
connected w ith h is worsh ip as i n th e case o f the S akt igoddesses . It is stated to be a c i rc l e bounded on e afteranoth er , by a triang l e , a c i rc l e, a square and two c i rc l es of
e ight an d s i xteen rad i i respect i vely .
I II
The Moon is regarde d as one o f th e P lan ets surroundi ng O therthe Sun an d go i n g round an d round the mounta i n Meru . H e Planets
?"
is born o f the S ea an d of sage A tr i and is supposed to be ofth e Va isya caste . He is sai d to have on ly fac e an d handsbut no body . H e turns towards the Sun , ho l ds wh i te lo tusesi n hi s two hands (or som et im es a c lub an d th e boon-con fe rr i ng hand) and r i des on a two -wh eeled l char iot drawn by t enho rses. Ku ja (Mars) is a Kshatriya of A van ti , the son o f theE art h an d of sage Bh aradvaja, wears red garments an d a
crown an d h as four arms i n wh i ch are seen th e weapons ,c lub and sakti and th e postures varada and abhaya. H e facesth e Sun an d ri des on a ram . Budha (Mercury ), the son of th eMoon , is a Vaisya of the Magadh a country bo rn i n the l i neageof A t ri . He h as four arm s , a ye l low body , and th e l ion veh i c le .
He shows i n h is hands the sh i e l d , club , varada and the swo rdan d faces th e Sun . Bri haspat i (Jup iter) is a Brahm ana, bornof A ng iras. He com es from th e S i n dhu country an d has e i th erfour or two arms, ho l d i n g , i n the lat ter case , th e book and th erosary . He also faces the Sun . S ukra (Venus), l i kewi se , is a
Brahmana born of Bh rigu an d a nat iv e of Bhojakata. A ccordi ng to Hemadri he is seat ed i n a go l den chariot drawn byei ght horses or i n a s i l ver char io t yoked to t en horses. H eh as two hands i n one o f wh i ch he ho l ds a n idni
“treasure and ,
i n th e other, a book . A ccord i ng to oth er authori t i es _ he h as
four arm s i n wh i ch are seen th e staff , rosary , wat er-p ot an dth e varada. S an i or Sanaisch ara (Saturn ) is a Sudra of theS aurashtra country , an d a descendan t of Kasyapa, also fac i ngth e S un . He is supposed to be bo rn o f th e Sun , to have bluegarments and to r i de on a vul ture or i n an i ron chario t drawnby ei ght horses. H e is represented w ith two or four handsand stands on a lo tus pedesta l , but is mo re o fte n found seat edw ith four hands, h is weapons be i n g th e arrow , tr i dent and
the bow . Rahu an d Ketu , th e asc end i ng and th e descendingnodes , are also represente d as images (fig . The form eris descri b ed as a Sudra of Pa i than w ith a fearful face, blac kclothes and four arms , ho l d i ng th e sword , t ri dent and thesh i e ld . He ri des on a black l ion and faces t he Sun . Ketu i s
Some au thori t ies say that th e chariot is to be three-wheeled.
MISCE LLA NE OUS DE I T IE S
also a S t’
i dra, com es from Kusadv ip a and is bo rn i n th e
l i neage of Jaim in i. H e h as an ug ly face , ri des on a vulturean d exh ib i ts i n h is two arms th e club and th e varada posture.
IV
Th e next group o f gods, frequently dep i cted though not as Dv u s .
frequently w orsh ipped as th e P lan ets, are th e D ikpalakas ,
th e ei gh t lo rds o f th e quarters.
” These are m ost ly foundrepresented on th e central panel o f th e ce i l i n g i n the Malia
"
mandapa o f a tem p l e .In dra, th e lord of th e east , is th e ch ie f of th em . H e is a I N DRA .
Ved i c god ; th e lord of all th e m i nor gods. But h e h as lon gago lost th e h i gh pos i t ion ass i gn ed to h im i n Vedi c t im es .
Th e sto ry runs t hat he seduced A h alya,
1th e wife o f sage
Gautam a,who cursed h im for h is lewdn ess to wear about
h is body m arks o f h is lasc iv ious conduct , but subsequentlychanged those marks i n to a thousand eyes do tted all over h isbody . A cco rding ly h e is st i l l k nown as“th e thousand- ey ed(Sahasr—aksha) . In dra is represented wi th four arms r i d i n g onth e cel est ia l el ephan t A iravata o f four tusks (fig .
A ccord in g to th e S ilpasdm th e symbo ls wh ich h e presents are
th e bow , th e protect i ng hand , th e conch an d th e d iscus .
2
H emadri adds that h is wi fe Sach i with two arms must beseated on h is left th i gh . In th ree of h is hands he h o l ds alotus, goad an d a thun derbo l t , wh i l e the fourth passes roun dth e back o f S ach i . O ne of th e arm s o f Sach i , l i kewi se , ispassed roun d the back of In dra, the other ho l di n g a bunch o fflowers o f th e w ish-g iv i ng tree (kalpa-vr iksha) .
A gn i , the lord of th e south- east quart er, is also one o t th e A CM
Vedi c gods and perhaps th e most prom i nent of them . A s
t he carr ier o f offeri n gs to th e various oth er gods i n heaven,
he plays an im po rtant part i n th e S f an ta sacr ifices and i nth e Smd r ta ceremon ials, where fire oblat ions are essent ial .E very Brahm ana house- ho l der , st ri ct ly so cal l e d , is requ ired tom a i n ta i n t he sacred fire i n h is house w i thout quen ch i ng i t an dto offer ob lat ions regularly three t imes a day , along w i th h isusual prayers to Gayatri . A gn i , as an image , is representedto be an o ld m an ; h e is the o l dest o f the gods and a counterpart of th e Sun on earth . He h as a red body , two heads , sixeyes , seven arm s
, seven tongues , four ho rns and three l egs .
See also th e/enn ui ! of I n dian Art and I ndustry , N o . I o6 , P late 143 , fig.I 020.
2 The B/mttablzasl’af iya ment ions ablzaya, vam a’a,swo rd and the elephan t
som e-111mm IMAGES” V “
F IG . I 46 .- Indra ; Ch idambaram.
MISCE LLA NE OUS DE IT IE S
H e is surrounded by a c i rc le o f l i ght, is seat ed on a lotus
pedesta l 1 an d is supposed to resi de i n a quadrangleev i dent ly th e quadran gular sacr ific ia l fi re- p i t . In h is sevenarm s he ho l ds th e vessels pro
'
kslzan i (sp r i nk ler), sr ik (ladle),sruva (spoon ), p iirna—patra (vessel ful l o f water), trimara (pest le),fan and th e ghee-p ot, requ i red i n perform i n g a sacrifice. H e
h as bra i ded ha i r, re d garments an d a b i g bel ly and wears th esacred thread yaj no
'
patdta H is veh icl e is th e ram an d h is
banner , th e sm oke i ssui ngfrom th e sacrific ia l fi re- p i t (fig .
He is at tended on e i ther s i de by h is two wives S vaha and
Svadba. H emadri descri b es h im as hav ing a s i n g le face ,th ree eyes , m oustaches and four arm s. H e ri des i n a chariotdrawn b y four parro ts an d driven by th e god o f winds, Vayu .
H is wife Sav i tri is seated on h is left th i gh , w i th a vesse l ofgem s i n h er hand . In th ree of h is arm s A gn i ho l ds two
flam i n g tr i dents an d a rosary .
Yama, th e lord of th e south an d th e god of D eath
,h as been YA MA
a l ready referred to i n th e descript ion of th e S iva im ageca l l e d Kalaha or Kalah aram t
‘
i rti. H e is dark o f co lour,
exh i b i ts th e c lub , noose , abhaya a—nd varada i n h is four arm s
an d r i des on a buffalo . The i l lustration from Ch i dambaram(fig . 148) shows on ly
.
two hands i n wh i ch are hel d th e cluban d th e noose. H emadri m ent ions as h is sym bols th e staff,swo rd , a flam i ng t ri dent an d th e rosary . H is w i fe cal l e dDh t
‘
im rorna is seated on h is l eft th igh an d ho l ds a l ime fru i tin h er left hand . To th e ri ght of Yam a stand Ch it ragupta
,
Ud ich ya an d oth ers wh o keep a record o f th e act ions o f m en .
To h is l eft stands the fierce Kala with th e death - noose in h is
hand . Two w om en . ca l led Dharma v i rtue an d A dh armav i ce are seen on e i th er s i d e of Yama with clzaur is i n thei rhandsNairrita , th e lord o f th e south -w est reg ion , is supposed to N A I RR I
'
I‘
A .
b e th e ch ief o f th e Rakshasas . H e r i des on a m an , wiel ds th em ace an d th e javel i n an d h as Kal i ka for h is w i fe. In th e
Kal i ka-Purdue: h e is described as hav i ng h im hands, ho l d i n ga swo rd an d sh i el d an d ri d i n g on an ass . H e
-causes terror todemons, devi ls an d sp i ri ts (fig .
Varuna th e regen t o f th e west is also th e lord of the ocean VA R U NAan d of all aquat i c an im als . He h as th e crocod i le veh i c lean d four arms . In th e two upper hands h e ho l ds th e serpen tan d th e noose (fig . A cco rd i ng to H emadri h e is seatedi n a char io t drawn by seven swans . In h is four hands h eh o l ds th e lotus, noose, conch an d a vesse l of gems and h as
O r th e hal f-m oon seat (ard/zae/zandr-Zz'
smm) acco rd in g to the Al ayanzala ,
IGe A
MISCELLA NEOUS DE ITIES
F I G. I 4S.-Yama Ch idambaram.
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
F I G . I 49.— Nairrita A hol ialam .
MISCELLANEOUS DE IT IE S
F IG . 150.- Varuna ; Lépakshi.
MI SCELLA NEOUS DE IT IES
FIG . 151 .- Vayu Lepakshi .
SOUTH - INDIA N IMAGES
F IG . I 52 .—Kubéra ; Lépfi kshi.
MISCE LLANEOUS DEI T IES
Vedi c Sun , Moon and Brahma. It is bel i eved that a p ro
p itiation of the Nagas conduces towards the product ion o f
chi l dren . Th is bel i ef m ay b e t raced i n o ther coun tr ies also ,
where th ere are s igns of the once w i dely prevale nt serpentworsh i p . E i ght lords o f Nagas are men t ioned i n th e Agamas.
Th e ch ief o f these is A nan ta, Sesha or Ad isesh a , on whosefo l ds Vi shnu is supposed to sleep . F i g . 153 represents h im i na semi- h uman fo rm . In an i nscr ip t ion of th e twel fth centuryA .D . th e ei gh t Nagas , Sesha, Vasuki, Takshaka,
Karkotaka ,
A b ja (Padm a), Maham buja (Maha-Padm a) , Sankhadhara an d
Kul i ka are i nvoked to dec i de about the ausp ic ious or imansp icious nature o f th e grant . 1
Bes i des the Nagas ment ioned i n the prev ious paragraph ,there are oth er groups o f dem i - gods an d demons largelydepi c ted i n H i n du tem ples, such as th e Y ak sh as , V idyadharas , Varshas ,Gandharvas, A p sarasas , Kin naras an d Rakshasas.
2 These are‘Iidyédham s
Gandharvas,
m ade to se rve , general ly , as c/zaur i - bearers to the gods and are me,
represented w ith a l i gh t body fly i ng i n the air. They havegen era l ly two hands, two eyes and the karandamakuta crown .
The Manasara descr i b es th e Kin naras as h av i ng th e legs o fa coc k th e mi ddl e part of th e i r body be i ng hum an and th e
face beake d l i ke Garuda w ith spread ing win gs . They weara crown on t he i r heads an d hol d a vina i n th e i r arms. A
S ketch from Ram esvaram i l lustrat es a femal e K i nnari (fig .
The ori g i n an d descr ipt ion of these groups of demigods are g iven by W . J . Wi lk i ns i n Chapter XI o f h i s H induMythology. A lso , th e figures o f t hese i n th e i r var ious posturesare beaut i ful ly i l lust rated i n the rock sculp tures known as
“A rjuna
’
s Penance ” at Mah aba l i puram .
Th e Dvarapalas seen at th e entrance i nto almost every D varapalas .
H i n du Shr i ne are also dem i -gods an d bear di fferent nam es
be i ng som et im es cal l e d Chanda an d Prach anda, som et im es
Jaya an d Vi jaya, or H arabh adra and Subh adra acco rd ing as
th ey occupy th e second , th i rd or fifth door-way open i n g i ntoth e shri n e . I n the stand ing figures o f Dvarapalas th e ri gh tleg is p laced stra i ght on th e pedestal (swastika) an d th e leftis s l i ght ly bent The posture o f th e i r body may be
(I ) with l egs and back part ly turned to front ; (2 ) handsrest i ng on th e th i gh wh i ch th en is ben t i n th e shape of a
p lough ; .or (3 ) w i th bo th hands support i n g th e go'
pura . Th e
S ilpasang ra/za states that i n form t he Dvarapalas are l i ke b/iatasw i th two b ig hands i n on e of wh ich they ho l d a c lub . They
Madras E pigraph ical Repo rt fo r 1910, p . 1 1 7, para . 60 .
9 See Visva/earm a,Part V , plate 66 .
MISCE LLA NE OUS DE IT IE S
F IG . 1 54 .— Kinnarl 3 Ram esvaram .
253
SOUTH - INDIAN IMAGE S
have p rotmd ing can i ne teeth , when S a i va, an d narrow wa ists ;are beaut i ful i n form , but di sfigured i n the face (fig .
F i gures o f Dvarapalas are somet imes also foun d to have fourarm s and to ho l d th e S a iva or th e Vaishnava sym bo lsaccord in g as they are p laced i n S iva or Vishnu tem pl es.
The fi ne im age (fig . 156) of a Dvarapala from Dharasuram ,
Tan j ore distr i c t , wh i ch h as four arms an d is probably S a iva ,
is stat ed to have been brought as a trophy from Kalyanapura
Kalyana i n th e N i zam’
s D omin ions), by th e Chola k i n gRajadh iraja I , i n th e m i ddl e o f th e el eventh century A .D .
E ntrances i nto th e sh ri nes of goddesses are at tended by
D varapalikas just as those o f th e gods are guarded by
Dvarapalas.
VI
Sa i n ts an d S ages are also n ot i n frequently figured i ntemples. The latter i nc lude th e Vedi c r ishis and th e authorso f th e early sac red l i terature of th e H i n dus, represen ted as
o ld men , serene an d unm i n dful of m undane affa i rs. Th e
sacred thread , bra i ded hai r , flowing beards and moustach esform the sp ec ia l features of
"
r ishi images. They are seatedi n a m ed i tat ive posture w i th th e rosary or book and th e wat erp ot or staff i n th e i r hands. The seven famous sages Gautama,
Bh aradvaja, V isvam itra, Kasyapa, Jam adagn i, Vasish th a an d
A tri are occas ional ly also represented Wi th the i r w ives, wh i leNarada, A gastya ,
Bh rigu , A ng iras, etc . ,are surroun ded by
th ei r d isc ip l es. Narada (fig . 157) is dist i n gui sh ed from othersages by th e wind
” wh ich he ho l ds i n h is hands, bei n g alwaysengaged i n s i n g i n g the p ra ises of Vish nu ; In Puranas h e isdescr ib ed as fond o f set t i n g up on e agai nst th e o th er and
creat i ng quarre ls . Hen ce i n comm on parlance Naradarepresents a tale-bearer . A gastya (fig . 158) is dwarfi sh i nstature an d p ot
- be l l i ed .
2 H e is supposed to have migratedfrom no rth to south an d to have dwel t th ere p erm anen t ly an d
developed th e Tam il'
lan guage o f wh i ch he is sai d to be th eKm “,
first gramm arian . Kap i la , th e founder o f the San khya systemo f H i n du ph i losophy , ho l ds a wat er-p ot on h is lap an d h as
i n h is two hands th e conch and th e d iscus.
3 Dhanvantar i ,
1 I n th e S ilpasam th e Dvarapalas o f S iva tem ples are stated to be Nandiand Mahakala at the eastern ent rance ; Bh ringi and Vinayaka at th e so uthernent rance th e sacred Bu l l and Skanda at th e western entrance and Chandi at thenorthern .
2 A bronze i l l ust rat ion from Nallfi r is given i n the Madras A rchaeo l ogicalS urvey Repo rt for 193 1- 12 , Plate A ,
fig . 2 .
3 I n Visvanarma,Part I , Plate 52 , a to tal ly d i fferent fo rm o f Kapi la, from
Ceylon , is given . Perhaps h e is no t i dent ical w ith th e sage described here.
MISCE LLA NE OUS DE IT IE S
F IG. 155.—Dvarapala Tiruvottiyiir.
MISCELLANEOUS DE IT IE S
F IG . 157 Narada ; Ch idambaram .
SOUTH - INDIAN IMAGES
F IG. 158.—A gastya Ch idambaram.
M ISCE LLA NE OUS DE ITIE S
t he pres i d i n g sage of the Ind ian Medi cal Sc i ence,i s
supposed to b e a form o f Vi shnu and is f ound general lyfigured i n company o f the A svins,1 wh o are th e phys i c ianso f the gods. He ho l ds a p ot o f nectar i n h is hands.
A mong the hum an be i n gs who have at ta i n ed sa i nthoodmay be i nc luded th e great rel i g ious refo rm ers such as
S ankaracharya, R amanujacharya, Madhvacharya an d o thers . SA N 1:A RA.
The first is represented_as a sannyasin (mendi cant) with a
“H R“bal d head and a body b esm eared with ashes . He ho l ds a
book'
. i n -h is'
l eft hand and shows th e chinmudna,the teach in g
pose o f fingers , i n th e other . Th e staff an d th e wat er-p ot(kandika) wh i ch are th e sym bols o f the sannya
'
sins, are foundp laced by h i s s i de . S eat ed on th e t i g er’s sk i n i n thepadmasana posture h e is surrounded by attendant pup i ls .
S ankaracharya m ay—also be found deco rat ed w ith a necklace
o f rudraksha-beads’
wh ich are sacred to S iva. The i l lus~tration from Tiruvottiynr (fig . 159) shows Gaulisvara (Gaudapada th e t each er’s t each er of Sankaracharya ,
wi th fourarm s
, occupy ing the h i ghest seat . Below h im to th e r i ght isSankaracharya and be low h im on the ped estal are dep i cte dth e lat te r’s four pup i ls . R amanujacharya h as th e sanj ali RAMA NUJA
mudra,i.e. , hands fo l ded together over th e breast i n a
cHA R“and
worsh ipp i ng posture, th e tr i p l e staff (tr idanda) and a headdress. H e wears th e Va ishnava cast e m arks zirdhvapundra
(or namam)made of wh i te c lay an d red p i gment (fig, 160Vedanta-Desika (fig . 160 (b) ) is a lso a S ri-Va i shnava teachero f great fam e. Madhvacharya , l i k e S ankara, is a bal d-headed MADHVAsannyasin with th e ckinmudra, th e book , th e staff and th e CHAI N“kandika. H e wears t he cast e m ark ard/zvapundra and th e
Va ishnava symbo ls o f conch , d iscus, etc . ,made’
on h is bodyei th er of sandal - past e or of th e y e l low clay ca l l ed go
'
pie/zandana.
Sa i va and Va ishnava sa i n ts (cal l ed Nayanars and Alvar s), Saiva and
th e fo rm er o f whom are s i x ty - thre e i n num b er and the latter Vaishnavatwe lve are also o ccas iona l ly i nstal l ed i n t em pl es, the i r im ages saints‘
b ei n g m ade e i the r of metal or o f ston e . Th e m ost famous ofthe former are A ppar, Sun darar and Tirujnanasam bandar,2
These are the two go ds Nasatya and Dasra m ent ioned in th e Védas. Theyare o f the fo rm o f a ho rse excep t i n thei r faces and are found to gether , seatedon the sam e l ion -pedestal . In two o f their arms they exhibi t the ab/zaya and
the book . O n thei r r i gh t are represented th e medical herbs M r itasamj ioan i
and Visalyakaran i and on thei r left,the sages Dhanvantari and A tréya (P) .
2 In the Madras A rchaeo logi ca l S urvey Repo rt for 191 1—12 , P late 1 1 , figs.
1- 4 , are given i l l ust rat ions o f four bronze images wh ich represen t A ppar, Manikkavasagar , Jnanasambandar and Sundarar Visoakarnm , Part I V , P lates 62 and
63 , i l l ust rate figures o f Man ikkavasagar and Sundaram t’
irti (Sundarar) from Ceylon .
Havel l gives a pictu re o f Appar (I deals of I nd ian Art, P late X IV ). I n the
I 7-A
MISCELLA NEOUS DE ITIES
SOUTH- INDIAN I MAGES
whose devot ional hymns i n praise of th e m any Sa iva shr inesof th e South are co l lected together under the nam e Devaraman d are regarded as scriptures by th e devout s ect ion o f theS aivas. S tor ies relat i ng to th e p ious l i ves o f th e s i xty- th reeSa i va devotees are reco rded i n the book cal l ed Per iyapuranam ,
wh ich was wri tten about th e en d of the th i rteenth century of
the Chr ist ian era. Man ikkavasagar, th e author of th e Tiruva
’
sagam , is also a sai n t of great reputat ion . A beaut i fulimage o f h is (fig . 16 1) com es from Tiruvarangulam i n th e
Pudukkotta i S tate. A n i l lustrat ion from Madura (fig . 162) o fKara i kkal-Amm ai, one o f th e femal e Saiva sa i nts counte damon g the s i x ty - th ree , g ives a t rue p icture of h ow devo t ionand severe penance are exp ected to reduce th e phys i cal bodyto a skeleton . L i k e the S aiva scriptures , th e hymns o f theVaishnava sa i nts (A lvars) (see Tirumangai-A lvar , fig . 160 (e)above), are also co l lected under the name Nalayiraprabandhamand form the accred ited scr iptures of
_the Tengalai sect ion o f
S ri-Va ishnavas . Th e l ives of the Alvars are g iven in thebook ent it led Guruparamparaprabha
‘
va .
Numerous other im ages are ment ioned i n the Agamas,Puranas an d s imi lar other works. These are rare ly , i f at all,dep icted i n templ es. The n i ne Prajapat i s , th e e i ght Vasas,th e seven (or somet im es forty- n i ne) Maruts , th e ten Visvedevas,the fourteen Manus, th e n i ne Ch iran j iv ins, are all person ifiedan d describ ed wi th the i r weapons and veh i cl es. E ven th es ix ty- four sc i ences, th e s i xty y ears of th e cyc le , the m onths,fortn i ghts , days, constel lat ions, s i gns of th e zod iac , seasons,so l st i ces, oceans , quarters , mounta i ns, r ivers , etc . , are s imi larlyperson ified and descri bed . It is not n ecessary to cons i derthem i n any detai l .
VII
A br ief descript ion m ay now be g iven of th e D i gambaraJa i na im ages , of wh ich we have a good number i n th e d istr i cts
0
of Ch i ng leput , S outh A rco t , South Canara an d o th er parts oft he Madras Pres i dency . I t is not poss i b l e to enter h ere i n to a
deta i led enqu iry o f Jai na r i tual , symbo l i sm ,idology , etc . We
Tanjore temple bu il t by Rajaraja I at the beginnin g o f th e eleventh centu ry A .D
were i nstal led images o f Nam bi -A rfiranar (i.e Sundaram iirti), Tirujnanasam
bandar, Nangai - Paravaiyar (wife o f Sundaramfirti) , Tirunavukkaraiyar , PeriyaPerumal and h is queen Lokamahadéviyar, Meypporul
-Nayanar and Siruttonda
Nayanar. Th e set of im ages i l l ust rat i ng the sto ry o f the last -m ent ioned , i ncl u dedKsh é trapala, Bhairava, S iruttonda-Nambi , Tiruvenkattu-Nangai (his wi fe) and
S iraladévar (h is son ) ; see Vol. I I . I ntroduct ion , p . 39 f. I n the
temple at DharaSuram near Kunibakonam are pictu red scenes from th e l i ves ofm ost o f these sixty-th ree Saiva devo tees wi th labels c u t 'on th ei r pedestals Thesebelong to th e th i rteen th centu ry A .D .
MISCELLANE OUS DE IT IES
F IG . 16 1 .—Manikkavasagar (metal ) Tiruvarangulam.
MISCELLA NEOUS DE ITIES
may s imply not e what the H i n du S ilpa-Sastras say about th em .
The general descr i pt ion of Ja i na images, as suppl ied by these
works , is that th ey m ust have long arm s so as to reach th ekn ees, th e mark Of Sr ivatsa on the breast (wh i ch was found tobe pecul iar to Vishnu), a ca lm countenance , broad fo rehead ,head covered w ith starry r i ngs Of ha i r , hangi ng earlobes , h ighnose , de l i cat e l im bs and a naked body wh ich looks young andbeaut i ful . F i gure s of A rhan tadeva a Jai na S a i nt) m ay
be made movabl e or immovable , standin g or seated . Them ate r ia l used m ust b e the wh ite , red , yel low , or black stone,c rysta l or m etal . Whether standi n g or seated the imagesmust h ave a stra i ght back and i n the latte r case , th e
padmasana or th e siddhasana posture with th e hands crossedover the lap palm i n palm , th e ri ght be i n g below and th e l eftabove . Th e pedestal of Jai na Sa i nts is alway s a simhasana,
“l ion - seat ,
” surmounted by a“crocod i l e-aureo la (makara
to'
rana) fixed at th e bac k of the image . Over the aureo la are
dep i cted th e kalpa- t re e , th e Indras an d Devas, th e demi -gods ofJa i na mytho logy . Somet imes th ere may a lso be sages (l i keNarada) attendi ng upon th e J ina and Yaksh as, Yaksh is,
V idyadharas , Ch akravartin s , Nagen dras and D ikpalakas
ho l d i n g chaur is, on e i ther s i de of h im . Images used by th eJai nas i n da i ly worsh i p at home or i n Math as i n c lude th e
Panchapam me’
shthins who wear n e i th er c loth es nor jewels.
A t th e entrance i nto th e sh r i n es of J i na are placed the gatek eepers Chanda and Maha-Chanda, as i n H i n du temples .Ja i nas are d iv i ded i nto two mai n d iv i s ions, th e Svetam barasand the D i gambaras. The form er are n ot found i n th e southwhi l e th e latte r have the i r important seats at S ravana-Bel go lai n the Mysore S tat e , Mfi db idri, Karkal and Yen fi r i n SouthCanara,
Ti rumala i near Polar i n North A rco t , S ittam t‘
ir i nS outh A rcot and various oth er p laces. A descri pt ive accounto f th e images of D i gambara Jai nas wi th i l lust rat i ve plates h asbeen g iven by Dr. Burgess i n h is art i c le en t i t l ed “D i gambaraJa i na Iconography i n Indian A n tiquary, Vo l. XXXII , pp . 45 ff .It shows that th e gods an d goddesses of th e Jai nas are as
numerous an d as r i ch ly conce ived as those o f the H i n duPanth eon , an d have th e i r prescrib ed weapons, j ewel lery ,
veh i c l es and symbols.
VIIIIn conclud in g th is smal l treat ise on South Ind ian gods and
goddesses , i t w i l l not be out o f p lace to dwel l bri efly uponthe pedestals, postures , symbo ls, w eapons and jewel l ery of
images , al though most o f th ese have been no t i ced where theyoccur i nc i den tal ly , i n th e above pages.
Pedestals.
Post u res .
SOUTH- INDIA N IMAGES
The Mayamata, speak ing of pedestal s i n g enera l , says thatthey are t riangular , hal f-moon- shaped , square or c i rcularN i n e pedestals (p ithas) are ment ioned by name , v i z . , bhadrap itka, vaj rap itlza, padmap itka, maha
‘
mbuj a (th e b i g lotus),sr ikara, p ithapaa
’
ma, maha’
vaj ra, saumyaka, an d sr ikeimya. O f
these , the first and th e th i rd are p i ctured on th e accompanyi n g P lat e I , as Nos. 13 an d 12. No . 16 on th e sam e P late ,perhaps , represents malzambuj a.
Th e postures, sym bo ls and weapons of images d i ffe raccord i ng as th e image is conce ived to be e i ther i n a fight i n gatt i tude or as bestowing bl iss and knowledge on its worsh ippers . S om et im es , even though th e weapon s o f war are
exh ib i ted i n th e hands of an im age , i t m ay yet be cons i deredpeaceful i f i t on ly shows the pos i t ions of the hands known asabhaya and varada . The posture, sukhdsana, i n a seat ed image(P late I , NO . 14) and the posture samaoadasthanaka i n a
stand i ng im age (P late II, No . 4 ) are general ly adopted i nconferri n g b l iss, just as th e pos i t ion of th e hands abhaya
(P late IV , NO . 7) and varada (P lat e III, No . 23) i n di cate t hesam e . The a' lidha 2
(P late II, NOS . 5 an d 6) an d t he utkatika 3
postures (P lat e I , NO . 15) denot e r esp ec t ive ly the h ero i catti tude i n actua l fight ing an d th e an gry mood that immediately fo l lows i t. The padma
’
sana (P lat e I , NO . 16) andth e yogasana (Plate 11, No . 1 ) postures Show e i ther the meditat iy e or th e teach i ng at t i tude . The pos i t ion of th e l egs(P late II , Nos. 2 and 3) adopted i n the case O f th e standingimages of Gopala and Nataraja show not on ly a gracefu l an dart ist i c att i tude but , evi den tly , also i n d i cat e the ecstasy o f
joy . I t may be note d that i n all figures of gods and god
desses standi ng i n any posit ion , the i deal beauty is recogn ized to consi st i n the th ree bhangas (ben ds) which accord i n gto the Silpasangraha are
“
aohanga (sl i ght bend), samabhanga
(medium bend) and atibkanga (great bend) . E ach of th eseth ree ben ds may be found separate ly or toget her i n one and
th e same image.
4
1 A cco rdi ng to th e Prayogaratn a th e nine Planets are to be seated on
ci rcu lar, quadri lateral , t r iangu lar , arrow -shaped , rec tangu lar , pentagonal , bowshaped , winnow -shaped and flag-shaped pedesta ls.
2 Th e alid/m postu re is assum ed genera l ly i n draw ing th e bow and dis
charging th e arrow .
3 There is reason to suppose that the post ure known as o in’
z’
san a wherein oneleg h as to be placed on th e o ther so as to rest on that th igh , is somet imes substituted for u tkatika . Perhaps they are synonym o us.
4 See S ou l/z In d ian B ron zes by O . C . Gangoly, p . 4O rf. The S ilpasangm /za
desc rib ing a part icu lar fo rm o f Rama states that i t consist s o f th ree M anges o r
bends, th e face sl i gh t ly leaning to th e ri ght , th e m idd le o f th e body to th e left andthe po r t ion below the waist , agai n , to the r i gh t .
MISCELLANEOUS DEIT IES
Th e symbo ls of the gods and goddesses apart from th e Symbo lsweapons wh ich they wi e ld , such as th eg g d (P lat e IV, No .
weapons.
noose (NO . d isc (Nos . 10 an d 10a), sh ie ld (No . sword(No . pestle (NO . axe (NO . tri dent (Nos. 16 an d 16a),thun derbo l t (Nos . 20 an d 20a), club (Plate IH, NO. I ), sakti o r
ow (NO . fi re (No . 6)y few . Goddesses, perhaps
IV, No . 18 and P lat e I , NO . a mirro r (P lat e III, NO. 8) or a
parrot perch i ng on th e back o f th e palm (P lat e IV , No .
The rosary (Plate IV, Nos. 1 and th e water-p ot (Nos. 3 and
th e book (No . th e pos i t ion o f the fingers known as
ch inmudra'
(P lat e III , NO . 16) an d j na'
namudra (NO . 14) denotemedi tat ion , puri ty and knowle dge . The conch of Vishnu(Plate IV ,
N o. 1 1 and P lat e I, NO . 4a), th e kett l e- drum dhakka
of S iva (P late III, No . 12 an d Plate IV, No . 24 ) and th e bel li n th e hands o f some gods an d goddesses (P lat e III , NO . 7)m ay be taken as equi pments for fight , though not as actua lw eapons , O ffens ive or defen s ive . Th e deer hel d by S iva as
a t rophy on t he occas ion when be destroyed th e sacrifice o f
h is father- in - law Daksha (P lat e IV , No . th e serp ent (P lat eI, No . 46) and th e kapala (P late III, NO . 21 and P late IV ,
No. 23a) m ay be cons i dered on ly as gynibo ls sp eg ially dis
tin guish ing h im from th e o ther gods. The Same—has to be
sa i d O f th e knkkuta III, No . 3a) o f S kan da,o f
the b roken,tusk
1(Plate IV, NO . 21 ) of V inayaka and of th e
flag (NO . 22) of Vayu,“th e god of winds .
Some of th e pure ly art ist i c pos i t ions o f the hand are th e Posi t ionssimhakarna (Plate I , NO . th e ka taka (P lat e IV , No . 4a), the
th e han d‘
ba tiga“han d rest i ng on th e wa ist ” (P late IV, No . th e
pos i t ion i n wh ich th e hand hangs down free ly“l i ke the ta i l
o f a cow (Plate I , NO . th e p lac i ng of th e karpara by S i vaon the head o f the bul l (Plate III , No . th e gaj ahasta O f
Nataraja (No . 19) and th e pos i t ion i n wh i ch S iva as Bh iksha
tana touch es the mouth of th e ante lope (P late III, No .
Som e o ther s i gn ifican t pos i t ions o f th e hand are those knownas Sach i
“th e po i nt i n g fin ger (P late III, NO . 13 an d Plate IV ,
NO . tarj ani“th e threaten in g finger (P late II I , Nos . 18
an d 26) and the vismaya won der ” (P late III , _ Nos. 15 an d
22 an d P lat e I , NO . The th ree latter are general ly foundi n the figures of S iva and of guard ian de i t i e s .
1 F or the sto ry o f the broken tusk w ith which Vinayaka (Ganapat i ) is statedto have wri tten th e see abo ve, p . 176.
“3 This last posi t io n is ca l led sim lzakarna. I n images o f Tripurantakam iirti,
the arrow is hel d by one o f the ri gh t hands wh ich is, again , stated to' be i n the
rim/zakam a pose.
PEDE STALS , POSTURE S , ETC.
PLATE l .
—Pedestals, post u res, etc
SOUTHQINDIA N IMAGE S
PLATE 1I .—Pede_stals, post u res, etc.
PEDE STALS , ETC.
PLATE I I I -Pedestals , postu res, etc
I N D E X
[ Note F i gu res after art icles refer to pages ; the fo l lowing abbreviat ions are used77 . footno te ; s .a.
abhanga, sl i gh t bend of bo dy in images,162
,168
,2 66 .
abhaya, pro tectin g pose o f hand i n images10
7 4 1 7 43 7 667 76 7 77 7 797 84 7
88 . 8971. 93. 97. n o, 1 14. 178.
1897 1907I 94 7 I 997 202 7 2397 24 3 7
2 48 , 266 .
A bja , serpent- ch ief, 251 .
A davallan,Tam i l nam e for Nataraja, 82 77,
8877 .
A dharma (vice) ,24 3
A di. Chandésa,or A didasa-Chandésa, epithet o f Chandésa, 16 1 , 162 .
A dimfi rti, s a . Vaikun th a-Narayana, 5277 .
Adisésha ,s .a . Sesha, 251 .
A di tya-griha,a Sun -sh rine
,235.
A di tya-Purana,103 .
Adivaraha, s .a . Varaha, 22 .
Agamas, c lass o f l i teratu re,1 , 84 , 88, 89,
1 1077 , 1 14 , 1 29, 132 , 137, 148 , 16 1 , 165,235, 251 , 262 .
A gastya, sage, 90 ,254 .
A ghora, on e of th e five images consti t u t i ngPanchadéh am iirti, 77
A ghOram i‘
i rti, fo rm o f S tva, 148 , 151 .
A gni , fire, regen t of th e sou th-east quarter,196 , 236 77 , 24 1 , 243 .
Ahalya, w i fe o f Gau tama,24 1 .
Ahavan iya , one o f th e (th ree) sacrificia lfi res
,represented by th e goddess Saras
vat i, 220.
AhObalam , vi l lage i n the K u rnoo l d ist ri c t ,2 6 .
A iravata, the elephant of I ndra, 24 1 .
Aivyaongh en ,ident ified w ith A vyanga,
A iyanar , vi l lage god , 229, 230.
A jaikapad , on e o f th e E leven Rudras, 97,
22377.
A lagiyanach ch iyamma,vi l lage dei ty, 224 .
A lakshm t, s.a . Jyésh tha, 2 1677 .
A lambakkam ,vi l lage in the Tanjo re dis
trict, 196.
A layattu -Pillaiyar, Ganapat i image m en
tioned i n th e Tanj ore insc ript ions , 176alidha
,post u re i n standing , 26 , 2 13 , 266
i n si t t ing , 197.
Alinganam iirti, fo rm o f Chandrasekhara,1 14 .
chauri-bearer of Yama,
same as a’o. ! di tto (guod aide) wh ich see. ]
A lkondar, epithet o f Kshétrapala at Tiruvadi , 15977 .
A l var, epithet o f Vaishnava saints, 259, 262 .
Amarakdsa, Sanskri t lex icon , 62 , 15577, 234 .
Amaravat i , vi l lage i n the Guntu r d ist r ic t ,2 77.
Am ritésvari,s . e . Varun i
, 220.
Am sum at-Tantra, 79, 103 , 107, 1 14 .
A namalai, vi l lage i n the Madu ra dist rict ,2 1877 .
A nanda- tandava,
dance, 79, 84 .
A nanta , s a , Sesha, 50, 251.
A n an tasayin or A nan tasayana, form of
rec l i n ing Vishnu, 50.
A n dhaka, demon,devo tee o f S i va, 165717.
A ngiras, sage, father o f B rihaspat i (j upiter) , 239, 254
A niruddha, fo rm o f standin g Vishnu , 52 77 .
55 °
A nkalamma,vi l lage dei ty, 22077 , 223 , 224 .
Annapfirna, goddess, 2 18 , 220.
Apasmara, dem on , 79, 84 , 90, 14 1 .
A ppar , Saiva sai nt,259.
ppaya-D iksh ita, Sai va ph i l osopher, 89.
A psarasas, class of celest ial nym phs, 2 51 .
A pya, go ddess, 223 .
A ravan , son o f A rj una, 227.
A rchmological S urvey Repo rto f India
, quoted, 43 77 , 14 377 ;o f Madras, quoted ,
22 77 , 100717, 125, 14877 ,254 77, 25977 .
ardhachandrasana, pedesta l Of A gni , 243 77 .A rdhajama-A lagar , s.a . A iyanar , 2 3077 .
A rdha-mandapa,vesti bu le i n front o f the
cen tral shrine O f a tem pl e, 2 .
A rdhanari , fo rm o f S iva, 74 ,165.
Ard ra, asterism sacred to Nataraja, 82 .
A rhan tadéva ,a j aina saint , 265.
Ariyambakkam ,vi l lage i n the Chinglepu t
d istri ct , 2 2 .
A rj una, on e o f the five Pandavas, 47, 14 1,I 43 , ZZ7
A rjuna’
s Penance, has- rel ief o f rock-cu tscu lptu res at Mahabal i puram , 14 3 , 251 .
arka—pushpa, j ewel deco rat i ng th e j atama
Ieu ta o f S iva, 76 .
arrow , weapon , i n the hand o f A iyanar,230 o fDurga, 199 ,
202 Of Kalagh iRudra
,155
—0f Kama,6 2 ; o f Kiratar
j una, 1 43 O f Lal i ta, Tripurasunda ri and Rajarajesvari, 22 ; o f Rama
variety o f Nataraja’s
7677, I 20,
274 I N D E X
and Lakshmana, 35 ; o f Sani , 239 — o f
Skanda ,177, 178 o f Sudarsana, 66 ;
of Tripuran taka ,140, 26777 o f Vi ra
bhadra,155 , 159 o f Vishnu , 1777, 55.
A runa ,char io teer of S ii rya ,
23 5, 2 36 .
A sh tabhuja-Viralakshm i , fo rm o f Lakshm i ,189.
A shta-Mahalakshm i , th e ei ght (fo rms o f)Lakshm i , 187.
A sh tamiirtis ,class O f S iva-images, 77.
A sh tanga-Yoginis, group o f goddesses
at tending on Surapriya, 2 12 .
A shta-S iddhis, gro up o f goddesses recogn ized as conso rts o f Ganapat i , 173 .
Asiramma ,vil lage deity, 224 .
A soka,Maurya em p ero r , 16877 .
asoka -fiower , o ne o f the five arrows o f
Kama,62 .
ass, veh icle o f Kalaratri , 2 1 1 o f Nairrita ,
24 3 ; o f S italadevi, 2 13 .
asuras, s .a . danavas, 50,2 1 1 , 2 29, 2 30.
A svins, the twin physi c ians o f th e gods,259 .
atibhanga, great bend o f body i n images,266 .
A ti-Pingala , at tendant o f Sfirya, 236 .
A tiranachanda-Pallavésvara,rock -cu t tem
ple at S éluvankuppam , 107.
Atréya , sage (P) , 25977 .
A t ri , sage, 1 177 , 2 39 , 254 .
A tyantakama-Pallave
’
svara, surname o f
Dharmaraja-ratha , 107 .
avadaiyar , Tam i l nam e for the pedestal o fa. S iva- l inga , 73 .
Avanti , count ry , 70, 2 39 .
avatar , an incarnat ion (espec ial ly o f
Vishnu ) , 22 , 26 , 30, 32 , 35, 37 , 4 7, 50, 64 .
A vesta, scriptu re o f the Parsees, 23677 .A vyan ga ,
name of th e th read seen roundth e waist o f S iirya - images, 23677
Ayodhya (O u dh ) , ci ty, 35.
axe or hatchet weapon , i n th ehand o f Saiva im ages, 77 , 93 , 9777 , 103 ,
137 , 1 40, 14 1 , 143 ,
14 7, 148 ,162 , 173 , 1 78 ; o f Sudarsana,
66 .
Badam i , Chal ukyan rock -cu t temple at,2 4 .
Badarikasrama,th e modern Badri -Narayan ,
47 ~
Bagal i , vi l lage i n th e B el lary dist ric t , 1 14 ,187 .
Bala-K rishna, fom i o f K rishna, 38, 4 1 .
B alapramathan i , the Sakti (goddess) o fBalapramathana (S iva) , 19077 .
Balarama (Baladéva) , bro ther o f K rishna ,
consi dered as an incarnat ion o f Vishnu,
3777 , 4 3 77 .
Bal i -Sakt i , goddess presidin g over the six
clzakras, 22 2
Bala-Tripurasundari, goddess, 2 18.
Balavikaran i, the Sak t i (goddess) of Balavikarana (S iva) , 19077.
BaIa-
yant ra , mysti c charm connec ted w ithth e wo rship o f Bali -Sakt i , 222 .
Bal i , dem on , 30, 32 .
Bana , dem on , devo tee o f S iva, 1 13variety o f S i va- l inga , 73 77.
Bangalo re dist ric t , 2 17.
Bangaramma , s.a . Ponnamm a, 2 24 .
banyan tree, abode o f Tiruvaludai
yal, 226 connected w i th Aiyanar ,230 with Daksh inam t
'
irzi, 90 ; w ith
Nataraja’s dance,84 77 sacred to the
go ddess Cham unda, 196 .
Barbaras, an abori gi nal t ribe, 2 23 ,
Bat tal i (Bat tal i) , B uddhist goddess, 194 77.bel l (gl m77tfi ) , symbo l , i n th e hand o f
Du rga, Mah ishasuramard in l and MahaLakshm i
, 199, 206 , 2 1 1 o f Gajaham ii rti
, 125 ; o f Nataraja (i n Kalika~
tandava) , 84 o f Skanda , 178.
B enares,2 1877.
Bhadrakali , consort o f Virabh adra , 15577
fo rm o f Cham unda, 197, 2 1377 —vi l lagedeity, 2 23 , 2 24 ,
2 27.
bh adrapitha , fo rm o f pedestal , 266 .
bhadro bhadraya, etc ZV/zm lm o f the R i gVeda , 3777.
Bhagavad-Gi ta, the Div ine Song , ’ 37, 4 7.Bhagavata-Purana , 37 , 47.
Bhagiratha , myth ical k in g o f th e So larrace, 129, 132 .
Bhai rava , fierce emanat ion o f S iva , 74 , 1 13 ,
Bhai rav i , epithet o fMah ésvari , 194 formo f Ki l l , 199.
Bhandasura,dem on , 2 22 .
bh an gas, the (th ree) art ist ic flexions o f
body i n images, 266 .
Bharadvaja , sage, 90,2 39 ,
254 ,
Bharata,bro ther o f Rama , 37.
Bharat i , s. a . Sarasvat i , 82 77 .
Bharat iya-Naryasastra, name o f a Sanskr itw o rk , 8877 .
Bharavi, Sanskri t poet , 143 .
Bhargava , sage, 90.
Bhasmasura,dem on
,165.
Bhat ta-Bhaskariya, wo rk quoted i n th e
Tattvan idh i, 24 1 77 , 24877 .
Bhavani , vi l lage i n th e Co imbato re dis
t riet,165.
Bhavani , s. a . Parvati , 19677.Bh éda-Sakt i (jealousy) , consort o f Karma,62 .
Bhiksh éndarkoyil , vi l lage in th e Trich inopo ly dist ri c t , 76 .
Bhikshatana or Bh ikshatanam t'
irti, fo rm o f
S iva , 74 , 7677. 97, 100, I 03 . 2 34 . 267 ,268fl .
bh indivala, weapon , i n the hand o f Nandi ,162 .
Bhoga-Sakt i , goddess , co nnected wi thSémé skanda , 1 10 Parvati standin g o nth e left si de o f S i va or the S iva-l i nga,
I N D E X 275
Bh6ga-Vira, th e standin g fo rm o f V ira
bhadra, 1 59.
Bhojakata, co unt ry, 239.
Bh rigu ,sage 90, 239, 2 54 .
Bh ringi, Bh ringiriti o r Bh ringisa ,devo tee
and at tendant o f S iva, 1 13 , 12077 , 16 1 ,165
— name o f th e Dvarapala at th e
so uthern entrance i nto S iva temples,
bh ringipada, o rnam en t seen on the ri gh tleg of Saiva images, 100, 2 6877 .
Bh fi (E arth) , conso r t o f Vishnu , 2 2 , 189.
Bh ujangalalita, variety o f Nataraja’s dance,
84 77.
Bh ujangatrasita, do . , 82 77 .
bh t'
ita, a demon,148, 2 30, 2 51 .
Bh fi tamata, goddess, 2 16 .
Bh iivaraha ,Varaba, 2 2 .
B ija -Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapat i , 176 .
bijapt'
i ra, fru i t , sym bo l i n th e hand o f
Mama-Ganapat i , 1 73 .
bi l l -hook , sym bo l i n the hand of Karuppannasam i, 230.
h ilva ,fru i t
,symbo l in th e hand of Gaja
Lakshm i, 187 .
Binayakia, j ap anese name for Vinayaka,
b indu (do t), co nnected wi th myst i c charms
cal led yan tm s and cl mkm s,2 2 2 .
boar, crest o f th e Western Chal ukya,Kakatiya, Redd i and Vijayanagara kings,24 .
Boar or Man -B oar (Varaba), i ncarnat io n o fVishnu , 2 2 , 24 , 93 .
bones,garland o f
,found on Sa iva images,
book , symbo l , i n th e hand o f the A svins,25977 ; o f Bel la-Sakt i
,2 2 2 o f
“
B rahma, 107 — o f B rihaspati, 2 39 ; o f
Daksh inam t'
irti, 90, 93 o f Hayagriva,
55 o fMadh vacharya, 259 o f rish i
images, 2 54 ; o f Sankaracharya, 259 ;o f Sarasvat i , 185 ; o f S ukra , 239.
boon-givi ng pose o f hand in images, 52 77 ,77, 100, 12977, 162 , 168
, 173 , 187 , 2 18 ,See varada .
bow,weapon , i n th e han d o f A iyanar, 230o f Cham unda, 194 , 206 ; o f Durga,
Mah ishasuramardin i an d Maha Lakshm i ,199, 206 o f I n d ra
,24 1
— o f KalagniRu dra , 155 ; Of Kama,
62 ; o f
Kiratarjuna, 143 o f Rama and
Lakshmana, 35 o f Sani , 239 o f
Skanda , 177 , 178 o f Sudarsana ,66
o f Tripuran taka, 140 o f Virabhadra ,
155, 159 ; o f Vishnu, 1777 , 30, 55.
B rahma, god , th e C reato r , 10, 1 1 , 24 , 32 ,
50, 52 , 73 77 , 74 , 8277 , 93 , 97, 100, 103 ,1 13 7 14 1 7 184 7 1857 I 94 7 1977236 , 2 51 .
brahmacharin , an unmarried st u dent o f the
B rahmacharin i , form o f Durga, 202 .
B rahm a-kapalam , place o f pil grimage on
the H imalayas, 100.
Brahman , th e all-pervadin g E ternal Spi ri t ,I O
) 30 ) 70) 74B rahmana, caste , 7 , 38 , 4 1 , 55, 70, 71 , 100,
168 , 197, 2 13 77, 2 26 , 229, 236 , 239, 24 1 .
B rahmavaivarta-Purana, 1077 , 16877 .B rahm i or B rahmani, on e o f th e Saptamatrikas, 190 , 194 , 196 .
Brahm iya-Silpa , wo rk on A rts, 22 77 , 3877 ,
4 777 , 52 77 .
b reast -band , found on images of Du rga,199, 206 ; o f Pratyangira, 2 13 77 .
Brihadisvara, temp le , at Tanj o re , 77, 8877,155, 176 , 268 .
B rihaspat i (j upi ter), p lanet , 239 .
Brindavana (B rindaban ), vi l lage, 37, 38 ,4 1 , 43 , 4 7broom , sym bo l o f Sitala, 2 13Buddha,
saint , 73 z incarnati on of Vishnu ,2 2 , 47 cal led M u ni
, 234 .
B uddhism , 73 , 184 .
Buddh ist , 2 77 , 7777 , 16877 , 185, 194 77 , 2 13 71,2 1877 , 2 2077, 24877 .
B udha (Mercury), planet , 239 .
bu ffalo , demon , 197 , 199, 202 , 206 , 2 1 1sacrifice, 226 : vehic le of Kala (Yama) ,137, 24 3 o f varah i , 194 .
bu l l , guardian dei ty at the westernentrance o f S iva tem ples, 254 77 : —vehic leand banner o f S iva , 7677 , 90, 97 , 1 10, 1 13 ,1 14 , 120
,125, 132 , 14 1 , 162 , 267vehicle o f Chandésa in the Kal i-yuga,
16 1 o f Mahesvari , 194 ; o f Sailaput ri, 202 o f Savi tri , 2 18 77 .
cane, sym bo l i n th e hand of Nandi, 162 77.Castes and Tribes (Thurston ), quoted ,caverns and ro ck -cu t beds, 2 77.Ceylon , island , 64 77, 1 1477, 2 23 77, 2 29, 254 77 ,chai n , sym bo l o f Karuppannasam i, 230 .
chai tya , a tem ple, 2 .
chakra (disc symbo l o f Vishnu , 26 ,
52 7 557 70°
Chak rapan i, temple, at Kumbakénam, 70.
Chakra-Perumal,s. a. Sudarsana, 66 .
ch'
akra-
pfija, cerem ony observed i ntemples o f vi l lage dei t ies
,226 .
chakras, myst ic d iagrams co nnected w ithSakt i wo rsh ip , 185, 220, 222 .
Chak ra-tirtha , tank , sou rce o f the riverGandaki , 70.
Chakravartins, gro u p o f dem i -go ds o f j ai namytho lo gy, 2 65.
Chal ukya , Western,dynasty, 24 .
Chal ukyan A rchi tectu re (Rea), puoten’
,
2 77 .
Chsamunda (Chand i) , one o f the Sapta
matrikas, 190, 194 , 196 epithet o fMah ishasuramardin i , 194 77 , 196 , 197, 202 ,206 .
Chanda, nam e o f Chandésa i n the Tréta.
yuga, 16 1 — o f a D varapala image, 251
I N D E X 277
devas, dem i-gods, 24 , 79, 82 77, 132, 140,
2 29 ; o f Jaina mytho logy, 265.
Devayana (Dévaséna) , conso rt o f Skanda ,
178 .
devi l -dances, 234 .
dhakka(ket t le-d rum sym bo l in th ehand o f S iva, 76 , 77 , 267 .
Dhanvantari , sage, th e presi din g dei ty o f
I ndian M edical S cience, 254 , 2 5977 .Dharan ivaraha,
s .a . Varaba , 2 2 .
D harasuram ,vi l lage i n th e Tanjore d ist ri c t
120,12 5, 129, 254 , 26277 ,
Dharma,fo rm o f B rahma, 1 1 Dharma,
chauri-bearer o f Yama, 24 3 .
Dharmaraja- 7 7771777 , m ono l i th i c m onumentat M ahabal i pu ram , 107 .
D h armaraja , one o f th e five Pandavas , 2 2 7.
D harm avyakhyanam t'
i rti, epi thet of Dak
sh inam firti , 89 .
D h énu-Vagisvari , fo rm o f Végisvari , 185.
Dh i‘im ravati or Dh t
’
im ra-Kal i , go ddess, 2 13 .
Dh i'
im ré rna, conso rt of Yama, 24 3 .
dh vajastambha , th e flag- staff o fa temp l e, 3 .
Di gambara,sec t o f Jai nas, 262 , 265.
D ikpalakas , the ei gh t lo rds o f thequarters,24 1 dem i -gods o f Jai na mytho lo gy,2 6
D ipasvali-Amavasya, fest i val , 32 .
disc or discus, sym bo l , 3 , 35— in the hand
o f Durga (Katayyan i ), Cham unda,Mah ishasuramard in i and Maha-Lakshm i ,
199, 202 , 206 , 2 1 1 ;— o f Garuda ,
64 77 ; o f Govinda-Bhai rava and o f Sam ~
ham -Bhai rava , 151 o f I ndra, 24 1 ;o f Kapila , 254 ; o f Maha-Ganapat i ,173
— o f Sarasvati , 2 1877 o f Skanda ,
177, 178— o f Sudarsana, 66 ;
—of S t'
1rya,
236 ; o f Trikan tak idevi , 2 13 o f
Vishnu , 17 , 22,24 , 26 , 64 , 107,
1 13 ; o f Vishvakséna , 64 :" mark made
o f sandal or 2 59.
-See
cfiakra .
dog , veh icle o f Bhai rava , 1 51 .
Draupadi , queen o f the Pandavas, 2 2 7temple at Kumbakonam ,
227 .
duk ii la,m usl in
, 120.
Durgaor Du rga- Ia kshm i , goddess , 74 , 148 ,196 , 19777 , 2 13 77 , 2 18 ,220, 223 , 2 24 , 2 29:
— en ergy o f S iva i nh is fi gh tin g m ood , 19677 : her imagesrepresented naked
,202 , 2 1 1 .
Durgamma , vi l lage dei ty, s.a . Durga,2 24 .
Du rga-Param ésvari , do 2 24 .
Du rgi , vi l lage i n th e Gun tfir dist r ic t , 151 ,155.
Dvapara-
yu ga, name o f th e th ird H induaeon , 16 1 .
Dvaraka. (Dwarka) , legendary capita l ofK rishna
, 37 , 4 7, 70
Dvarapala , the guardian dei ty of a temple ,2 51 , 2 54 .
Dvarapalika, female guardian dei ty i ntemples o f goddesses, 2 54 .
Dwar f (Vamana) , incarnation o f Vishnu ,30, 32 .
gada (c l ub symbo l , in the hand oVishnu , 5277 , 55 .
Gajahamfi rti, fo rm o f S iva , 1 25.
gajahasta ,pose of hand , 79, 84 , 88 , 267 .
Gaja-Lakshm i , fo rm o f Lakshmi , 187.
ear o f paddy , symbo l i n the hand o f
Maha-Ganapat i , 173 .
E arth , god dess, s .a . B h ii , 2 2 , 55,187 used by Tripuran taka as h is
chario t , 140 ; mo ther o f Mars , 239.
E kadasa-Ru dras, class o f S iva images, 77 ,
97E kam résvara
,temple, at Co njeeveram , 8977 ,
162 77.
E kapadamfi rti of E kapada-Trim iirti,form
o f S iva , 97 .
E lements o f H i ndu I conography (Gopinatha Rao) , quoted ,2 1877.
elephant , demon , 1 25: -veh icle o f A iyanar ,230 ; o f Mahd -Gau ri
,
’
202 ;- o f
Mah én'
dri, 194 ; of Prachanda, 16 1 ;
o f Visvakarma, 1 1 77 its h ide,worn
by Saiva images, 251 , 197 its task ,
symbo l i n the hand o f Gajahamiirti, 125— o f Ganesa 168 (Maha-Ganapat i), 173 .
E lephanta , caves at , 107 .
E l la, G reek goddess, 2 23mE llamma , vi l lage dei ty, 223 , 224 .
E l u ra Cave Temp les (Burgess), quoted ,
82 77 , 132 , 13777 , 15977, 190 77 , 194 77 , 20677 .
E pi graphica l Repo r t (Madras) , quoted ,2677 , 32 77 , 52 77 , 8877, 16 1 77 , 23577 , 25171 .
E pigraph ia Ind ica , guolea’
, 73 77 , 7777 .
epi lepsy, personified as Apasmara , 7977 .
fan ,symbo l , i n the hand on ni , 243 o f
Vayu , 248 .
Fi re (A gni 9. 7L ) , one o f the th ree eyes o f
S iva, 76 .
fire-wa lk i ng , cerem ony observed i n temples o f V i l lage dei t ies, 226 , 2 29.
F ish,incarnation o f Vishnu
, 2 2 .
flag, symbo l , i n th e hand o f Vayu , 248 , 267.
flesh,symbo l , in th e hand of Varuni , 2 20.
flower , garland , connected with th e sto ryo f Chandésanugraham iirti and wi thSvayamvara, 107 , 14 7 symbo l , i n thehand o f Chandésa, 162 arrow held byVajraprastarin i , 2 1 2 77 .
fru i t (o f pomegranate) , symbo l , in the
hand o f Sri and Pri thvi, 187 ;— of Lal i ta,
Tripurasundari and Rajarajésvari , 2 20
(of wood -app le) , symbo l , i n th e hando f Skanda, 1 10 ; o f Ganésa , 168 .
278 I N D E X
Gajén draméksha, (s to ry o f Vishnu ) resen
ing the elephant , 55 .
Ganapat i or Ganesa , god , son o f S iva , 62 ,
7o ,173 , 176 , 2 67 77 .
Ganapatya ,sect o f B rahmanas, 16 8 , 176 77 .
ganas, grou p o f dem i -go ds at tending on
S i va , 155 , 16 1 , 162 ,165 , 16877 , 173 77 ,
176 , 183 , 2 1 1 ,
Gan dabh érunda , (fabu lous) b ird ' veh icle
used in processions o f images , 7 .
Gandaki , river , 70 .
Gandharvas, class o f dem i - gods , 251 .
Gandiva ,th e b ow o f A rj una ,
14 1 .
Gangaor Ganga-Bhattarak i , goddess , s a .
Ganges, 76 ,82 ,
1 25, 1 29, 132 , 224
th e chauri -bearer o f Varu na,24 8 .
Gangadhara, fo rm o f S iva, 74 , 129, 13 2 ,
143n .
Gangaikondasé lapuram ,vi l lage i n th e
Trich inopo ly d ist rict , 13 2 , 143 , 16877 .
Gangamma ,v i l lage deity,
s . a . Ganga, 2 24 .
Gangav isarjana or Gangavisarjanam iirti,fo rm o f S i va ,
1 29
Gan ges , river , 70 , 76 ,82 , 1 29 ,
2 24 77.
garbha-griha
,th e central sh rine o f a
tem ple, 2 .
Garhapatya ,one o f th e (th ree) sacrifi c ial
fi res , represented by th e goddessGayat ri ,220.
Garuda ,bi rd
,vehic l e o f Vishnu , 2 , 3 , 32 ,
52 , 55, 64 , 97, 125 , 162 77 , 25 1 ; o f
Govinda -Bhai rava, 151 o f Vaish navi ,
194—of Sarasvati , 2 1877.
Garuda -chayana ,Ved i c sacrifice ,
64 77
Garuda-Narayana ,form o f V ishnu , 55.
Gaudapada ,th e teacher’s teacher o f San
karacharya ,259 .
Gaulisvara ,sh rine i n th e Tiru vo t t iyur
temple ,2 59 .
Gau ri , s.a . Parvati , 82 77 , 84 , 88 , 1 13 , 1 14 ,
Gauri - tandava ,variety o f Nataraja’
s dance ,84 .
Gautama , sage ,24 1 , 2 54 .
Gayatri , goddess , 73 77 , 9777 , 24 1 : presi dingdei ty o f m o rni ng prayers, 2 18 .
Gitabhavi, epithet of Surapriya, 2 12 .
goad or ho ok symbo l , in th ehand o f A gh éramfi rti, 1 4 8 ; o f A nnap i
'
i rna,2 18 ; o f Bali -Sakt i , 2 2 2 o f
Chamunda, 194 o f Chan désa i nDvapara
-yu ga,
16 1 ; o fDurgi , 19977
o f Ganapat i , 168 , 173 (I l é ram ba-Gana .
pati) —o f I ndra, 24 1 o f Lakshm i ,189 o f Lal ita, Tripurasundari and
Rajarajesvari , 220 o f Pidari, 2 24 77 ,
o f Sarasvati , 185 ; o f S udarsana ,
66 o f Virabhadra,159.
Gon tyalamma,vi l lage dei ty,
224 .
Gépala ,s . a . Krishna , 4 577 , 266 .
gopichandana ,a ki nd o f yel l ow earth used
in maki ng caste marks, 259G6p ls, the cowherd wom en of Brindavana ,
Gépivastrapaharaka, fo rm o f Krishna , 47 .
gopura, th e entrance gate o f a tem pl ewi th a. tower, 84 77 , 88 , 93 77 , 14 7 , 25 1 .
Govardhana , hi l l (near Bri ndavana), 4 3 .
d i nda -Bhai rava, fo rm o f Bhai rava, 1 51 .
grama-devata,a V i l lage dei ty, 2 23 .
Gu l ikan , demon , at tendant o f A iyanar, 230gunja-seeds,garland o f, wo rn by Tvarita,
2 12 .
Gup ta, dynasty, 14 3 77 .
Guruparamparaprabhava , nam e o f a San
skrit wo rk , 262 .
Haladhara, ep ithet o f Balarama, 37 77 .
Ham pi , vi l lage i n th e B e l lary dist rict , 3 577 ,33 77 .
Hanuman,devo tee and servant of Rama
,
35, 37. 64 . 66
H arabhadra nam e o f a D varapala , 251 .
Hari , s. a . Vl shn u , 8 2 77 .
Hari dra-Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapati , 17677.Harihara ,
form o f S iva, 76 77 , 1 25.
H ariharaputra, epithet o f Aiyanar, 229,2 30 .
Har i-parvata, h i l l , 70.
H arivam sa,su ppl em ent to th e Maha
bharata, 2 23 .
H ayagriva ,fo rm o f Vishnu , 55.
Hazara-Ramasvamin,temple, at Ham pi
,
3577.
heads (human) , garland o f, wo rn byMahaKal i , 197 —by Tri pu ra-Bhai ravi , 2 1 2
symbo l , i n th e hand of Kalaratri, 2 1 2o ffered to propi t iate Virabhadra, 16 1 77.
Hémadri, autho r , 1 1
,24 , 2 6
, 3 2 , 4 377, 52 ,
55, 7677 , 7777 , 1 13 , 151 , 162,1 7777 , 19077,
194 , 197 , 20677 , 236 , 239. 24 1 , 24 3 . 248 .
H éramba -Ganapat i , form o f Ganapat i , 173 .
176 .
heroes wo rshipped as v i l lagedei t ies, 230 thei r tem p les i n th e
Palnad tal uk , 234 .
H imalaya ,m oun tai n , 66 , 90, 100.
Himavat , s. a . H imalaya , 90,107 .
H indu Mytho logy (W i l kins ) , quoted , 25 1 .
H iranyagarbha, variety o f Sal i grama, 70 .
H iranyakasipu, demon, 24 , 26 , 30.
H iranyaksha, d o . ,24 .
H iranyavarman,
su rname o f Sim havarm an , 88 .
ho rse , vehic le , o f A iyanar, 230 o f
Kubera , 2 4 8 o f Svapna-Varahi
,
194 77 (seven ) , yoked to the chario t ofS i
'
i rya , 236 (ten ), to th e chari o t o f th eM oon
,239 fo rm ing th e body o f the
A svins,2 5977 .
I I osr‘i r-amm a
,v i l lage dei ty, 2 23 .
human sacri fice, 2 2777h undred -pi l lared hal l , i n th e Varadaraj a
svam i n temple at Conjeeveram, 4 3 .
i lusk i‘
i r -amma , vi l lage dei ty, 2 23 .
H iivinahadagalli, vi l lage i n th e Bel larydistrict, 55.
I N D E X
I deals o f I nd ian A rt (Havel l) , quoted ,
73 77, 79, 14377 , 189. 5977.
In d ian A nt iquary, qua/ed , 24 , 2 1877, 2 34 ,265 .
I ndra, chief o f gods an d regen t o f the
east , 30, 4 3 , 1 13 , 194 , 24 1
I ndra-Lakshmi , s.a. Samanya-Lakshm i
,
187 .
I ndran i , s .a . Mahendri , 194 , 196 .
I nd ras, group o f dent i -gods o f Jainamytho lo gy, 265.
Jaim in i, sage, 24 1 .
j aina, 2 77, 7777 , 2 1877 , 265 z images
(represented naked) , 262 .
j ai n ism , 184 .
j alasayana, fo rm o f recl ining Vishnu, 52 .
j amadagn i, sage , 90, 2 54 .
Jambavat, dem i -god , 3 2 77 .Jambukcsvaram ,
suburb o f Srirangam ,
173 .
Janardana, s. a . Vishnu, 73
j angams, priest ly class o f th e L i ngayatasect , 26877 .
japa-flowers, used as ear-o rnaments by th egoddess Kalaratri,2 1 1 .
Japanese, 16877.
jasm i ne-flower,on e o f th e five arrows o f
Kama , 62 .
jatas, locks o f m atted hai r, 79, 82 77, 103 77 ,
268 .
jatabandha, arran gement o f mat ted hai r,
268 .
jata.bh 5.ra, do . 268 .
jata-makuta, mat ted hai r arranged in th efashion o f a crown
, 1 1, 76 , 77, 79, 90,
103 , 1 10, 1 14 , 137, 14 1 , 16 1
, 162, 185 ,
190 , 197, 268.
jata-mandala, arrangement o f matted hai r ,
jatras , annual festivals hel d in honou r o flo cal dei t ies
, 2 27 .
javel in , weapon , in th e hand o f Nairrita,
2 43 .
j aya , at tendan t o f Skanda,178 ; o f Vish
nu , 50 nam e o f a D varapala, 25 1 .
j ayadeva , Sanskr it poet , 50.
j ina , god , 4 777 , 265 .
Juanabhavi, ep i thet o f Surapriya, 2 12 .
jnanamudra, pose o f fi ngers, 55, 90, 93 ,
2 67 .
j nanamfi rti, fo rm o f Daksh inamfirti, 90.
j ou rnal o f I ndian A rt and I ndust ry ,quoled , 14 1 , 24 177 .
j um na, river, 4 1 , 4 7j vala-N risimha , fo rm o f Narasimha, 70.
Jvaradéva , fo rm o f S iva , 165 .
j yésh tha, th e Sakti (goddess) o f j yésh tha(S iva t 19077.
j yésh tha or Jyésh tha-Lakshm i,go ddess,
2 16, 2 18, 224 , 268 - h er tem ple at li nk
kanfi r, 2 18 .
Io-A
279
Kach chhapésvara, tem ple, at Conjeeveram ,
22 77.
Kadalmal lai, s .a . Mahabal i puram , 72 77 .
Kadru , m o ther o f serpents, 64 77.
Kai lasa, m o un tain , 82 77, 90.
Kailasanatha, tem ple, at Conjeeveram , 2 ,
107.
Kaitabha,dem on , 52 , 19777.
Kakatiya , dynasty, 24Kala
,s. a . Yama, 137 : servant o f Yama ,
2 43 .
Kalabhadra, fo rm o f Chamunda, 197.
Kala-Bhai rava , fo rm o f Bhai rava , 151 .
Kalagn i-Ru dra ,fo rm o f S iva, 155.
Kalaha, s .a . Kalahara, 132 , 2 43 .
Kalahara or Kalaharam fi rti, fo rm o f S iva ,
13 2 7 I 37 , 24 3Kalak t
’
i ta,po ison , produced at the churn
i ng o f th e ocean , 76 , 137.
Kalamukha,sect o f Saivas, 16 1 .
Kalam unda, s.a . Kala, 15 1 .
Kalanasa ,s. a . Kalahara , 7677.
Kala-F i dat i,c. cx. Kal i , 224 .
Kalarat t i, fo rm o f Durga, 202 , 2 1 1 .
Ka lavikaran i, th e Sakt i (goddess) o f Kalavikarana (S iva), 19077 .
Kal i , goddess, conso r t o fMahakala, 151
energy o f S iva i n h is angry m o o d ,196 77 : fo rm of Cham unda, 197, 199 ; o f
Du rga, 19777 , 2 1 1 ; —o f Parvati, 82 , 184 ,
2 24 th e Sakti (goddess) of Kala(S iva) , 19077.Kal i dasa, Sanskri t poet , 177.
Kal ika,conso rt o f Nairrita, 19777,
Kal ika-Pu ri na,1 1 77 , 24 3 .
Kal ika- tandava, variety of Nataraja’s
dance,84 .
Ka l inga,country, 236 .
Kalin gamardana ,s.a . Kaliya -K rishna, 4 1 .
Kal iya, serpent , 38 , 4 1 .
Kaliya Krish na ,fo rm of K rishna, 38, 4 1
Kaliyamma,s .a . Kali , 2 23 , 2 24 .
Kal i-yuga, name o f the fo u rth H indu Peo n ,
16 1 .
Kal k i,i ncarnat io n o f Vishnu , 22 , 4 7.
Kal lar, class o f peo ple in th e Madurad ist ri ct
,230 .
kal pa-vriksha (or -druma) , th e w ish -givi ngcelest ial t ree, 37 : used as vehi clei n processio ns , 7 — fo und on pedestalso f images as au reo la , 76, 173 77 , 265
sacred to th e go ddess 1ne t n i , 196 :
bunch o f its flowers, symbo l o f Sach i ,2 1 .
Kaliana or Kalyanapura , vi llage i n th e
N izam ’
s Dom in ions, 254 .
Kalyanasun dara,fo rm o f S iva, 74 , 103
10
Ki m; or Kamadéva , god o f Love, 62 , 89.
Kamadhenu , th e w ish -givi ng celest ial cow ,
used as vehicle i n pro cessions, 7 .
Kamaksh i-amman , tem ple, at Conjeevetam ,
2 22 .
I N D E X
Ksh étrapala, fo rm o f S iva ,159, 16 1 , 262 77
epithet o f Vatuka -Bhai rava, 16 1 77
Kubéra , god o f weal th and regent o f theno rth , 38 , 248 .
Kuduraivattam -udaiyal, vi l lage dei ty ,
m ent ioned in Ch é la inscript ions, 226 .
Kuja (Mars) , p lanet , 239.
Kukkanfi r , vi l lage i n th e N izam ’s Dom i
nions, 2 18 .
kukkuta (co ck symbo l , i n th e hand o fS kanda , 177, 178 , 267.
K ul ika,serpen t-ch ief, 25 1 .
Kulumayamma , s . a . Ko lumamma,224 .
Kumara, s.a . Skanda, 74 , 8277 , 177 , 1 78 ,194 .
Kumarasambhava , Sanskrit poem , 177.
Kumbakénam ,vi l lage in th e Tanj o re
dist rict,
1 1, 3 2 , 3 577, 55, 70 ,
120,2 27 ,
kunch ita ,posi t ion o f th e leg i n standing
images, 100, 190, 25 1 .
kundika or kamandalu (water -po tsymbo l o f a sannyasin , 259.
Kundédara, demo n, 100.
kunkumam ,red t u rmeric powder , 2 20, 2 22 .
Kunnakudi, vi l lage i n the Madura dist ri ct ,178 .
kfi rpara , el bow , 1 1 4 , 162 77 , 267 .
Kuruksh étra,batt le-field of th e Maha
bharata war, 227 .
Kutakalla,go ddess , 2 20.
Kusadvipa, island , 24 1 .
Kt'
ishmanda-Du rga,fo rm o f Durga
, 202 .
kust i , sacred th read wo rn ro und the wa istby Parsees , 2 3677 .
ku thara,weapon, in the hand o f A ghéra
mfi rti, 148 .
Kuttisattan ,dem on , attendant o f A iyanar,
230.
Lagh usyamala; goddess, 2 20.
Lakshmana,bro ther o f Rama , 35, 37 , 64 ,
66 .
Lakshm i,s. a . 8 11
,17 , 2 277, 50, 52 , 107,
184 , 187, 189, 202 ,2 16 .
Lakshm i-Ga napat i , fo rm o f Ganapati , 173 .
Lakst Narasimha,fo rm o f Narasimha
,
26 .
Lakshm i-Narayana, fo rm o f seated V ishnu ,52 .
Lal i ta, goddess, 2 20, 222 .
Lalitopakhyana, w o rk quo ted in the
Tattvan idh i; 15 1 , 194 77, 2 16 77 .
lamba -pat ra, ornam ent , on the left ear o f
S iva, 76 .
lambi ta , posi t ion of the leg in standi ngimages, 190 .
lam p , symbo l , i n the hand o f Trikan tak i
devl , 2 13Lanka(Ceylon 77 island , 64 7 7 , 66, 2 2377.
Lépakshi, vi l lage i n the A nantapu r dist ri c t ,168 .
lilé -mfirti, a spo rtive fo rm (o f S iva) , 89.
L ilasuka, Sanskri t poet , 4 1 .
l i ly (bl ue) , fl ower , o ne o f the fivearrows o fKama
,62 sym bo l , in th e hand o f
Parvati, 1 10, 190.
l im e -fru i t , symbo l , i n th e hand o f Dh iimtorna
,2 4 3 .
l i nga ,s . a . S iva- l inga , 70, 72 , 73 , 74 , 76,
77 , 93 , 977 107 , I 37 , 14 1 , 143 , I 4 7 7 I S97165
— wo rn o n th e head by MahaLakshm i , 189 — hel d i n the hand byBh fi tamata
, 2 16 .
L inga-Purana , 93 .
L ingapuranadéva 5 a Lingédbhava, 93 .
l inga-wo rship, 73 .
L in gayata , sec t o f Saivas, 16 1 , 165, 26877 .
L ingodbhava , fo rm o f S iva ,24 , 74 , 7677 ,
93 , 97l ion , vehic le o f Budha , 239 o f Bhutamata, 2 16 ; o f Cham unda
, 197, 206o f Chandésa i n the D vapara-yuga,16 1; o f Chandi, 206 ; — o f H éram baGanapa t i , 173 , 176 o f Mah ishasuramard ini , 206
,2 1 1 o f Pratyangira,
2 13 ; o f Rahu , 2 39; o f Skandamata,
202 ; o f S t'
ilin i , 2 13 ; o f Vindhyavasin i , 2 20 banner o f Sfirya, 236pedestal (s m hasana 4777 , 1 10, 25977 .L i tt le Conjeeveram , suburb o f Conjee
veram , 43 .
L6kamahadévi or L6kamahadéviyar, queeno f Rajaraja L , 100, 26277 .
L6kapala , fo rm o f B rahma, 1 1 .
lo tus, th e navel o f Vishnu, 5077 , 52
o ne o f th e five arrows o f Kama,62
sym bo l , 35 i n the hand o f B rahma
1 1 o f Garuda , 64 77 ; o f I ndra, 24 1
o f Jyésh tha, 2 16 ; of Kama, 62
o f Maha-Ganapat i , 173 , o f Moon,239;
o f Sudarsana, 66 o f Sun , 236 ;o f Varuna, 243 ; o f Vishnu
, 17, 52symb o l o f beau ty in the hand o f goddesses
. 1777. 14 3 . x7s. 185, 187. 169. 194 .202 , 2 18 , 220, 267 seat or pedestal ,
55. 76 . 79. 8977. 107. 129.173 72.
1 87, 189, 190, 194 ,199, 2 12 , 220 ,
236 ,239, 24 3 . See paa
’ma .
mace, weapon , i n the hand o f GovindaBhai rava , 15 1 of Nairrita, 243 .
adana-Gopala, fo rm o f K rishna, 4 3 .
Madhava,s .a. K rishna
, 4 1 .
Madhu,demon , 52 , 19777 .
Madhukara ,attendant o f Surapriya, 2 12 .
Madhva, sect o f Brahmanas, 71 .
Madh vacharya ,teacher o f the Dvai ta
scho o l o f phi losophy, 259.
adras M useum , 38 .
Madu ra, country, 2 29, 230 —Sundarésvara '
temple at , 14077 , 262 town, 173Virabhadra tem ple at
,159.
Madurai -Viran , at tendant o fAiyanar, 2 12 77,Magadha, coun try, 239.
282 I N D E X
Magas, class o f Sun -wo rshippers, 23 5.
Magha, l unar m ont h (January-February) ,
Sun -w o rshi ppers o f Persia , 2 3 5.
Mahabal i puram (Mavalivaram ), vi l lage inth e Chingleput d ist rict , 2 , 2 2
,2 4 , 30,
3 2, 50, 107, 1 10, 143 , 187, 189, 199,
202 , 206 , 2 51 .
Maha- 8 hairava ,epithet o f Kshétrapala , 16 1 .
Mahabharata, epic , 22 , 37 , 4 7 , 10077 , 14 1 ,
1 4 3, 176 , 2 27, 26777 .
Maha-Chanda ,name o f th e guard ian dei ty
i n shrines o f J ina,265.
Mahadeva,s . a . S i va , 14 7.
Maha-Ganapati , fo rm o f Ganapat i , 173 ,
Maha-Gauri,form o f Durga, 202 .
Mahakailasa, fo rm o f S iva , 77.
Mahakala, fo rm o f S iva, 15 1 epithet o fKsh ét rapala, 16 1 77 Dvarapala at th e
eastern en t rance o f S iva tem ples, 2 54 77 .
Mahaka l i , s . a . Kal i , 197 .
Maha-Lakshm i , fo rm o f Du rga, 190,206
o f Lakshm i , 189.
Mah i man dapa, pavi l ion i n a tem ple, 2 ,
24 1 .
maham buja ,fo rm o f pedestal , 266 .
Mahambuja ,serpent ch ief, 2 51 .
MahaP adma,s. a . Maham buja , 251 .
maha- pitha,fo rm o f pedestal , 76 .
Maha-Sadasiva , s.a . Mahakailasa , 77 .
Maha-Sarasvati , an emanat ion o f Gau ri ,
MahaS asta, s .a . Aiyanar, 2 29.
m ahavajra, fo rm o f pedesta l , 266 .
Mahayana, fo rm o f Buddh ism , 184 .
Mah éndravarman I , Pallava king , 2 .
Mahendri, one o f th e Saptamatrikas, 190,194 .
Mah ésvara, s .a . S iva, 1 1 77, 194 , 236 .
Mahesvaras, sec t of Saiva devo tees, 190.
Mahesvari,one of the Saptamatrikas, 190,
194 .
Mah i, s .a . Pri thvi, 17 , 187.
Mah ishasura, the bu ffalo- dem on,2 1 1 , 2 2 2 .
Mah ishasura-mandapa, rock-cu t pav i l ion atMahabal ipu ram , 50, 206 .
Mah ishasuramardini , goddess, 19477, 196,197, 202
,206 , 226 .
Mah6dara, 3 77973 , 10077.makara (cro codi le) , banner o f Kama
,62 .
makara-kundala,o rnam ent , on the ri ght ear
o f S i t a, 76 on th e ears o f Surya , 236 .
makara-torana, a crocodile aureo la , 265 .
Malabar , coun try, 2 ,2 2 77 , 32 , 230 , 234 .
Mallamm a,vi l lage deity, 224 .
man,vehicle o fKubéra, 248 o f Nairrita
,
243 .
mana -danda , measu ring rod , symbo l o f
Visvakarma ,1 1 77 .
manas (w o rld ly wisdom ), personified as
Ganapat i , 173 .
Manasa, goddess, 2 12 .
Manasi ra, wo rk on Arts , 10 , 17 , 4777 , 187 ,190 ,
25 1.
mandapa , an o pen hal l or pavi l ion o f a
tem ple , 3 , 2 2 , 8977 , 16277 ,Mandara ,
m o untain , 140 .
mandara , on e o f the five ce lest ial t rees, 15 1 .
mango ,—fiower
,o ne o f the five arrows o f
Kama , 62 fruit, symbo l in the hand o f
Skanda, 1 10 .
Man ikkavasagar (Manikyavachaka) , Sai vasaint , 89, 25977 , 2 62 .
Manmatha , Kama , 6 2 .
Mannadiyar , Dvarapala images in F idat item ples , 224 77 .
Mané nman i , t he Sakt i (goddess) o fManén
mana (S iva ) , 19077 .
Mant ra , port ion o f th e R i g -Veda text ,3 777 .
Manus , th e two , sons o f S t'
irya , 236 the
fo u rteen , 262 .
Mara, s . a. Kama ,2 12 77 .
marani , at t ribu te o f Kama’s ar row , 62 .
Margali, so lar m onth (Decem ber -j anuary) ,82 .
m argosa , t ree ,its leaves used in deco
rat ing th e K’aragam -
po t , 2 2 7 Nagastones set u p under it ,Marika
,s .a . Sitaladévi, 2 24 .
Mariyamma ,do .
, 2 13 , 2 23 , 2 24 .
Markan déya ,sage
,devotee o f S iva , 132 ,
137 .
Markandéya -P ttran a , 197 .
M aru ts,the seven (o r fo rty- nine) , 26 2 .
Matangirala (Matangi ), epithet o f Parvat i,
224 .
matha, th e seat of a pontitT, 265.
Matsya-Pu rana,236 .
M aurya,dynasty, 16877 .
Mayam ata,wo rk on A r ts, 26 , 5077 , 62 , 73 77,
7677 , 8 277 , 84 77, 10077 , 103 , 107 , 1 14 ,
14 7 , 194 , 202 , 243 77, 266 .
Mayfi rabhanja, Survey o f (Nagéndra NathaVasu) ,quoted , 1077 , 52 77 , 7777, 9777 , 16 1 77 ,
16877, 184 77 , 185, 18777, 194 77 , 2 12 77 ,
2 13 7s ,22077 , 2 2377 .
Menaka, m o ther o f Parvat i , 107 .
Méru ,m o un tain , 236 , 239 : used as bow
by Tr ipuran taka , 140.
Meypporul-Nayanar, Saiva sain t , 262 77.
m i rro r , symbo l o f beauty in th e hand o f
goddesses, 220, 267 .
Mlech chhas, fo rei gners, 4 7.
Méh in i, female fo rm o f Vishnu , 1077, 100,
230 .
M oon , planet , 3 2 , 73 , 8 277 , 239, 251 te
presen ted by a crescent , 1 13 used aswhee l to h is chario t by Tripuran taka ,
140 one o f th e th ree eyes o f S iva , 76 .
Mrich chh akatika, Sanskri t d rama,
Mritasanj lvan i , medical herb , 2 5977 .
M t‘
i dbidri, vi l lage in th e So u th Canaradist rict , 265.
Mudgala-Purana , w o rk quo ted in the
Tattvanidh i, 173 , I 76 .
Mudigon dam, v i l lage in the Co im bato redist ric t
,1 55 .
I N D E X
M uhammadan converts (o f th e Cededdist ric ts) , devo ted to H anuman , 66 .
M fikam bika, epithet o f Vin dhyavasin i, 2 20 .
M ukhalinga, fo rm o f S i va, 76 77 .
M ukha -mandapa , pavi l io n in a tem ple, 2 .
Mfi la -Du rga, fo rm o f Du rga,199.
m u lam , l inear m easu re,82 77.
Mfi lasthana , shrine , i n th e Nataraja templeat Chidam baram
, 76 .
M undan,demon , at tendan t o f A iyanar ,
M unisvara,230 .
Muralidhara,s . a . Venu -Gépala, 4 1 .
Muruga, Tam i l name o f S ubrahmanya, 178 .
Musalagan , Tam i l name o f A pasmara , 79,
9077 , 132 , 14 7M utyalamm a
,t lage dei ty, 223 , 224 .
Myso re, count ry, 3 2 , 187, 206 , 2 27 .
Nagémata (m other o f serpen ts) , go ddess,2 12 .
Nagas (serpents) , c lass o f dem i -gods,64 77 ,
2 2 7 , 248 , 25 1 .
Nagen dras , grou p o f dem i -gods o f j ainamyth o lo gy , 265.
Nagesvara ,tem ple, at Kum bakc‘mam , 120.
Nairrita, god , regent o f th e sou th ~west ,19777 , 2 43 .
naivedyam , fo o d o ffered to a god , 7 .
Nalayiraprabandham ,co l lec tion o f Vaish
nava Tam i l hym ns , 72 , 262 .
Nal lur , vi l lage in th e Tanj o re distri c t , 254 77 ,Namakkal , ro ck -cu t tem ples at , 2 677, 3077 ,
3 2 77 , 1 25 .
namam,vernacu lar term fo r
pund ra 3 , 259.
Nam bi-A rt’
iranar , s .a . Sundaram t’
irti, 262 77 .
Nandanar, Pariah sai n t , 89.
Nand i , Nandisa or Nand tkésvara bu l l, 2 , 3 :
devo tee and at tendan t o f S iva, 82 77 ,84 , 162 , 16 5 D varapala at th e
eastern entrance o f S iva tem ples, 254 77 .
Nandi -mandapa, pavi l ion , i n the S risai lamtemple, 16 177 .
Nangai -Paravaiyar, wi fe o f Sundaramt’
irti,
Nara, epi thet o f A rj una, 47 .
Narada,sage
, 38 , 82 77, 90, 97 , 1 1 3 , 2 54 , 265 .
Narasa, co ntracted fo rm o f Narasimha,24 .
Narasimha, th e Man -L io n incarnat ion o f
Vishnu,2 2 , 24 , 26
, 30,148 , 19077
epith et i o f V ishnu, 55 :
— variety o f
saligtama, 70.
arasimh ,o ne o f the Sap tamatrikas , 19077 .
Narayana,s .a . Vishnu
,- recog
n ized in th e orb of S t'
irya , 2 36 .
Nasatya, one o f th e Asvins , 25977 .
Nataraja, the dancin g fo rm o f S iva, 74 ,76 77. 77. 79. 82 , 84 77. 137 , 23077 ,266 , 2 67, 268 .
N avagrahas, the nine Planets,74 , 235.
Navanj ta-Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapat i ,
fi rdh va
283
the butter-dance o f
0
Gch chans, class o f Sakta priests, 226 .
Om ,the sacred myst ic syl lab le o f the
H i nd us, 2 20.
Onam ,harvest fest ival i n Malabar, 35.
ow l,veh ic le o f Mahakal i , 197.
navan itam ritta ,
K rishna , 3877 .
Nayanar , ep i thet o f Sai va sain ts, 2 59 .
Negapatam , vi l lage i n th e Tanjo re distr ict ,173 .
Nepal , Ganesa tem p le i n , 168 77 .
Neralamma , vi l lage dei ty, 224 .
N iddesa,B uddhist wo rk , 248 77 .
n idh i (t reasure ) , symbo l , in th e hand o f
Sukra , 239.
N i ladevi,goddess, conso rt o f V ishnu , 1777 .
N ilagunda ,vi l lage i n Bel lary dist rict , 52 77 .
N i lakan tha, fo rm o f S i va, 137 .
Nirrit i,epi thet o f Jyéstha, 2 1677.
N irukta ,commen tary on th e Mantra por
t ion o f the R i g-Veda, 3777 .
N isum bha ,demon , 222 .
Nityaklinnade'
vatas, group o f goddessesat tending on Lal i ta, 2 16 71.noose (p '
a'
sa or weapon , i n th ehand o f A ghoram t
'
irti,148 o f A nna
pfi rna, 2 18 o f BaIa-Sakti , 22 2 o f
Bhai rava,1 5 1 o f Cham unda, Durga,
Mah ishasuramardin i an d Maha-Lakshm i194 , 206 , 2 1 1 o f Chandesa i n the
D vapara -yuga, 16 1 ; o f Gajaham i rti,125 ; o f Ganapat i , 168 ;
- o f Kala(l ama) , 13 7 , 243
— o f Kala (servanto f Yama ) , 243 ; o f Lakshm i , 189o f Lal i ta, Tripurasundari and Rajaraj esvari
,2 20 o f Malia-Ganapat i , 173
o f Mahalaala, 151 o f Mahendri , 194o f Nataraja , (in Kal ika- tandat a l , 84 ,
(in Sam hara~ tandava) , 88 - o f Parvati ,190 of Pratyangira, 2 13 o f Sarasvati
,185 of Skanda, 177, 178 ; of
Sudarsana ,66 ; of S i
’
ilini , 2 13 o f
Vaj raprastarini , 2 12n o f Varuna ,243 .
N risimha,s . a . N arasimha, 24 , 66 , 70.
N risini haprasada, wo rk quo ted i n the Tattvan idh i , 10, 21 2 .
N t‘ika lamma, vi l lage dei ty, 2 24
P
Padalamma,vi l lage dei ty, 224 .
paddle o f gems, symbo l, in the hand o f
Kurukulla, 2 20.
padnta (lo t us symbo l o f Vishnu , 55.
I’adma ,s .a . Abja , serpent -ch ief, 25 1 .
Padmanabha , fo rm o f reclining Vishnu , 50fi epithet o f Vishnu , 55.
Padman idhi (t reasure) , at tendant o f
Kubera , 248 .
padma-p i tha ,the lo tus pedastal, 155, 266 .
Padma-Purana, 51 , 189.
padmasana ,postu re i n si tt ing , 259 ,
265 ,
266 .
I N D E X
the feet o f Pri thv i , 187 z o f wine , in th ehand o f Kfi shmanda-Durga, 202 — o f
S urap riya, 2 12 See (up and vessel .
prabha or prabh é-mandala, arch o f l i ght ,
Prachanda, name o f Chan désa i n Krita
yuga , 16 1 o f a Dvarapala image, 251 .
Pradesham t’
irti, s .a . Chand rasekhara ,1 14
Pradyumna , epi thet o f Kamadeva ,6 2
fo rm o f stand ing Vishnu , 52 77 , 55, 62variety o f sal i grama , 70 .
Prah lada, dem on , devo tee o f Vishnu , 26 .
Prajapat i 07 Prajapat i -B rahma, fo rm o f
B rahma, 1 1 .
Prajapa tis, th e nine , 2 62 .
prakara, the wal l su rro unding a tem ple , 3 ,
prana,vi tal breath , 2 13 .
pranap ratish tha, ceremony o f in fusmg
77 77 7777 i nto an image , 2 13 77 .
l- ranasak ti, goddess, 2 12 , 2 13 77 .
Pratyangira, do . 2 13 .
Prayogaratna ,wo rk quo ted in th e Tattva
n idh i,23677, 2 6677 .
Prayogasara ,nam e o f a wo rk , 16 1 .
preta,a ghost , 148 .
Pri thvi,s.a . Bhfi , 17, 52 , 187 .
Prit i (pleasure) , conso rt o f Karma, 62one o f the Sakt i goddesses o f Vishnu ,189 .
prékshan i (sprink ler), symbo l , in th e hando f A gni , 243 .
pro tect ing pose o f hand in images, 17, 52 77 ,120, 173 , 187 , 2 18 , 24 1 . See 771717773
777 .
Pudding,symbo l , i n th e hand o f Ganapati ,
Pudgalai, w i fe o f Aiyanar, 2 12 77 , 230 .
pfija, wo rship , 226 , 2 29 .
Pu lindas, an abo riginal t ribe, 223 .
Pullagun ta, vi l lage i n th e Guntur d ist ric t ,2 24 77 .
Pung Pungan t'
ir) -amma,vi l lage deity,
223 .
punnai- t ree
,processional vehic le u sed i n
Vishnu temp les, 4 7 grove o f, 2 26 .
Punnaitturainangai, vi l lage deity, mentionedin Chola i nsc riptions, 226 .
Puranai , w ife o f A iyanar, 2 12 , 23077 .
Puranas, th e eigh teen , 7 , 79, 177, 196 , 224 ,254 , 262 .
Puranic, 1 1 , 55, 129, 132 , 137, 140.
Purari , s .a . Tripurantaka , 76 77 .
Pfi ri-j agannath , temple at , 3777 .
pt'
irnapatra (vessel fu l l o f water) , symbo l o fA gni , 24 3 .
Pfirnasva, female dei ty at tendi ng on Su rapriya,
2 12 .
Push kala, d o. 2 12 .
Pushpagiri , vi l lage i n th e Cuddapahdist ri ct , 47, 143 .
Pushpaka ,the aerial car of Kubera, 37 .
Push t i (st rength ) , one o f the Sak t i goddesses o f Vishnu, 189.
285
Q
quadrangle quadrangular fire -pit) , th eresidence o f A gni, 243 .
R
Radha, cowherd gi rl o f B rindavana, a
favou ri te o f K rishna , 4 1 .
Radha-Krishna , fo rm o f K rishna, 4 1 .
Rahu (th e ascending node) , planet , 239.
Rai chur , S iva tem ple at, 7777 .
Rajadh iraja L , Chola ki ng , 254 .
Rajamatangi, god dess, 2 20.
Rajaraja L , Ché la king, 77, 8877 , 100, 1 1477 ,
Rajarajesvara ,s .a . B rihadisvara, 77, 8877 .
Rajarajesvari , goddess, 220.
rajas or rajasic fo rm, o f Viraphadra ,
159o f Ksh étrapala , 159.
Rajni , conso rt o f Surya , 236 .
rajdpachara , fo rm of ri tual , 3 .
Rakshasas, c lass o f dem i -gods , 243 , 251subdued by Rama , 3 7.
R akshogh nam fi rt i, fo rm of S iva, 148.
Rakta-j yesh tha, fo rm o f j yésh tha, 2 161am
, vehi cle, of Mars, 2 39 : on ni , 243 .
Rama , incarnat ion o f Vishnu , 22 , 35, 3777 ,64 , 26677 kin g o f Ayédhya, 35, 37,66 th e axe-bearer (Parasurama) , 2 2 77 .
Ramachandra or Ramabhadra,s .a . Rama ,
35~Ramanuj acharya , teacher o f the Visish tadvai ta schoo l o f phi losophy, 259.
Ramasvam in , tem p le ,at Kum bakdnam
, 32 ,
Ramayana , ep l c ,22 , 35, 129, 224 77 .
Ramesvaram ,island , 35, 64 77 , 2 30 , 2 51.
ranga, an assem bly-hal l
, 5077 .
Ranganatha ,fo rm o f rec l ining Vishnu
, 50.
rat, vehicle o f Ganapat i , 168 , 173 .
rathas, mono l i th ic m onuments at Mahabalipuram ,
2 .
Rat i (l ove) , conso rt o f Kama , 62 .
Ratnasabhapati, th e pebble Siva-l in‘
gawo rshipped i n the tem ple o f Nataraja at
Chidam baram , 76 .
Raudri , th e Sakt i -(goddess) o f Rudra (S iva ),19077 .
ravi-mandala, au reo la behind the imageso f Nataraja , 7977 .
Reddi , dynasty, 24 .
R évan ta,so n of S t
’
irya, 236 .
R iddh i,conso rt of li ubéra ,
24 8 .
R ik or R ig Véda, 3 777, 97 , 220.
Rishabh avahana, Vrishavahana. , 1 13 .
rish i,a sage, 52 77 , 7977, 9077, 10077 , 132 ,
254 .
ro ck -cu t tem ples, 2 77 , 3077 .
ro sary symbo l , in the hand,of A ghoramfi rti, 148 ; o f Baia Sakth
22 2 o f B rahma, 10, 1 1,
o f i Brahmacharin i, 202 o f B rihaspat i ,239
— of Bhringi, 16577— o f Daksh iné
m t'
irti, 90, 93 o f Ganapat i , 168 ,
I N D E X
(H éramba -Ganapat i ) 173 o f Gangadhara, 13 2 ; o f Hayagriva , 55 ; o f
Lakshm i, 189 o f Parvat i , 190 o f
Pasupatamfi rti, 148 o f rish i images ,
254 ; o f Sarasva t i, 185;—o f S kanda ,
177 o f S ukra,239 o f A gni and
Yama, 24 3 .
Rudra 07' R udram iirti, general fo rm o f
S iva images, 76 , 77, 1 14 , 155, 2 1877 , 223 77 ,
rud raksha- beads, 259.
R udrayamala Tantra ,wo rk quo ted i n the
Tatt t anidh i, 15577 .
R ukm in i, conso rt o f K rishna , 4 3 .
Sabaras, an abo riginal t ribe , 223 .
Sabda—B rahma, th e logos, 187.
Sabh ft omandapa, pavi l i o n in S i va tem ples,74 7 82‘
S abhapati, epi thet o f Nataraj a, 74 , 77, 79,82 77 .
Sach i , conso rt o f I nd ra, 24 1 .
sacrifices o f animals, connec ted wi th tentples o f village de it ies, 2 26 , 227.
Sadasiva ,fo rm o f S iva, 76 77 .
Sagara ,mythica l ki ng o f the So lar race,
129.
S ahasraksha (th e tho usand -eyed) , epi theto f Indra,
24 1 .
Sahasra- l in ga,fo rm o f S iva- l i nga
, 74 .
Sailaputri , form of Du rga, 202 .
Saiva, sect , 3 , 62 , 89, 1 10, 155, 1 5977, 16 1 ,
162 , 165 ,178 , 183 . 206
,2 54 , 259, 262 :
sai nts, 74 , 262 - Pu ranas 73D varapalas, 254 .
Caivagama, wo rkquo ted i n th e Tattvan idh i,202 .
Saiv ism , 73 .
Saiv i te,183 ,
206 ,
Sakta ,creed , 120 ,
176 , 184 ,2 26 .
Sakt i (power), conso rt of Kama,62 .
Sakt i , primeval energy deified , 70, 1 1077 ,
120, 184 , 185, 189, 190, 206,2 12
,2 20,
22 777 , 239.
sakt i , weapon , in th e hand o f Chandika, 197;of Mars 239 ; - o f Skanda , 177 , 178 .
Sakt i-Ganapati , fo rm o f Ganapat i , 176 .
Sakya ,race , 73 .
S al i grama sto nes , 70, 7 1 , 72 .
Saluvankuppam , vi l lage i n th e Chinglepu tdist rict , 107 .
sam a-bhan ga ,m edium bend o f body i nimages, 103 , 129 ,
162 , 168 , 266 .
Sel man or Sama-Veda ,2 20.
Séménya-L akshmi, fo rm o f Lakshm i
,187 .
samapada 07’sam apadasthanaka, standing
post u re in images , 1 14 ,1 59, 266 .
Samayapuram , v i l lage in the Trichinopo lyd ist r ic t , 178 .
Sambhu , S iva , 107.
Sam hara-Bhai rava, fo rm of Bhairava,151 .
Samhara-tandava , variety o f Nataraja’sdance, 84 .
variety o f Nataraja’s
Sanaischara,s . a . Sa
’ ni,
Sanaka ,sage
, 107 .
Sanandana, do .
,107
Sandhya- tandava,
dance , 84 .
S andhyavandan a ,th e dai ly prayer o f th e
Brahmanas, 55 .
Sani (Sat u rn ) , planet , son of Sfi rya , 239 .
sanjal i -m udra,th e wo rshipping post u re o f
hands,259.
Sankara , S i va ,125 .
Sankara or Sankara charya , teacher o f th eA dvai ta schoo l o f ph i losophy, 155, 162 ,259.
San karam , v i l lage in th e Vizagapatamdistri c t , 2 77 .
Sankaranarayana ,s .a . Harihara ,
125 .
Sankaranayanarkoyil , vi l lage i n the Tinnevel ly dist ric t , 125 .
Sankarsh ana , fo rm o f stand ing V ishnu, 5277 ,
55sankha (conch sym bo l o f Vishnu , 26 ,38n , 55 , 2 1 1 .
Sankhadhara , serpent -chief , 25 1 .
ankhan idh i (t reasure) , at tendant o f
Kub éra 248 .
Sankhya ,system o f ph i losophy, 254 .
san nyasm , an ascet i c, 259 .
Santana-Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapati , 176 77.Santana-Gopala ,
fo rm o f K rishna , 37 , 3877 .
one o f th e Sakti goddesseso f Vishnu , 189.
Saptamat rikas, grou p o f goddesses,
190 ,
Sarabh a or Sarabham fir ti, fo rm o f S iva ,
S i rada, fo rm o f Sarasvat i , the presid ingdei ty o f th e 64 sciences
, 187.
S i radatilaka , wo rk quo ted i n th e Tatt vami dh i , 173 77 .
Sarasvat i , goddess o f Learnin g 01 S peech ,conso rt o f B rahma, 1 1 , 82 77 , 184 , 185,187 : on e o f th e Sak t i goddesses of
Vishnu , 189 presi d ing dei ty o f eveningprayers, 2 20.
sara-vana ,fo rest o f so f a -grass, 177 .
Saravanan , Tam i l name for Saravanod
bhava , 2 1877 .
Saravanan -koyil , th e co rrect fo rm o f Sra
manan -koyil at Anamalai,2 18 77
Saravanodbhava,epithet o f S kanda, 8 1 77.
Sarayt‘i , river, 35 .
Sarvabh fi tadamani , the Sakt i (goddess) o fSarvahh t
'
i tadamana (S iva), 19077 .
sarvamoh in i, at t ribu te of Kama’s arrow,62 .
Sati , s . a . Uma, 155,sat i (sut tee ) , wo rshi p o f, 2 29, 230Satrugh n a ,
bro ther o f Rama, 3 7.
Satruvidh vamsin i , go ddess (representednaked) , 2 13 .
Sattan ,demon , attendant o f A iyanar, 230.
sat tva 07'
sattvio fo rm , o f Virabhadra, 159- o f Ksh étrapala, 159.
Satu rday, auspicious fo r touchin g th e
pi pal -tree , 2 16 77,
I N D E X
Satya(Satyabhama) , consort o f Krishna, 4 3 .
Saubhagyabhuvanésvari , goddess , 2 18 .
Saubhagya-Vaglsvari, fo rm o f Vagisvari ,
18
saumsyaka ,fo rm o f pedestal , 266 .
Saunaka, sage, 90 .
Saura -Samh i ta, nam e o f a Sanskri t wo rk ,73 77 .
Saurashtra ,country, 2 39 .
Savi t ri , go ddess, conso rt o f B rahma, 1 1
presid ing dei ty o f m id-day prayers,2 18 : w i fe o f A gni , 243 .
scar , symbo l , o n th e neck o f S iva , 76 , 77 .
sciences, the si x ty-four (ch atush shash tikala 262 .
Scyth ian , 2 1 2 .
Sellan diyamma,vi l lage dei ty, 224 .
Selliyamma ,vi l lage dei ty, s .a . S itala.
2 24 temple at A lam bakkam , 196 .
serpent , i dent ified w i th Subrahmanya(Skanda) , 177 —symbo l o r o rnam ent , o fSai va images, 79, 84 , 90, 103 , 1 10, 125,132 , 148 , 1 51 , 168 , 194 , 192 , 202
,2 12
267 i n the hand o f Fidat i , 224 77
o f Varuna, 24 3 .
Sesha‘, serpent , 2 2 , 24 , 62 77 , 2 51 .
Séshasaila ,Tirupat i H i l l
,62 77 .
Séshasayin ,s.a . A nan tasayin , 50.
Seven M o thers (Saptamatrikas 82 77 ,
Seven Pagodas, Mahabal i puram,2 ,
1 1 , 43 0
Seven S isters , s.a . Saptamatrikas, 2 29.
S hadanana , epi thet o f Skanda ,177, 1 78 .
Shanmatura, do . ,177 .
shash th i, th e si x th day o f a l u nar m onth ,sacred to S ubrahmanya and the serpent
,
177 .
shatkona, a hexagon , co nnected withim ages o f S udarsana, 66 .
shiel d w eapon , i n th e hand o f
Bh fi tamata, 2 16 ; o f Budha, 239
- 0f
Cham unda, Du rga, Mah ishasuramar
din i and Maha-Lakshm i , 194 , 199, 206 ;o f Gajaham fi rti, 1 25 o f Kala
gni-Ru dra , 155; o f Maha-Lakshm i an d
Ko l lapura-Mahalakshm i, 189 o f
N airrita, 24 3 o f Pratyangira, 2 13 77
o f Rahu , 239 ; — o f Skanda ,
o f Sudarsana, 66 o f Vishnu , 1777 , 30 ;o f Virabhadra,
“
159.
Shodasabh uja-Du rga, fo rm o f Du rgi , 2 9 2 .
S hore Tem pl e, Pallava st ructu re at Mahabalipuram ,
2, 107.
siddh ésana , si t t i n g po st u re i nimages
,265 .
S iddhi , female dei ty, co nnected wi th images o f Lakshm i -Narayana, 52 .
S iddh idayini , fo rm o f Durgi , 202 .
si di -swinging , cerem ony observed i n temples o f v i l lage dei t ies, 2 2 5 .
Silappadigaram , Tam i l poem , 229.
Silpa or S ilpa-Sast ra, science o f A rts andPro fession s, 1 , 103 77 , 265 .
S ilparatna, wo rk on A rts, 3777, 64 77 , 73 77
74 77, 7977, 84 77 , 12977 , 1 55 ,173 77 , 1 76 , 19 9, 2 1 2 7;
S ilpasangraha ,work o n A rts
, 35, 4 3 77, 52 77 ,64 77, 84 77 , 9077 , 107 , 12977 , 13 777 , 1 59,177 , 194 , 25 1 , 266 o
S ilpasara,dos , 1 1 77
, 4 1 , 4 3 , 55 , 66,
76 77 , 148 , 151 , 16 1 77, 173 , 1 77 , 187 ,
189, 196 , 2 20, 2 22 , 223 77 , 2 4 1 , 254 77 .
S im hachalam , h i l l and vi l lage in th e
Vizagapatam dist rict,26 .
simhakarna, pose o f fingers , 103 , 1 1077 ,
140, 26 7.
S imhamukhasura, demon , 19977.simhasana (l ion -seat) , pedestal , o f jai na
sai nts , 2 65 .
Simhavarman, king, connected wi th the
h isto ry o f Ch idambaram,88 .
S indhu , co unt ry, 239 .
S i nga or S i nga-Perumal, Tam i l nam e fo r
Narasimha,2 4 .
S iraladévar, Saiva saint,son o f S iruttonda
Nayanar , 262 77 .
sirovartana,the top part o f a S iva- l inga
,
74 77 .
S iruttonda-Nayanar or S irutto nda-Nambi,
Saiva saint, 15977 , 262 77 .
S ita,conso r t o f Ram a
, 35, 37, 64 , 224 77 .
S i tala. or S italadévi, v il lage dei ty , goddess o f small -pox ,2 13 , 224 .
S ittam t'
ir, vi l lage i n th e S ou th A rco t
d istric t , 265.
S iva, go d ,the Dest royer, 2 , 3 , 10, 22 77 , 24 ,
26, 3 2 , 50, 52 , 62 , 70. 72 , 73 , 74 ,
76. 77, 79, 82 , 84 , 88 , 93 , 97,100
, 103 , 107 , 1 14 , 120,12 5,
129, 13 2 , I S7, 140, 14 1 7 I 4 3 , I 47 , I 4 5 .
162, 165, 168 , 177 ,
183 , 184 .185, 190, 194 , 196 , 197,
202,2 1 1 , 2 12 , 224 , 2 26 , 2 2777 , 2 29, 230,
235, 2 36 ,243 77 , 254 77, 259, 267, 268 ;
regent o f the no rth -east quarter, 248 .
S ivadfi ti , goddess, 2 16 .
S iva - l inga,phal l i c symbo l o f S iva,
2 2 77,
64 77 , 72 , 93 , 107, 137 , 18577, 190.
S ivapadasékhara , t i t le o f Rajaraja ,l . , 8877 .
Sivarahasya, chapter o f Sw ra-Sanrh ita,
73”
Sivaratri,fest ival , 97 .
S ivaratri, s.a . Mahakal i, 197 .
S ivatattvaratnakara, wo rk quo ted in the
Tattvan idh i, 151.
Skanda, god , son o f S i va, 74 . 8277, 84 , 107,1 10, 1 13 , 129 , 147 , 177 , 178, 2 18 77
267— name o f the D varapala at the
western ent rance o f S iva tem ples, 254 77 .
Skan damata, fo rm o f Du rga, 202 .
Skanda -Puri na , 72 , 77.
Skandashash th i, s . a . Manasa, 2 12 .
Skanda -Vamala, wo rk quo ted in the
Karanagama, 202 .
sku l l , gar land o f, found on Saiva images767 . 77 , 15 1 , 155, I 59, 2 13 , 2 16
symbol , i n the hand of Saiva images84 . 88 , 125, 137 , 148 , 15 1 , 159, 194 ,
197, 19977 ; o f Pranasakti , 2 12 of
I N D E X
S varna-Ganapa ti , fo rm o f Ganapat i , 176 77.Svasthavésin i , goddess, 2 13 .
svast ika , s.a . lambita ,190, 2 51 .
svayarribh ii , variety o f S iva - l inga , 73 .
Svayamvara,nam e o f Parvati as bride , 107.
S vetambara , sect of jainas, 265 .
swan (l mm sa) , bi rd , fo rm assumed byB rahma, 93 - veh icle o f B rahm i , 194 ;o f Gayat ri , 2 1877 (seven) yoked toth e chario t o f B rahma, 1 1 , 97 ; o f
Varuna ,24 3 .
swo rd weapon , in th e hand o fBha i rava , 151 o f Bh t
’
i tamata, 2 16
o f Budha, 2 39 o f Cham unda, Mahishasuramardin i and Maha-Lakshm i194 ,
206 , 2 1 1 o f Dh i‘im ravati , 2 13
o f Du rga (Katyayan i) , 199 ,202 ;
Gajaham t'
irt i, 125 o f I ndra ,24 1 77
o f Kala -Bhai rava,1 51 o f Katagni
R udra, 155
— o f Mahakal i , 197 o f
N arrita , 24 3 ; o f Pasupatam fi rti,148 o f Pratyangira, 2 13 77 of
Rahu,2 39 o f Skanda, 177 , 178
o f Sivadii ti , 2 16 o f S udarsana ,66
o f Virabhadra , 155 , 159 o f Vishnu ,17, 30 ; o f Yama,
243.
TTakshaka , serpent -ch ief, 251 .
Talupulamma,vil lage dei ty , 2 24 .
tamas or tamasi c fo rm , o f Ksh étrapala ,
159 o f Virabhadra , 159 .
Tam i l, dist ric ts , 1 59, l iteratu re
,developed by A gastya , 254 .
Tanjai-A lagar , image i n th e B rihadisvara
temple at Tanjo re, 82 77Tanjore,
d ist ri c t,230 inscript ions o f,
1077 , 77, 82 77, 9077 , 93 , 1 14 77 , 14 3 , 1 73 77 ,268 - tem ple at
,8877 , 100, 120,
14 7,
155, 15977 , 165, 2 29, 262 77 town , 14 3 77.tanka ,
weapon , i n th e hand o f Sa ivaimages, 77 , 8977 , 97 , 103 , 1 10, 1 13 , 129,
16 1 , 162 , 267 ,
Tantras, class o f literature, 177, 194 77 , 2 2077 ,2 29.
Tan trasara ,wo rk quo ted i n the Tat tva
mi dh i,151 .
Tant rik , pertaining to Tantra l i teratu re,
2 1 1 , 2 1377 , 2 23 ,22 4 ,
Tantrikas, fo l lowers o f Tant rik ri tuals, 185 .
tapani , att r ibu te o f Kama’
s arrow ,62 .
Taraka,demon , 177 , 178 .
tarjani , pose o f fingers , 64 ,162
,267
the second finger o f hand , 1 2977 .
Tattvan idh i,name o f a Sanskri t wo rk , 1077 .
Tavita, Scythian go ddess, 2 12 .
Tel u gu , dist ri cts, 1077 , 159 ,1 77, 2 24 , 229
Tengalai , sec t o f S ri -Vaishnavas , 262
Tenkasi , vi l lage i n th e Tinnevel ly dist rict ,1 73 .
Tennapuram ,tem ple, at Chandragiri , 3577thousand -pi l lared hal l , o f the Sundaresvara
tem ple at Madu ra ,14077.
t hu nder-bo l t (vdfm ) , weapon , in the hand ,of I nd ra ,
24 1 o f Mah éndri, 194 ;
289
o f Skanda , 177 o f S iva who cu t o ffth e head o f B rahma, 9777 o f S udarsana , 66 .
Tigalas , class o f Tam i l -speaking gardenersi n Myso re , 2 27.
t i ger, vehic le o f Katyayani, 202 itsskin , wo rn by Saiva images , 77 , 120, 162 ,
194 , 197 used as seat by sa 7777y 77si77s ,259 its claws, used as an o rnament
,
3877 .
t i laka o f ku 77k77777a 777, mark o f beau ty on
th e fo rehead o f women, 22 2 .
Til lai , Tam i l name for Ch idambaram, 89Tinnevel ly, distric t , 230.
Tiruch ch endt'
ir, vi l lage i n the T innevellv
dist ric t, 178.
J
Tiruchch engodu , vi l lage i n the Salem district
, 76 , 120, 2 13 77 .
Tirujnanasam bandar or Jnanasambandar ,Sai va saint
, 2 59, 262 77 .
Ti rukkoyi l u r , vi l lage in th e So u th A rco tdist ric t
, 30 .
Ti rumala ,s .a . Tiru pat i H i l l , 72 77.
Ti rumalai (near vi l lage i n th eNo rth A rco t dist ric t , 26 5.
Tirumalisai, vi l lage i n th e Chingleput district , 202 .
Tirumangai-A l var , Vaishnava sai nt,262 .
tirumurram , Tam i l name (in Cholainscript ions) fo r the shrines of vi l lagedei t ies
,224 .
Tirum urugarruppadai, Tam i l poem ,178.
Tirunavukkaraiyar, Saiva saint,262 77 .
Tiru pat i , h i l l and vi l lage i n the Ch i t too rdist r i ct
,62 , 66 .
Tiruppalatturai, vi l lage i n the Trich inopo ly d istri ct , 2 1377 .
Tiru pparangunram , v i l lage i n th e Maduradist rict
,178 , 2 16 , 2 1877 .
Ti ru t tani,h l ll and vi l lage i n the Chit too r
dist ri ct , 178 .
Tirutturaippfi ndi, vi l lage i n the Tanjored ist ric t , 100,
1 25, 129.
Tiruvadandai, vi l lage i n th e Chingleputdist ri ct , 24 .
Ti ruvadi , vi l lage i n th e Tanjo re d ist ric t ,Tiruvalangadu , vi l lage in th e Chi ttoo rdist rict
,82 .
Tiruval-udaiyal, vi l lage deity,ment ioned
i n Chéla i nscriptio ns, 226 .
Tiruvanaikkaval, s . a . Jambukésvaram , 77,
97 , 173Tiruvarangulam ,
v i l lage in the Pudukké ttaiS tate , 262 .
Ti ruvarur, vi l lage i n th e Tanjo re dist ric t ,76 .
Tiruvasagam ,co l lect ion o f the hym ns o f
Man ikkavasagar, 262 .
Tiruvengavasal , vi l lage i n th e PudukkéttaiS tate , 93
Tiruvenkat tu-Nangai,w i fe o f Siruttonda
Nayanar, 262 77 .
Tiruvo ttiyt’
t r , vi l lage i n th e Ch inglepu tdist ri ct
, 97, 173 77 , 178, 202 ,2 26 , 259.
I N D E X
tamara (pest le) , sym bo l of A gni , 24 3 .
To rto ise, incarnat ion of Vish n u ,140 ; vehicl e o f Yam una, 248 .
Traipurusha o r Traipurushadéva, tem pleso f
,1077 , 23 5 .
t ree-and -serpent Wo rshi p , 177 , 248 .
Treta-
yuga ,name o f th e second H indu
aeon , 16 1 .
t riangle, equ i lateral , connected wi thimages o f Sudarsana,
66 .
tribhanga, th e three-fo l d bend o f bo dy i nimages, 107 .
Trich ino po ly, rock -cu t cave at , 132 th e
Uchchi -Pillaiyar temple on th e rock at,
1 76 .
tridanda (t riple staff) , symbo l , i n the han do f Sri-Vaishnava son ny fism s , 259.
tri dent weapon , in th e hand o fSaiva images, 7777 , 84 , 88 , 9777 , 100,
137, 14077 , 143 , 159,197, 19977 , 202 , zeo o f
Pidari, 2 24 77 ; of Rahu , 239 o f
Sani , 239 ;— of S ivadt
’
i ti , 2 16,— o f
S udarsana, 66 ; o f Pratyangira an d
S iilin i , 2 13 fixed i n the ground to
represent a v i l lage dei ty, 2 23 (fiaming), symbo l , in th e hand o f A gni andYama
,24 3 .
Trikan takidévi , goddess, 2 13 .
Trimij rti, th e th ree gods o f th e H i nduTriad
,2 36 .
Tripl i cane, su burb of Madras , 47.
Tripu ra,dem on of th e th ree magic c i t ies,
140, 14 1 .
Tri pura-Bhai ravi , go ddess, 2 12 .
Tripurantaka 07' Tripuran takam t
'
irti,fo rm
o f S iva , 7677, 140, 14 1 , 26777 .
Tripu ra-S undari, goddess, 2 20.
Tri pu ra -tandava ,variety o f Nataraja’
s
dance, 8 4.
Trivand rum ,capital o f Travanco re , 50
Trivikrama ,fo rm o f Vamana, 2 2
, 30,
32 epi thet o f Vishnu , 55.
t runks (human ) , garland o f , w o rn bv S i varat ri , 197 .
Tsallamma, s .a . Selliyamma,2 24 .
Tu laja-Bhavani , go ddess, 2 20.
Tuluvas, class o f peopl e, 234 .
Tumb uru, dem i-god (w ith ho rse- face), 32 ,
82 77 .
Turaiyt‘
i r , vi l lage i n th e Trich inopo ly dist riet , 4 377 .
Tush ti (pleasu re), one o f the Sakt i goddesses o f Vishnu , 189.
Tvarita,go ddess
,2 1 2 , 223 considered
to be a widow , 2 12 77 .
Tyagaraja,name o f Samaskanda at Ti ru
vart'
ir , 76.
Uchchan gi-amma ,vil lage dei ty, 2 23 .
Uch ch h ish ta-Ganapat i , form o f Ganapat i ,27.
Uchch i -Pillaiyar , temple (o f Ganapat i) onth e rock at Trich inopo ly, 176 .
udarabandhana, gi rdle round the be l ly, 10,
50 .
Udayagi ri , v i l lage an d h il l fo rt ress i n theNel lo re dist rict
,r
3877 .
Uddz
gn da-Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapat i ,
17Udichya, at tendant o f Yama,
243 .
Ud ipi , vi l lage i n th e So uth Canara dist ri ct ,38 .
udukkai,Tam i l fo rm o f 777 7 7777
, 77 .
udumbara fig-t ree, sacred to th e goddess
,
Kaumari,196 .
Ugra -Narasimha , fo rm o f Narasim ha, 26.
Ugra -Tara, go ddess, 2 13 .
Ulagalanda-Perumal , Tam i l nam e for
Trivikrama, 30 tem ple at Kanch i(Conjeeveram ), 30.
Ulagattal , vil lage dei ty, 2 24 .
Uma or Uma-
paramesvari, s (7 . Parvat i,82 77 ,
Uma-Mahesvara,fo rm o f S iva, 1 13 .
Umasah ita , do , 7677 , 1 10.
Umaskanda, s. a . Somaskanda, 76 77 .
Uma-tandava,var iety o f Nataraja’
s dance,
84 .
umb rel la,symbo l , i n th e hand o f vamana,
3 2 on th e top o f j aina fi gu res , 7777.Upanishads, th e ph i losoph ic exposi t ions o f
th e Vedas, 184 used as reins to h is
ho rses, by Tripuran taka, 140.
Urdh va-Ganapat i,fo rm o f Ganapat i
, 176 .
Urdh va- tandava, variety o f Nataraja’
s
dance, 82 , 88 .
fi rdh va -pundra,caste mark of th e Vaish
navas, 259.
ush nisha, crown , 4 777 , 88 .
utkatika ,postu re in si t t ing , 266 .
Vvach (logos) , wo rd , 184 .
Vagisvari , s .a . Sarasvati , 185.
Vaikun tha-Narayana, fo rm o f Vishnu ,52 .
Vaikuntha-Perumal, temple, at Conjeeveram , 2 .
Vainatéya, fo rm o f Garuda, 64 77 .
Vaishnava , 3 , 1 7, 26, 3877 , 4 1 , 6 2 , 66 , 71 ,
Vaish navi , one o f the Saptamatrikas, 190,
Vaishnavi- Sak ti , consort of Gavinda -Bhairava
,r51 .
Vaishnavism , 38 .
Vaishnavism , Saiv ism , etc . (Bhandarkar) ,quoted , 14877 , 16877, 178, 23577 , 23677,24877 .
Vaishnavite, 35 , 55, 62 ,‘64 , 72 , 151 , 185,
196 , 2 1877 .
Vaisya, caste, 190 , 2 29, 239.
Vaivah ika,s.a .
' Kalyanasandara , 7677, 103 .
vajrakita, insect , fo rm assumed by Vishnufor bo ring holes in the Sal igrama stones,70.
I N D E X
vajrapitha, fo rm o f pedestal , 266 .
Vajraprastarin i, goddess, 2 12 .
Vall i or Valliyamman , co n so r t o f Skanda ,
Valm iki , sage and au tho r , 3 777 .
Valuvfi r, vi l lage in th e Tanjo re d ist rict ,100 ,
125, 162 , 2 30.
Velma, th e Sakti (goddess) o f Vama or Va.
madéva (S iva) , 190/z.
Vamana ,th e Dwarf- incarnat ion o f Vish nu ,
2 2 , 30, 3 2 epi thet of Vishnu , 55variety o f Sal igrama, 70.
Vamiana-Purana, 16577 .
vanamala, garland o f flowers, wo rn byVishnu , 17, 50 by Vaish navi , 194 .
Vand i -Kaliyamma ,vi l lage dei ty, 2 24 .
Van niyan , s. a. Pal l i , 2 27 .
varada ,boon -giving pose o f hand in
images 10, I 7, 64 77 , 66 , 76 , 8977 ,
90, 1 10,1 14 , 137. 148 , 177 ,
189, 190, 194 , 202 , 2 12 71, 239, 24 1 77 ,
243 , 248 , 266 .
Varadarajasvam in , temp le, at L i tt le Conjeeveram , 4 3 .
Vara-Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapat i , 176 .
Varaha, th e B oar-i ncarnat ion o f Vishnu ,22 , 26 , 30.
Varaba-mandapa, ro ck -cu t pavi l ion at
Mahabal ipu ram , 30.
Varahamih ira , ast ronomer, 23677 .
Varaba-Perumal , rock -cu t temple at Mahaba lip uram , 2 2 .
Varaba-Purana, 162 .
Varah i , on e o f th e Saptamatrikas, 190,
Varah ikalpa, wo rk quo ted i n th e Tat tvan idh i, I g4 7a.
Varuna , regent o f th e west and lo rd o f th eocean , 243 .
Varuni , goddess, 220.
Vasan ta (S pring ) , friend o f Karma , 62 .
vasikabandha ,fashio n o f making up th e
hai r, 2 16 , 268 .
Vasish tha , sage , 3777 , 90, 254 .
Vasish tharamayana ,nam e o f a Sanskri t
wo rk, 37 77 .
Vasudéxa, fo rm of standing V ishnu55 variety o f Sali grama 70 s . a .
Krishna, 196 .
Vasuk i, serpent - ch ief, 140, 25 1 .
Vasus ,th e eight , 262 .
Vatapatrasayin ,fo rm o f K rishna (Vishnu ) ,
37Vattapi rai- amman , goddess, in th e tem ple
at Ti ruvo tt iyur , 2 26 .
Vatuka-Bha’
rm a , fo rm of Bhai rava,16 177 .
Vayu , “ind , lord o f th e no rth -westquarter ,248 , 267 chario teer o f A gn i
, 24 3 .
Vedanta -D ésika, S rLVaish nava teacher ,
2 59 .
Védas , th e fou r , 30, 32 , 177 , 3 3 5, 25977symbo l , in front o f B rahma images
,1 1 77
i n the hand o f A ghoramfi rti, 14 5fo l lowing Dattatréya i n the fo rm o f
291
do gs, 1 1 77 carried (as personifiedimages) by H ayagriva 55 fo rm ing thebody o f Garuda, 64 77 used as ho rses, toh is chario t , by Tripurantaka , 140: repre
sented , by th e goddesses Gayatrl , savimand Sarasvati , 2 20; by th e Sun ,
2 36their seven m etres repre
sented as seven ho rses o f the Sun ,
2 36 77 .
Ved ic , 7, 64 77 , 2 4 1 , 251 , 254 .
vél, Tam il name fo r sakti , 177.
Velayudha,Tam i l name fo r S ubrahmanya,
178 .
‘v'
en lcatésa or Venkataramana , fo rm o f
stand ing V ishnu on th e Ti ru pat i H ill62 .
Vénu-Gopala , fo rm o f Krishna, 4 3 .
vessel , symbo l , i n th e hand o f Lakshm i ,187 , 189 o f Mahen d ri
, 194
(o f bl ood ), i n th e hand o f Sivadr’
i ti,
2 16 (o f food ), i n the hand o f
A nnapurna, 2 18 o f Talaj a-Bhavarii,
220 (o f gem s) , i n th e hand o f Savi tri ,24 3 o f Varuna 2 43 (o f wine), i n th ehand o f Lagh usyamala and Varu ni , 220.
See cup and pot .V é tala, demon , vehicle o f Virabhadra
, 155.
V ibh ish ana , Rakshasa chief, 37.
Vidyadharas , class o f dem i -gods, 251j aina mytho logy,
265 .
Vighnésa or Vigh nésvara ,s.a . Ganapat i
,
82 71 , 168 ,2 24 77 .
Vijaya ,a t tendant o f Vishnu
, 50 o f
S kanda , 178 name of a Dvarapalaimage ,2 51 .
Vijaya -Ganapat i , fo rm o f Ganapati, 176 .
Vijayanagara (Ham pi ) , vil lage i n the
Bel lary dist ri ct , 24 , 26 , 3877 , 88.
vina, th e I nd ian l u te , 90, 2 20,251
b o l in th e hand o f Narada, 254 ;Sarasvat i , 18577 .
Vinadhara- Daksh inamfi rti,
Daksh inamfi rti, 90.
Ganapat i , 82 77 , 165, 1 6877,
187 , 194 , 267 nam e o f th e Dvarapala
at th e southern entrance o f S iva temples,254 77.V indhy a ,
m ountain , 2 23 .
Vin dhyavasin i, fo rm o f D urga,V irabh adra , fierce emanat ion o f S iva, 74 ,89, 1 55, 159 , 16 1 77, 194 , 2 2777 , 234 .
Vira .Ch 6 la ,surname o f Paran taka L , 88.
V im -Lakshm i , fo rm o f Lakshm i, 189.
Vim -Narayana, su rname o f Paran taka
88 .
V ita-Sai va, s .a . L ingayata , 165.
Vi ta-Sakt i , goddess, connected wi thC(3maskan da , 1 10 Parvat i in h er
independent fo rm ,18577 .
virasana ,po stu re in sitt in g
,3 7 , 197 , 266 77 .
Vira-Vira , wa lk in g fo rm o f Virabhad ra,1 9.
Virgsvara , s. a . Virabhadra , 1 13 .
Visalaksh i , nam e o f th e godd t ss Parvati at
B enares, 2 18 77,
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