preface - link.springer.com3a978-1-137-37884-2%2f… · three constituent divisions namely...
TRANSCRIPT
Not es
Preface
1. The united Kerala State, the Malayalam-speaking province of southwest India, was formed on November 1, 1956. Prior to 1956, Kerala was three constituent divisions namely Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar. Malabar was an ancient name applied to the entire southwest coast of India. However, the British employed the term “Malabar” to refer to only the northern part of the present Kerala State, which came under their direct rule. Malabar was part of the Madras province of British India and Travancore and Cochin were princely states. Malabar con-tinued to be a district of Madras State until 1956, when, according to the recommendation of the States Reorganisation Commission, it was made part of Kerala. Continuing the British practice, today the term Malabar, which constitutes several districts—Kozhikode, Palaghat, Malappuram, Kannoor, Wayanad, and Kasargod—is applied only to northern Kerala. Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends, rev. ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1992), 343–344. Even though Muslims are scattered all over Kerala, today, nearly 70 percent of them live in Malabar. The rest of them lives out-side Kerala. They have emigrated to southern Karnataka, western Tamil Nadu, and most of the cities of India, and many countries of the world. There are some non-Mappila Muslims also living in Kerala. They include a few Urdu-speaking Muslims who are called Pathanis, Muslim immigrants from the adjacent state of Tamil Nadu, who are called Rawthar Muslims, and few Bohra Gujaratis. K. T. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education among the Mappilas of Malabar, 1800 to 1965 (New Delhi: Nunes Publishers, 1990), 34.
2. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, xv.3. Arabie-Malayalam is a system of writing Malayalam language using
Arabic script with special orthographic symbols. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 289.
4. I traveled to different parts of Kerala and met Vakkom Moulavi’s rela-tives and grandchildren, and a number of scholars who were familiar with his writings. I also visited Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, which was started by his children and friends as a lasting memory of Vakkom Moulavi, in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, in search of his
No t e s176
original writings. I eventually learned that Vakkom Moulavi’s original writings do not exist today. His personal library is also lost.
5. Abda’s collection contains the following articles: “Surat al-Fatiha,” “Qur’an Padanathinu Oru Muqavara” [An Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an], “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles], “Mathaparamaya Chila Chodyagalum Avaykku Moulaviyude Samadanagalum” [Certain Religious Questions and Moulavi’s Response to it], Al-Islah Al-Dini, “Islam Mata Navikaranam” [Islamic Religious Renewal], “Tawhidum Shirkum” [Tawhid and Shirk], “Nammude Avasta” [Our Condition], “Nammude Streekal” [Our Women], “Mathavum Sastravum” [Religion and Science], “Bhayam” [Fear], “Lawh al-Sabah” [Light of the Dawn]. Mohamed Kannu reproduced three articles (An Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an, Islamic Religious Renewal, and Fear) already published in Abda’s collection. Apart from that, Kannu’s collection included the following articles: “Moulidunabavi” [Mawlid al-Nabawi], “Oru Avatharika” [A Preface], “Wahhabitam” [Wahhabism], and “Islam Matathekuriche Mahakavi Vallatholinte Abaddha Dharana [Poet Vallathol’s Misunderstanding about Islam]. Kannu’s collection also includes three sermons of Vakkom Moulavi.
6. K. K. Muhammad Abdulkareem, “Thiruvithamkoorile Adyakala Vidyabhasa Pravarthanangal” [Early educational endeavors in Travancore], in Souvenir: Mujahid State Conference, 1997 [No publica-tion details], 237–240.
7. al-Manar, 30 no. 2 (1348 Safar [July 1929]). Mohamed Kannu pub-lished a Malayalam translation of this letter; see M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulaviyum Navothana Nayakanmaurum (Jeevacarithra Padanangal) [Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical Studies)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1982), 3–8.
8. The Travancore Deportation: A Brief Account of the Deportation of K. Ramakrishna Pillai (Kottakkal: Ramgopal & Co., 1911); P. Rajagopala Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, on the Suppression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper (Trivandrum: n.p, 1912).
9. His father was a close friend of Vakkom Moulavi.10. M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram) [Vakkom Moulavi
(Biography)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1981).11. M. Mohamed Kannu, “Samudaya Uthejakanaya Vakkom Moulavi”
[Vakkom Moulavi: One who Inspires Community], Thirurangadi Yatheem Kahana Silver Jubilee Souvenir, April 5, 1970: 111–116.
12. M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulaviyum Navothana Nayakan-maurum (Jeevacarithra Padanangal) [Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical Studies)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1982).
13. K. M. Seethi, “Vakkom Moulaviye Patti Chila Smaranakal” [A Few Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi],
No t e s 177
ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 348–354. K. M. Seethi Sahib, “Parethanaya Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Chila Smaranakal” [Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Few Reminiscences], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 137–173.
14. K. M. Moulavi, “Parethanaya Muhammad Abdul Khadir Moulavi” [Late Muhammad Abdul Khadir Moulavi], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 174–177.
15. S. Mohamed Abda, Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi] (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979); Mohamed Abda, “Vakkukale Padavalakkiya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom Moulavi who Turned Words into a Sword], Madhyamam, September 12, 1988, n.p; K. M. Bashir, “ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulaviyum’ Swadeshabhimani Rama-krishna Pillayum” [“ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai”] (Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, n.p.); K. M. Bashir, “Speech Delivered by Mr. K. M. Bashir at the Inaugural meet of the Trust on 21st June 1987,” http://www.vmft.org/documents/kmbspeech1.htm, accessed on August 1, 2008; M. Bashir, “Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi,” Shabab, October 27, 2000: 6, 13, 15; M. A. Shakoor, “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who Led Islamic Renaissance in Kerala,” http://vmmrcblogspotcom.blogspot.com, accessed June 1, 2008. M. A. Shakoor, “Introduction,” in Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram) [Vakkom Moulavi (Biography)], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: By the author, 1981), i–viii.
16. P. A. Sayed Mohamed, Kerala Muslim Charithram [Kerala Muslim History] (Trichur: Current Books, 1969), 212–213. C. N. Ahammed Moulavi and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem, Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 494–498. K. T. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998). A. Muhammad Javed, “Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Addehatinte Jeevithathilekhum Pravarthanangalilekhum Oru Ethinottam” [“Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Glimpse into his Life and Work”], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 17–37. C. K. Kareem, Kerala Muslim History, Statistics and Directory. Vol. I. History of Kerala and of Her Muslims (Edapally: Charitram Publications, 1997), 576–580. A. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom Moulavi: Nammude Navodhana Nayakan” [“Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader”], Hijra 4, no.11 (November 1985): 7–12.
No t e s178
17. S. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi (A Study) (Trivandrum: Samkrama-nam, 1983). S. Sharafudeen, “Vakkom Maulavi: A Pioneer Journalist of Kerala,” Journal of Kerala Studies 8 (March–December 1981): 93–102.
18. Chunakkara Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi” in Mahacharitha-maala, no. 156 (Biographies of Vakkom Maulavi, Malloor Govinda Pillai, K. Kunhikkannan, V. A. Sayed Muhammed) (Kottayam: Kairali Children’s Book Trust, 1986), 3–42. It was published as part of a series named mahacharithamaala (garland of great stories/history), which was meant to introduce great personalities of Kerala to children. P. M. Nair and M. Rasheed were two other people who highlighted Vakkom Moulavi’s contributions for the national movement in Kerala. P. M. Nair, Swatantrya Samara Senanikal [Freedom Fighters] (Trivandrum: Forward Publications, 1980). M. Rasheed, Swathantrya Samarathile Muslim Nayakar [Muslim Leaders of Freedom Struggle] (Calicut: Yuvatha Book House, 2000?).
19. T. Venugopal, “Vakkom Moulaviyude Samuhya Chintakal” [“Vakkom Moulavi’s Social Views”], Madhyamam, n.d. July 1988, n.p. T. Venugopal, “ ‘Swadeshabhimani’ Prasthanathinte Muvar Sangham” [Three-member Association of Swadeshabhimani Movement], Madhya-mam, n.d. July 1988, n.p.
20. N. A. Kareem, “Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi,” Madhyamam, March 24, 2001, 4. N. A. Kareem, “Moulaviyum Deepikayum (padanam)” [Moulavi and Deepika: A study], in Vakkom Moulaviyude “Deepika” Ottavaliathil [Vakkom Moulavi’s Deepika in Single Volume] (Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, 1992).
21. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 270–273.22. T. Jamal Muhammad. Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi (Thiruvanan-
thapuram: Prabhatham Book House, 2010).
Introduction
1. Black pepper (piper nigrum), popularly known as black gold, was grown only in Kerala until the Dutch spread its cultivation in Java. Until well after the Middle Ages, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa traveled there from Kerala. K. M. Mohamed, “Arab Relation with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th Centuries,” The Malabar 1, no.1 (2001): 8. Sebastian R. Prange, “ ‘Measuring by the Bushel’: Reweighing the Indian Ocean Pepper Trade,” Historical Research, 84, no. 224 (2011): 214.
2. The term Malabar is probably a combination of two words: a Malayalam word mala, which means hill or mountain, and an Arabic word barr, which means land or a Persian word bar, which means country. As Malabar is a hilly region, according to Muhammad Ali,
No t e s 179
“country or land of hill” is “a name well suited to its physical configu-ration.” K. T. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education among the Mappilas of Malabar, 1800 to 1965 (New Delhi: Nunes Publishers, 1990), 1. Malabar was a term coined and bestowed by outsiders. Based on Nainar’s work, Miller argues that the Arab geographer, Yaqut (1179–1229) is the first one who gave the name “Malabar.” Earlier Idrisi (ca. 1154) had used “Manibar” and “Malibar”. Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends, rev. ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1992). However, Innes notes that Al-Biruni (970–1039) is the first one to call the country Malabar. Before that, the Egyptian merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes used the term Male to refer the west coast of India. C. A. Innes, Malabar (Gazetter) (Thiruvananthapuram: The State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers, 1997), 2.
3. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 4.4. Sunil Gupta, “A Historiographical Survey of Studies on Indo-Roman
Sea Trade and Indian Ocean Trade,” Indian Historical Review, 32, no. 1 (January, 2005): 141. Also Innes, Malabar, 27.
5. Mohamed. “Arab Relation with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th Centuries,” 7–8.
6. Muziris is usually identified with the present-day Cranganore or Kodungallur, which is north of Cochin, Kerala. However, in 1341 CE it was silted up and lost its importance. Later, it was replaced by Cochin and Calicut ports. Quilon was another important port of Kerala dur-ing the Middle Ages. Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 5th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 70.
7. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 39–40.8. S. M. Muhamed Koya, Mappilas of Malabar: Studies in Social and
Cultural History (Calicut: Sandhya Publications, 1993), 15.9. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 40.
10. Shalva Weil, “Indian Judaic Tradition,” in Religions in South Asia, ed. Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby (London: Palgrave Publishers, 2006), 169–183.
11. Shalva Weil, “Cochin Jews,” in Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture, ed. Judith Baskin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 107.
12. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 15.13. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 41–42. Many Mappila Muslims
trace their origin to the Hadramaut town of Tarim. See also Engseng Ho, The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
14. A. P. Ibrahim Kunju, “Origin and Spread of Islam in Kerala,” in Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer (Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995), 22–23.
15. Many Tamil Muslims also understand that they are descendants of people who converted to Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet.
No t e s180
Vasudha Narayanan, “Religious Vocabulary and Regional Identity: A Study of Tamil Cirappuranam,” in Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia, ed. David Gilmartin and Bruce B Lawrence (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 74.
16. In the caste-ridden society of Kerala, Nairs came after Brahmins in social hierarchy. Nairs worked as military commanders and held high government positions.
17. Vijayalekshmy M., “Towards Understanding the Islamic Diaspora in Pre-Colonial Kerala,” in Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. Dr. V. Kunhali (Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002), 30.
18. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 32.19. W. Logan, Malabar Manual Vol. 1 (Madras: Superintendent,
Government Press, 1887), 191 and C. A. Innes, Malabar, 185.20. Lewish Moore, Malabar Law and Custom, 3rd edition (Madras:
Higginbotham & Co., 1905), 418; E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of India Vol. 4 (Madras: Government Press, 1909), 458; and H. Gundert, A Malayalam and English Dictionary (Mangalore: Basel Mission Press, 1872).
21. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 5; Stephen Frederic Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 236.
22. Kunhali. V, Sufism in Kerala (Calicut: Publication Division, University of Calicut, 2004), 44–45.
23. Ibid.24. Aravana, kolkkali, oppana, vattakkali, kolattam, kalari payat, parica kali,
onakali, teyyam, etc. are the most common art forms of the Mappilas. A. P. Ibrahim Kunju, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: Their History and Culture (Trivandrum: Sandya Publications, 1989), 185–189.
25. Dale, Islamic Society, 24.26. Prema Kurian, “Colonialism and Ethnogenesis: A Study of Kerala,
India,” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 393.27. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 8.28. Engineer, “Kerala Muslims in Historical Perspective—An Introduction,”
6–7. The Nair and Tiya Hindu communities of Kerala practice Maru-makattayam system of inheritance. However, from the beginning of twentieth century, Marumakattayam system disintegrated in Kerala, though a few wealthy Mappila families of coastal towns still practice it. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 7.
29. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 8–9.30. Filippo Osella and Caroline Osella, “Islamism and Social Reform in
Kerala, South India,” Modern Asian Studies 42, no. 2/3 (2008): 321.31. Engseng Ho, “Empire through Diasporic Eyes: A View from the Other
Boat,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 46, no. 2 (2004): 210–246.
No t e s 181
32. In this book, Vakkom Moulavi used a number of classical and modern works to defend Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328) and Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) against the allegations made by conservative Muslims in Kerala. He noted that many of these works were known among Mappila Muslim scholars in Kerala.
33. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 51.34. Engineer, “Kerala Muslims in Historical Perspective: An Introduction,”
14. The vernacular of Muslims of Tamil Nadu also contains many Arabic and Persian loan words. Vasudha Narayanan, “Religious Vocabulary,” 74.
35. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 59.36. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 289.37. Dale, Islamic Society on, 5.38. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 4.39. Miller, Mappila Muslims, 51.40. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 12. Dale notes that
only in Kondotti, Malabar, is it possible to see a substantial example of north Indian Islamic architecture belonging to earlier than the nine-teenth century. Dale, Islamic Society, 27.
41. Muhammad Ali, The Development of Education, 11–12.42. North Indian Muslims follow Hanafi School of jurisprudence.43. Bindu Malieckal, “Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night’s
Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India,” The Muslim World 95, no. 2 (2005): 298 and 305.
44. Dale, Islamic Society, 8.45. Dale, Islamic Society, 11.46. Dilip Menon. “Houses by the Sea: State-Formation Experiments in
Malabar, 1760–1800,” Economic and Political Weekly (July 17, 1999), 1996.
47. Ibid. Kerala has a network of around 50 rivers.48. Dale, Islamic Society, 64.49. Ibid., 26.50. This is also true of the Christians and Jews of Kerala, who were also
traditionally engaged in maritime trade.51. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 60.52. K. K. N. Kurup, Aspects of Kerala History and Culture (Trivandrum:
College Book House, 1977), 50.53. A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, rev. ed. (Chennai:
S. Viswanathan [Printers & Publishers], Pvt., Ltd, 2003), 318. The Zamorins were rulers of Calicut, Malabar.
54. P. J. Cherian, ed., William Logan’s Malabar Manual in Two Volumes (New Edition with Commentaries) (Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Gazetters, 2000), vol. 1, 335; Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, 94.
55. Kurup, Aspects of Kerala History, 50.56. Ibid., 58–59.
No t e s182
57. K. N. Panikkar, “Peasant Exploitation in Malabar in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Kerala Studies 11 (1984): 156.
58. Dale, Islamic Society, 94–95.59. In 1684, the English obtained from the Queen of Attingal permission
to erect a factory at Anjengo and in 1690 to build a fort. See Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, 318–320.
60. K. M. Panikkar, A History of Kerala: 1498–1801 (Annamalainagar: The Annamalai University, 1960), 229.
61. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, 326.62. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 100.63. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolution in Kerala: Travancore 1859–1938
(New Delhi: Phoenix Publishing House Pvt Ltd, n.d), 17.64. Michael Mann, “Torchbearers upon the Path of Progress: Britain’s
Ideology of a ‘Moral and Material Progress’ in India,” in Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India, ed. Harld Fischer-Tine and Michael Mann (London: Anthem Press, 2004), 4.
65. Gyan Prakash, “Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 32, no.2 (1990): 386.
66. Don Habibi, “The Moral Dimensions of J. S. Mill’s Colonialism,” Journal of Social Philosophy, 30, no.1 (1999): 125.
67. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 6.
68. Ibid., 7.69. Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of
Modern India (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 81.70. Don Habibi, “The Moral Dimensions of J.S. Mill’s Colonialism,” Ibid.
Journal of Social Philosophy, 30, no.1 (1999): 125.71. Ibid.72. Ibid., 132.73. Ibid., 126, 132–133.74. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 3–4.75. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under
Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), xi.76. Ibid., 63.77. Ibid., 2.78. K. N. Ganesh “Cultural Encounters under Colonialism: The Case
of Education in Keralam.” In Culture and Modernity: Historical Explorations, ed. K. N. Ganesh (Calicut: University of Calicut Publication Division, 2004), 152.
79. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 3–9.80. Gyan Prakash, “Postcolonial Criticism and Indian Historiography,”
Social Text 31/32 (1992): 17.81. Jacques Pouchepadass, Review of Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial
Thought and Historical Difference, by Dipesh Chakrabarty, in History and Theory 41 (October 2002): 381–382.
No t e s 183
82. Ibid.83. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 40.84. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 4–5.85. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy, ix.86. Ibid.87. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 4–5.88. Modernity in this context refers to a set of ideological and institutional
premises that emerged in post-medieval European history. Generally, the beginning of the modern period is marked in the eighteenth cen-tury by the emergence of Enlightenment thought. Some of the hall-marks of modernity include notions of progress, secularism, utility, and capitalism.
89. In the rest of the country, only touching a person from a lower-caste was considered to pollute a person from a higher caste. However, in Kerala, a lower-caste person is considered by Brahmins as unapproach-able and unseeable. The person of the lower caste was required to keep a distance from the upper-caste Hindus. A Nair could not touch a Brahmin, an Ezhava had to keep at least thirty-two feet distance from him. Panikkar, “Land Control, Ideology and Reform,” 33.
90. Until the end of the nineteenth century, they were denied access to government schools and public health care facilities.
91. Manali Desai, “Indirect British Rule, State Formation and Welfare in Kerala, India, 1860–1960,” Social Science History 29, no. 3 (2005): 463.
92. Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu State: Travancore 1858–1936 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 26.
93. Prerna Singh. “We-ness and Welfare: A Longitudinal Analysis of Social Development in Kerala, India,” World Development 39, no. 2 (2010): 283–284. Desai, “Indirect British Rule,” 463.
94. V. K. Ramachandran, “On Kerala’s Development Achievement,” in Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives, ed. Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 268.
95. Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu State, 7–8.96. Sree Narayana Guru was the most prominent socio-religious reformer
in the history of Kerala. He was born into an Ezhava family, at a time when Ezhavas were at the bottom of the socio-economic hierarchy in Kerala. He protested against the caste system and propagated values of social equality and universal brotherhood. In order to improve the community, he established several schools and temples. Vakkom was one of the centers of Narayana Guru’s activities.
97. This was an organization formed in order to propagate and promote the moral teachings (dharma) of Sree Narayana Guru.
98. Pulayas are one of the “outcastes,” in fact the lowest in the caste hier-archy among Hindus in Kerala.
99. George Mathew, Communal Road to a Secular Kerala (New Delhi: Concept Publishing House, 1989), 36.
No t e s184
100. Tharakan, P. K. Michael. Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development: The Case of Nineteenth Century Travancore. Working Paper no. 190. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies, 1984.
101. Ibid., 4–5.102. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in
Travancore, 1847–1908 (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1976), 147.
103. Singh, “We-ness and Welfare,” 284.104. N. A. Kareem, “Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi,”
Madhyamam, 24 March 2001, 4.105. P. Rajagopala Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, on the
Suppression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper (Trivandrum, 1912), 2.106. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History
of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885–1938), vol. 2 (Trivandrum: Department of Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, 2001), 2–3.
107. D. C. Kizhakkemuri, Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishnapillai (Trivandrum: Department of Publication for the University of Kerala, 2000), 11.
108. C. N. Ahammed Moulavi and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem, Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 496.
109. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters under Colonialism,” 152.110. Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam:
Custodians of Change. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 64–66.
111. Muhammadali, T. “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas.” In Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. V. Kunhali, (Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002), 94.
112. Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 50.
113. Ibid., 26.114. Ibid., 26–27.115. Ibid., 36.116. Ibid., 45.117. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, eds.,
Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication (London: Routledge, 2006), viii.
118. Albert Habib Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 235–236.
119. Rahman, Islam and Modernity, 50–51.120. K. N. Ganesh, “Introduction,” in Culture and Modernity: Historical
Explorations, ed. K. N. Ganesh (Calicut: University of Calicut Publication Division, 2004), 13–18.
121. Inderpal Grewal, Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), 13.
No t e s 185
122. This distinction between the material and spiritual domains of life made another division between the West and the self, which in turn led to the distinction between the world and the home. The public sphere becomes the area of modernity, a material world. The spiritual, private sphere of home became the area of tradition, where indigenous culture might be preserved in an uncontaminated way.
123. Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 6.
124. Rahman, Islam and Modernity, 46.125. Mahmoud Haddad, “The Manarists and Modernism: An Attempt
to Fuse Society and Religion,” in Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, ed. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi (London: Routledge, 2006), 60.
126. Rahman, Islam and Modernity, 28.127. Ibid., 15.
1 Vakkom Moulavi: Biographical Details
1. Kulachal is a coastal town in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, which was then an important center for trade and commerce.
2. M. Mohammed Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram) [Vakkom Moulavi (Biography)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1981), 19; S. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi (A Study) (Trivandrum: Samkrama-nam, 1983), 15.
3. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi, 16.4. P. M. Nair, Swathantra Samara Senanikal [Freedom Fighters] (Trivandrum:
Forward Publications, 1980), 212.5. Taluk is an administrative subdivision of a district within a state. It
exercises certain fiscal and administrative powers over the villages and municipalities within its jurisdiction.
6. Varkala is situated about 9 kilometers from Vakkom.7. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi, 15.8. Ibid., 14. Vakkom Moulavi had four brothers and five sisters.9. Ibid., 15–16. Vakkom was a famous center for the coir industry in
Kerala.10. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 13.11. M. A. Shakoor, “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who Led Islamic
Renaissance in Kerala,” http://vmmrcblogspotcom.blogspot.com, 1, accessed June 1, 2008.
12. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998), 57.
13. M. P. Appan (1913–2003), a prominent Malayalam poet and literary critic, noted that Sri Narayana Guru was a friend of Vakkom Moulavi.
No t e s186
M. P. Appan, “Vakkom Moulavi: Adyatmiyatayum Bhautikatayum Othinaggiya Mahan” [Vakkom Moulavi: The Saint who Combined Spirituality and Materialism] Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust Newsletter, 4, nos. 1&2 (March–April, 1993): 17.
14. S. Sharafudeen, “Vakkom Moulavi—A Pioneer Journalist of Kerala,” Journal of Kerala Studies, 8 (March-December 1981): 93.
15. Alappuzha is the vernacular form for Alleppey, which was one of the ancient trading centers in Travancore. Many prominent Muslim mer-chants from Gujarat and parts of Malabar lived there. Adam Sait, father of Sulayman Moulavi, was one of the famous merchants of Alappuzha.
16. In 1894, Sulayman Moulavi established a litho press and a publish-ing house named Amirul Islam in Alleppey. In 1899, he published an Arabie-Malayalam weekly titled Manivilakku [a lamp that shines like a jewel], which contained several articles dealing with Islamic religious beliefs and practices. Prominent Muslim leaders of Alappuzah, such as N. M. Muhammad Kunju Sahib, P. S. Muhammad Sahib, and Alappuzha Muhammad Kannu Sahib, contributed scholarly articles to this journal. Vakkom Moulavi wrote a series of articles titled “Muslim Community” in this journal, dealing with the religious and educational conditions of Mappila Muslims. Sulayman Moulavi authored several books in Arabie-Malayalam and also established a madrasa in Alappuzha. C. N. Ahammed Moulavi and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem, Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 411–413.
17. Tahsildar is a revenue officer in charge of a tahsil, which is a subdivi-sion of a district.
18. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 14–15. Names and other details of these two teachers are not mentioned either by Kannu or by other Mappila historians.
19. Ibid., 19.20. Kayalpatnam is a town in the Tuticorin district of Tamil Nadu, India.
It was the chief port of Ma’bar and was an important trading center even before the arrival of Islam. It was inhabited by Muslim traders and had a number of prominent mosques and madrasas.
21. Kizhakara (or Kilakarai in Tamil) is another prominent coastal town, situated in the southern part of Tamil Nadu. It was also an ancient port town with many mosques and madrasas and was a center of Muslim traders.
22. The Kural is one of the most important forms of classical Tamil poetry. It is a very short poetic form, exactly two lines, the first line consisting of four words and the second line consisting of three. Thirukkural is one of the greatest philosophical works in the Tamil language written by Thiruvalluvar, is considered to be the first work to focus on ethics, in the Buddhist-Jain literature of India. Thirukkural (or the Kural, as it is popularly known) is a collection of 1330 Tamil couplets organized into 133 chapters.
No t e s 187
23. Nannul is a handbook of Tamil grammar and an outstanding work in the Tamil grammatical tradition. It was written by Saint Pavananti in the thirteenth century.
24. Kerala Varma Valiya Koyi Thampuran was a poet and essayist in Kerala. His work, Abhijnana Sakunthalam (1898), which is a translation of Kalidasa’s Sakunthalam, is one of the most acclaimed works of poetry in Malayalam.
25. A. R. Rajaraja Varma was also a poet, essayist, grammarian, and liter-ary critic. He was a nephew of Kerala Varma Valiya Koyi Thampuran.
26. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi, 25.27. Shakoor, “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who,” 1.28. Ibid., 216.29. Nuh Kannu Musaliyar, who was from Poovar, Travancore, wrote many
books in Arabie-Malayalam such as Fathussamad, which, first pub-lished in 1881, discusses Islamic religious beliefs and practices, remem-brance of God (dhikr) and fiqh. For several years, it has been used as one of the textbooks for religious education in Kerala. Fathuhunnur fi Muhimmathis Umuur was another work, which summarizes certain parts of al-Ghazali’s Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din (Revival of Religious Sciences) and deals with aqida (creeds of faith), sufism (tasawwuf) and fiqh. It is believed that Vakkom Moulavi was one of Muhammad Nuh Kannu Musaliyar’s students. However, we do not know which subjects he taught Moulavi. See Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 55, 286–289.
30. Abdul Salam was educated at Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi and helped Vakkom Moulavi in his socio-religious reform activities. He contributed scholarly articles to journals such as al-Amin (published by Muhammad Abdu Rahman Sahib), Aikyam (published by K. M. Seethi Sahib and A. Muhammad Kannu), and Rasikan (published by A. Muhammad Kannu) and Yuvalokam. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 498.
31. Abdul Wahhab mastered several languages, including Arabic, Urdu, English, and Malayalam and worked as an Arabic teacher (munshi). He contributed several articles to newspapers, such as the Deccan Times and Prabhatham. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 500.
32. Vakkom Abdul Khadir was a famous Malayalam literary critic in Kerala. In fact, among the writers and academicians of Kerala, Vakkom Abdul Kahdir came to be more widely known and respected than his father. He was a great scholar of both Eastern and Western litera-ture and thought and he wrote more than twenty books. He trans-lated Muhammad Iqbal’s Asrar-i Khudi, Shikwa and Jawab-i Shikwa into Malayalam. He worked as subeditor of al-Amin (published by Muhammad Abdu Rahman Sahib), Mappila Review, Prabhatham (published from Quilon) and as the editor of Vijnanam, Tulika, and
No t e s188
Subhodhini. He also worked as the publication manager of such jour-nals as Prakasham (Cochin), Pradhidhoni (Punalur) and Bharata Chandrika (Perumbavoor). During the early half of the twentieth cen-tury, atheism was popular among the intellectuals of Kerala. Therefore, throughout his works, he critiqued the foundations of atheism and rationally defended religious values and beliefs. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 498–500. There is an anecdote explaining why he was named after his father. Like other women of her time, Vakkom Moulavi’s wife, Amina, was hesitant to call him by his name or even to pronounce his name. To challenge this cultural practice, Vakkom Moulavi decided to name his son after himself. However, until the death of Vakkom Moulavi, she never called her son by his name. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 112–113.
33. Abdul Haqq earned a BA degree from Madras Muhammadan College and worked as a teacher in Malaysia and Kerala. He wrote Muslim Indiayude Uddharakan [Liberator of Muslim India], 2 volumes. Ibid., 500.
34. Vakkom Moulavi passed away when Mohammed Eeza was just three years old. His early education was in Trivandrum but he went to Madras to pursue higher studies. After his studies, he worked as a teacher in Kerala and contributed several articles to various newspapers in Kerala such as Kaumudi, Mathrubhoomi, Kala Kaumudi, Chitra Karthika, Kerala Kaumudi, and Chinta. According to Mohammed Kannu, his name was Yahya Eeza. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 19.
35. Muhammad Abda published several articles and translated, along with M. Abdul Wahhab, Golden Events of Islamic History (no details on the book are available) into Malayalam. His most important publication was Vakkom Moulaviyude Tiranjedutha Krithikal, which was a col-lection of selected articles of Vakkom Moulavi. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 577–578.
36. Francis Robinson, “Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print,” Modern Asian Studies, 27, no.1 (1993): 232–233.
37. The first modern Malayalam printing press, known as the Church Missionary Society Press, was started by Rev. Benjamin Bailey in 1823 at Kottayam. In 1841, Bailey printed the first complete Malayalam Bible. In 1848, Church Missionary Society published the first Malayalam journal from Kottayam, titled Gnana Nikshepam. The first Malayalam newspaper, Paschima Tharaka, issued from Cochin in 1864.
38. T. Muhammadali, “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas.” In Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. V. Kunhali (Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002), 96–97.
39. Tipoothil Kunjahamad learnt printing technology from Basel mission-aries at Tellicherry. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 45–46.
No t e s 189
40. S. A. Shanavas, “Translations of Qur’an in Malayalam,” Islam and the Modern Age 24 (1993): 271–272. Mayan Kutty’s translation of the Qur’an was in six volumes and was printed in Bombay. Shanavas claimed that it was the first translation of the Qur’an in any Dravidian language.
41. Robin Jeffrey, “The Three Stages of Print: Testing Ideas of ‘Public Sphere,’ ‘Print-Capitalism’ and ‘Public Action’ in Kerala, India” (Paper presented at the 15th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Canberra, 29 June–2 July 2004), 6–11.
42. Chunakkara Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” Mahacharithamaala, no. 156 (Kottayam: Kairali Children’s Book Trust, 1986), 12–13.
43. Robin Jeffrey, “The Three Stages of Print . . . ,” 12.44. Ibid., 2.45. This explains why the government suppressed newspapers in Kerala
in the first half of the twentieth century. Swadesabhimani (1910), Malayala Manorama (1938), and Desabhimani (1943) were the three newspapers suppressed in Kerala.
46. Vakkom Moulavi bought the printing press for 12,000 rupees from London through his brothers, who were prominent merchants and had close contact with companies in England. The equipment was imported by the Pears Lesley Company in Alleppey, Kerala. According to con-temporary standards, it was a highly sophisticated printing machine. The Kerala government owned the only other press with same features; see Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 29–30. In 1905, there were 28 privately owned printing presses in Travancore. Thottupuram, “Foundations of Kerala Education . . . ,” 300.
47. Anjengo is located 36 kilometers north of Trivandrum and 3 kilome-ters southwest of Vakkom. It was a historically significant town for the Portuguese, Dutch, and English traders. In 1684, the English East India Company chose Anjuthengu to establish their first trading center in Kerala.
48. Sharafudeen, “Vakkom Maulavi—A Pioneer Journalist of Kerala,” 95. Pylopol was famous for his publication of a dictionary of literature (stories of Hindu Puranas), which came out in 1899.
49. Chirayinkil C. P. Govinda Pillai, “Vakkom Moulaviyum and Swadesabhimaniyum” [Vakkom Moulavi and Swadesabhimani], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 196–197.
50. K. M. Bashir, “ ‘Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulaviyum’ Swadesabhimani Ramakrishna Pillayum” [“Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi” and Swadesabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai], Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, n.d), 2.
51. Ibid.52. C. P. Govinda Pillai took the responsibility of promoting the newspa-
per at various places in Travancore. Govinda Pillai, “Vakkom Moulavi and Swadesabhimani,” 196–197.
No t e s190
53. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi, 33.54. Ibid., 33.55. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 31.56. Swadesabhimani started as a weekly newspaper, published every
Wednesday.57. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 31–32.58. This may be one of the reasons why many Muslims from Malabar also
subscribed to Swadesabhimani.59. Bashir, “ ‘Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadesabhimani
Ramakrishna Pillai,” 2.60. Govinda Pillai, “Vakkom Moulavi and Swadesabhimani,” 198.61. Anchal was the postal service of the Travancore government, which
operated independently from the British postal system in Kerala.62. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History
of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885–1938), vol. 2 (Trivandrum: Department of Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, 2001), 21–22.
63. Neyyattinkara is 20 kilometers south of Trivandrum city.64. Ramakrishnan Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadeshabhimani (1878–1916)
(Trivandrum: The Kerala Academy of Political Science, 1975), 1.65. It was published thrice a month. It lasted for one year and seven
months. The newspaper did not deal with political issues. It primarily published book reviews. Ibid., 6.
66. The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala, ibid., 22.67. Ibid.68. At this time he resumed his BA studies, and in 1901he got married to
Nanikuttyamma.69. Kerala Panchika highlighted the need for Malayalees to pay more
attention on trade and commerce. It also underlined the significance of formulating an organized public opinion. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 6.
70. D. C. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai (Trivandrum: Department of Publication for the University of Kerala, 2000), 30.
71. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 16.72. Ibid., 17.73. Ibid., 34.74. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 17.75. Ibid., 19. He also published a book titled Powra Vidyabhyasam [civic
education].76. Ibid., 18–19.77. The novel was written by K Narayana Kurrikal, who was a government
employee. He did not want to claim its authorship. Therefore, for a long time the novel was known as the work of Ramakrishna Pillai. Kurikkal played a major role in shaping Ramakrishna Pillai’s ideas. The novel was a direct attack on Shankaran Thampi, a confidant of the Maharaja.
No t e s 191
78. D. C. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 40; The Regional Records Survey Committee, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala, 22.
79. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 16–17.80. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram), 38–39.81. Many Kerala history books even held that Ramakrishna Pillai owned
Swadesabhimani press and the newspaper. Vakkom Moulavi’s vision for Swadesabhimani was not adequately recognized.
82. According to Govinda Pillai, since it was felt that the countryside was not suitable for modern journalism, the press was moved to Trivandrum. Govinda Pillai, “Vakkom Moulavi and Swadesabhimani,” 199.
83. Bashir, “ ‘Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadesabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai,” 3.
84. According to Kalyanikutty Amma, Ramakrishna Pillai’s wife, whenever Vakkom Moulavi visited Ramakrishna Pillai, they did not spend much time together. B. Kalyani Amma, “Moulaviyum Swadesabhimaniyum” [Moulavi and Swadesabhimani], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 345.
85. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 45.86. John Ochaduruth, “Islamika Navodhanavum Vakkom Moulaviyum”
[Islamic Reform and Vakkom Moulavi], Matrubhoomi, November 4, 1982, n.p.
87. Puthupally Raghavan, Kerala Patrapravarthana Charitram [History of Newspapers in Kerala] (Kottayam: D.C. Books, 2001), 207.
88. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 45–46.89. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 20.90. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 39. Ramakrishna Pillai also set up a book-
store along with the press. Thus, Ramakrishna Pillai became a pub-lisher, author, distributor, and journalist. Along with the newspaper, Ramakrishna Pillai also published, from the Swadesabhimani press, Keralan, a women’s journal titled Saradha, and a youth journal titled Vidyarthi. See Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 45–46.
91. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 57–58.92. N. A. Kareem, “Swadesabhimani Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi,”
Madhyamam, March 24, 2001, 4.93. On January 1, 1906, Vakkom Moulavi had begun the publication of
a Malayalam journal named Muslim.94. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 59.95. Ibid., 57.96. Ibid.97. Ibid.98. Ibid.99. Ibid.
100. Ibid., 58.
No t e s192
101. Ibid., 62.102. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila
Literary Tradition, 558.103. Prior to Vakkom Moulavi, Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal (1847–1912)
wrote the book Muallim al Ikhwan to reform and simplify the Arabie-Malayalam language.
104. Vakkom Moulavi wrote a letter to Rashid Rida, which was published in al-Manar in July 1929 (1348 Safar). It was in 1913 that Vakkom Moulavi sent his first letter to Rashid Rida, expressing his desire to subscribe to al-Manar. It was prior to this date that Rappid Rida visited Vakkom. Therefore, his visit could have been in 1912/1913.
105. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 108.106. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 67.107. This is P. Abdul Khadir Moulavi. See Mahataya Sahitya Charitram, 555.108. This is K. M. Seethi Sahib. See Mahataya Sahitya Charitram,
565–566.109. al-Manar, 30, no. 2 (1348 Safar [July 1929]). According to Shakoor,
Vakkom Moulavi preserved beautifully bound volumes of al-Manar in his personal library. M. A. Shakoor. “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who,” 1.
110. Miller quotes Maulavi C. K. Muhammad Shirazi. Miller, Roland E. Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Rev. ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1992), 270.
111. M. Mohammed Kannu, Vakkom Moulaviyum Navothana Nayakan-maurum (Jeevacarithra Padanangal) [Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical Studies)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1982), 31, 51–52.
112. Yoginder Sikand, Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005), 125.
113. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 71.114. M. Bashir, “Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi,” Shabab (27 October
2000), n.p.115. N. A. Kareem, “Moulaviyum Deepikayum (Padanam)” [Moulavi and
Deepika: A study], in Vakkom Moulaviyude “Deepika” Ottavaliathil [Vakkom Moulavi’s Deepika in Single Volume] (Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, 1992), xi.
116. Shakoor, “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who,” 4.117. The Muharram festival commemorates the martyrdom of Imam
Hussain, the grandson of the Prophet. This festival starts on the 1st day of Muharram and lasts for 10 days until the tenth of Muharram.
118. Marumakkatayam is the inheritance by the children of the sister.119. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 72.120. Mohamed Abda, “Vakkukale Padavalakkiya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom
Moulavi who Turned Words into Sword], Madhyamam, 12 September 1988, n.p. According to Shahul Hamid, Vakkom Moulavi was only 24 years old when he made this translation, making the date of
No t e s 193
composition to 1897. A. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom Moulavi: Nammude Navodhana Nayakan” [Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader], Hijra 4, no.11 (November, 1985): 11.
121. Abda, “Vakkom Moulavi who Turned Words into a Sword,” n.p.122. These lectures, which were masterpieces of erudition, were later pub-
lished as Khutbat-i Madras.123. Stoddard was an Islamic scholar and author of The New World of Islam
in 1921. In the preface, Stoddard noted that “the entire world of Islam is today in profound ferment . . . A gigantic transformation is taking place whose results must affect all mankind. This transformation was greatly stimulated by the late war. But it began long before. More than a hundred years ago the seeds were sown . . .” (p. v). The book, which discusses the religious, cultural, political, economic and social aspects of this transformation, contains nine chapters apart from an introduc-tion titled “The Decline and Fall of the Old Islamic World” and a conclusion. Lothrop begins the book with a brief general sketch of the rise of Islam, then proceeds to a somewhat more detailed account of Pan-Islamism, which, he held, began in its modern form with the Wahhabi movement. It follows the emergence of a large number of movements so that the “world of Islam, mentally and spiritually quies-cent for almost a thousand years is once more on the march” (p. 355). In Lothrop’s analysis, the Western influence upon Islam was respon-sible for the political, social and economic aspect of this “great trans-formation.” The Western impact moved the “Immovable East” to its very depths (p. 355).
124. Lord Headley (1855–1935) was a leading British soldier, peer, states-man, and author. Educated at Cambridge University, he became a peer in 1877, served in the army as a captain and later as lieutenant-colonel. He embraced Islam in 1913 and adopted the name Shaikh Rahmatullah al-Farooq and became a proponent of the Ahmadiyya movement. In 1914, he established the British Muslim Society and served as its president. He was the author of several books on Islam, including A Western Awakening to Islam and Three Great Prophets of the World. He was a widely traveled man and twice made the hajj and visited India in 1928. In the preface to the book, Headley narrates his conversion to Islam experience and explains the reasons why he chose to convert. The book, which consists of twelve chapters, was written to defend Islam from critics.
125. Unfortunately, Ramakrishna Pillai could not translate this book.126. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [An Outline
of Islamic Religious Principles], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 85. Hereafter “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles.” Also Abda, “Vakkom Moulavi who Turned Words into Sword,” n.p.
127. A. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader,” 9.
No t e s194
2 SWADESHABHIMANI and Identity Politics in Kerala
1. Stephen Frederic Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 18.
2. K. N. Panikkar. “Land Control, Ideology and Reform: A Study of the Changes in Family Organization and Marriage System in Kerala” Indian Historical Review, IV. no. 1 (July, 1997), 37.
3. Kabeer, V. A. Ahmad. A History of Muslims in Kerala. Vol. 1 (Trivandrum: Velavoor Publishing House, 1989), 66–67. It is believed that the Namboodiri Brahmins immigrated to Kerala during the reign of second Chera Empire. As custodians of religion, gradually they reor-ganized the Kerala society based on Hindu caste principles. This pro-cess, known as “Aryanization” of Kerala, produced a feudal society in Kerala based of caste principles, between ninth and thirteenth centuries. T. C. Varghese, Agrarian Change and Economic Consequences (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1970), 9–12. Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History (Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1970), 325.
4. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, 332.5. Panikkar, “Land Control, Ideology and Reform,” 30.6. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, 348.7. K. N. Panikkar. “Land Control, Ideology and Reform,” 30.8. This legend is authenticated by traditional historical account of Kerala,
such as Keralolpathi, which is composed by Brahmins to legitimize traditional social divisions, sometime during the seventeenth or eigh-teenth century.
9. Varghese, Agrarian Change, 15.10. Ibid., 1996. East India Company records tended to regard the larger
households as kingdoms.11. Dale, Islamic Society, 18.12. Ibid., 170.13. Panikkar, “Land Control, Ideology and Reform,” 36.14. P. K. Michael Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Devel-
opment: The Case of Nineteenth Century Travancore, Working Paper no. 190 (Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies, 1984), 64.
15. Panikkar, “Land Control, Ideology and Reform,” 37.16. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 64 and
50–51.17. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolution in Kerala: Travancore 1859–1938
(New Delhi: Phoenix Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, n.d.), 37–38.18. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline of Nayar Dominance: Society and Politics in
Travancore, 1847–1908 (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1976), 118.
19. Ibid., 249, 265–269.20. Dilip Menon, “Houses by the Sea: State-Formation Experiments in
Malabar, 1760–1800,” Economic and Political Weekly, 17 (1999): 1998.
No t e s 195
21. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolution in Kerala, 19.22. P. K. Michael Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Devel-
opment: The Case of Nineteenth Century Travancore. Working Paper no. 190 (Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies, 1984), 64.
23. Ibid., 6.24. Kurian Cherian Thottupruam, “Foundations of Kerala Education:
An Investigation into Selected Historical Roots” (Ph.D. diss., Loyola University, Chicago, 1981), 254.
25. K. N. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters under Colonialism: The Case of Education in Keralam,” in Culture and Modernity: Historical Explorations, ed. K. N. Ganesh (Calicut: University of Calicut Publication Division, 2004), 168.
26. The CMS concentrated in Central and North Travancore and among Syrian Christians—at least initially—and the LMS in south Travancore and among Shannars and other lower castes. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 24.
27. Ibid., 28.28. Thottupruam, “Foundations of Kerala Education,” 279.29. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 24.30. Ibid., 29.31. R. J. Hepzi Joy, History and Development of Education of Women in Kerala
(1819–1947) (Thiruvananthapuram: Seminary Publications, 1995), 208.32. Sathi is the practice through which widows are voluntarily or forcibly
burned alive on their husband’s funeral pyre. The term devadasi origi-nally described a Hindu religious practice in which girls married and dedicated to a deity. They spent time in temples and engaged in sex outside of marriage. Mannappedi or pulappedi was a custom by which an upper-caste woman could lose her caste if any male from castes like Pulaya, Paraya, or Mannan happened to see her or touch her by any means. Then she would be expelled from the caste or had to move in with the “low-caste” person, according to the discretion of the elders. This would apply especially on the night of a specific day that fell in the month of Karkatakam (roughly corresponding to the dates July 15 to August 15) in the Gregorian calendar.
33. Joy, History and Development of Education of Women in Kerala (1819–1947), 215.
34. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters under Colonialism,” 171–172.35. Ibid., 171.36. Ibid., 172.37. Ibid., 172–173.38. T. Muhammedali, “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality
in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas.” In Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. V. Kunhali (Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002), 95.
39. This was in response to the gradually developing movement of the socially depressed castes and sections of the population, and also as part
No t e s196
of the effort to check the growing influence of missionaries. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters,” 177.
40. Ibid., 178.41. Ibid., 172.42. Muhammadali, “Colonial Education,” 95.43. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters,” 172.44. Ibid., 180.45. Ibid., 171.46. Ibid., 170.47. Ibid., 154–155; and 182–183.48. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 3.49. Ibid., 36.50. Thottupruam, “Foundations of Kerala Education,” 290.51. Ibid., 4.52. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 292.53. Thottupruam, “Foundations of Kerala Education,” 295.54. T. K. Velu Pillai. The Travancore State Manual (Trivandrum: Government
of Kerala, Kerala Gazetteers Department, 1996 [first published 1940]), vol. 3, 715.
55. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolution in Kerala, 37.56. Koji Kawashima, Missionaries and a Hindu State: Travancore 1858–1936
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998), 7–8.57. The Rev. Benjamin Bailey was the founder missionary of the Church
Missionary Society station at Kottayam, Kerala. He was also the first English principal of the CMS College, Kottayam.
58. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters,” 174–175.59. G. Arunima, “Imagining Communities Differently: Print, Language
and the ‘Public Sphere’ in Colonial Kerala,” The Indian Economic and Social History Review 43, no. 1 (2006): 73–74.
60. Ganesh, “Cultural Encounters,” 179.61. Ibid., 178.62. Arunima, “Imagining Communities,” 72.63. Arunima, “Imagining Communities,” 64.64. Ibid., 74.65. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolution in Kerala, 22–23.66. T. K. Velu Pillai, The Travancore State Manual, vol. 2, 509–523.67. Tharakan, Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development, 56.68. T. K. Velu Pillai, The Travancore State Manual, vol. 2, 509–523.69. Suresh quotes E. M. S. Namboodiripad. See Suresh Kumar, Political
Evolution in Kerala, 22–24.70. M. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements among the Muslims of
Kerala: c1900–1930” (Paper written for Vakkom Moulavi Bibliography Project: Reform Movements, Trivandrum, [1995?]), 9.
71. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala, 2.
72. Ibid., 3.
No t e s 197
73. Members of the Nair community, who traditionally served the maha-raja in state administration and military service, were mostly affected by this arrangement. See, Robin Jeffrey, The Decline of Nair Dominance.
74. Ibid., 147.75. Singh, “We-ness and Welfare,” 284.76. G. Arunima, “Imagining Communities-Differently,” 75.77. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History of
Freedom Movement in Kerala, 10–11.78. Ibid., 10.79. This may be one of the reasons why many Muslims from Malabar also
subscribed to Swadesabhimani.80. It is generally held that Ramakrishna Pillai radically changed
Swadesabhimani and that its contributions toward political transfor-mation should be solely ascribed to him. However, if we compare the above two editorials it is possible to see that both of them envisioned public welfare as the primary objective of Swadesabhimani. Many Kerala history books even hold that Ramakrishna Pillai owned the Swadesabhimani press and newspaper. Vakkom Moulavi’s vision for Swadesabhimani was not adequately recognized at the time.
81. Chunakkara Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Maulavi.” In Mahacha-rithamaala-156 (Biographies of Vakkom Maulavi, Malloor Govinda Pillai, K. Kunhikkannan, V. A, Sayed Muhammed) (Kottayam: Kairali Children’s Book Trust, 1986), 14.
82. In 1888, for the first time in the history of any Indian state, a Legislative Council was constituted in Travancore. It was a small council of eight members, six officials and two nonofficials, all nominated by the Maharaja. The Dewan was the ex-officio President and the tenure of the council was three years. It was not a legislative council as such, only an advisory council. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 11.
83. The Sri Mulam Praja Sabha [Sri Mulam Popular Assembly] was created by a Royal proclamation in 1904. It was an assembly of distinguished citizens, in addition to the Legislative Council. It was not a lawmaking body but a sort of debating society created to ensure better under-standing between the government and prominent subjects of the state. It was composed of three kinds of members: those selected by heads of districts, those deputed by municipalities, other public bodies, and associations; and those nominated by the government (representatives of landholders, merchants, and graduates), p. 12. In 1904 the total number of members was one hundred. It used to meet once a year and sit for few days. The Dewan was its president. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 33, f.n. 7.
84. M. Mohammed Kannu, “Samudaya Uthejakanaya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom Moulavi: One who Inspired a Community]. Thirurangadi Yatheem Kahana Silver Jubilee Souvenir, April 5, 1970: 39.
85. P. Rajagopal Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, on the Sup-pression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper (Trivandrum: n.p, 1912), 2.
No t e s198
86. D. C. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai (Trivandrum: Department of Publication for the University of Kerala, 2000), 11.
87. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 13.88. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History of
Freedom Movement in Kerala, 3.89. Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 12 and 41–43.90. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 18.91. M. P. Appan (1913–2003), a prominent Malayalam poet and literary
critic, noted that most of the bureaucrats who came in for Ramakrishna Pillai’s ire belonged to the Nair community. Appan, “Vakkom Moulavi: Adyatmiyatayum Bhautikatayum Othinaggiya Mahan” [Vakkom Moulavi: The Saint who Combined Spirituality and Materialism]. Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust Newsletter 4, nos. 1&2 (March–April, 1993): 14.
92. Shankaran Thampi was one of the top court officials in Travancore.93. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 43.94. The Travancore Deportation: A Brief Account of the K. Ramakrishna
Pillai (Kottakkal: Ramgopal & Co., 1911), appendix 4, 22–24.95. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 18.96. Swadesabhimani published a poem titled “An Ode to Dewan Bahadur
P Rajagopala Chariar M.A.B.L”; see, Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 44.
97. The merchants at Chalai Bazaar were often harrased by the police and so they submitted a petition to the government to remedy their distress. Getting no reply, they closed the shops in protest and took out a procession to the palace. Faced by the police, the protesters stoned them and set fire to the police station. The demonstrators were finally suppressed with military help. The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala, 22, f.n. 5.
98. M. P. Appan (1913–2003), noted that Dewan P. Rajagopalachari had done many things for the welfare of Travancore, especially for the wel-fare of lower-caste people. However, all those contributions were for-gotten in the wake of his attitude toward Ramakrishna Pillai.
99. Ramakrishna Pillai was elected unopposed to the sixth Sri Moolam Thirunal Popular Assembly from Neyyatinkkara. He had sent notice of two resolutions that he wished to see discussed in the ensuing session. The first resolution was related to the corruption among government officials in general and that of the Dewan in particular. The second resolution was related the corruption of and undue influence exercised by the group of sycophants surrounding the Maharaja. The way of avoiding an embarrassing situation found by the Dewan was to invali-date the election of Ramakrishna Pillai. However, after six weeks, his election was declared null and void on the ground that he was not a regular resident of that constituency. Ramakrishnan Nair, The Political Ideas of Swadesabhimani, 11, 33–34 f.n. 8&9.
No t e s 199
100. P. M. Nair, Swatantrya Samara Senanikal [Freedom Fighters] (Trivandrum: Forward Publications, 1980), 220.
101. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 19.102. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th
Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998), 60–61.103. S. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi (a study) (Trivandrum: Samkramanam,
1983), 29.104. Ibid., 28.105. John Ochaduruth, “Islamika Navodhanavum Vakkom Moulaviyum”
[“Islamic Reform and Vakkom Moulavi”], Matrubhoomi, November 4, 1982, n.p.
106. P. Rajagopala Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, 11.107. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 43.108. Gopalakrishnan, “Vakkom Moulavi,” 18–19. Ramakrishna Pillai wrote
an editorial about the losses that post offices suffered due to this alter-native arrangement. However, the postal superintendent insisted that Ramakrishna Pillai’s report was faulty and that he should apologize for his comments, which he ignored completely.
109. In his editorial dated July 8, 1910, Ramakrishna Pillai sarcastically condemned the proposed press regulation.
110. According to Kannu, Makti Thangal also sent a letter to Vakkom Moulavi in this regard. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 42–43.
111. Ibid., 50.112. K. Gomati Amma, “Vishista Vyaktitam” [Unique Personality], in
Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 334.
113. Ramakrishna Pillai’s wife and two children joined him after a few months and they lived in Madras for few years without any regular income. Then they moved to Palaghat, where they lived with Taravath Ammaluamma for a few months and finally settled down in Cannanore, where his wife took up a job as a schoolteacher. On March 28, 1916, Ramakrishna Pillai died at Cannanore at the age of thirty-eight due to tuberculosis. On September 26, 1948, his mortal remains were brought to Trivandrum and on August 13, 1957, his statue was erected there. It is significant to note that there was no popular protest in Travancore following the con-fiscation of Swadesabhimani or the deportation of Ramakrishna Pillai. Kizhakkemuri, Swadesabhimani Ramakrishnapillai, 9–10.
114. According to Muhammad Kannu, A. Balakrishna Pillai’s (1889–1960) Kesari was the only other newspaper that can claim the journalistic her-itage of Swadesabhimani. Kesari, which expressed patriotic views, also fought against the Dewan’s rule. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 52–53.
115. Even though many people insisted that Vakkom Moulavi request the government to return the printing press, he never did it. In 1958, the then Kerala government returned the press to his son, Vakkom Abdul Khadir. Ibid., 53–57.
No t e s200
116. Therefore, copies of Swadesabhimani cannot be found in libraries in Kerala.
117. In a confidential report submitted to the durbar on August 15, 1912, Dewan P. Rajagopalachari claimed that while there were certain “dis-agreements” among newspapers from Madras, newspapers from the western coast—“whose editors directly read Swadesabhimani”—generally endorsed the decision. The second appendix of his report reproduced those editorials. The newspapers were The Western Star (Trivandrum), The West Coast Spectator (Calicut), The Subhashini (Trivandrum), The Swadharma (Trivandrum), The Malayala Manorama (Calicut), The Keralatharaka (Thiruvalla), The Cochin Argus (Cochin), The Malabar Daily News (Calicut), The Travancore Times (Nagarcoil), The Nazranideepika (Mannanam), and The Travancore Abhimani (Nagarcoil). Rajagopala Chari, Dewan’s Note . . . (2nd Group).
118. This report (Dewan’s Note dated 15th August 1912, on the Suppression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper) was found in the Australian National University Library. The document was translated into Malayalam by Puthupally Raghavan, who acknowledged that Robin Jeffrey was helpful in finding the document. According to Raghavan, the actual document is currently still in the custody of the Government of Kerala. It is not made available for study and research. See also Bashir, “ ‘Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadesabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai,” 4–5.
119. There were two cases filed against Ramakrishna Pillai, the editor, Vakkom Moulavi, the proprietor, and Abdul Kareem, the printer and publisher of Swadesabhimani, on charges of defamation of char-acter. The first case was filed on September 3, 1907, by Prakullath C Padmanabha Pillai, Quilon, at the Kottayam Divisional First Class Magistrate court while the second was filed on September 17, 1907, by the editor of Nasrani Deepika newspaper, K. Govinda Pillai, at the same court. (We do not know the details about the case.) However, a timeline for both cases was recorded in Dewan’s Note dated 15th August 1912, on the Suppression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper, Appendix III. The cases were in court for three years and only came to an end with the deportation of Ramakrishna Pillai. The cases caused many difficulties for Vakkom Moulavi. Abda, “Vakkom Moulavi Who Turned Words into Sword,” Madhyamam, September 12, 1988, n.p.
120. Rajagopal Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, 3.121. Ibid., 4.122. Ibid., 3.123. Rajagopal Chari, Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, 4.124. Bashir, “Speech Delivered by Mr. K. M. Bashir at the Inaugural meet
of the Trust on 21st June 1987,” n.p.125. N. A. Kareem, “Swadesabhimani Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi.”
Madhyamam, March 24, 2001, 4.
No t e s 201
126. After his deportation, Ramakrishna Pillai wrote a Malayalam essay on Karl Marx, published in 1912, often claimed to be the “first substan-tial essay on Marx in an Indian language.” Robin Jeffrey, “The Three Stages of Print . . . ,” 8. He also published a biography of Gandhiji and a series of articles on socialism. He wrote a book on his deportation enti-tled The Travancore Deportation, which was published in both English and Malayalam.
127. T. Venugopal, “ ‘Swadesabhimani’ Prasthanathinte Muvar Sangham” [Three-member Association of Swadesabhimani Movement], Madhya-mam, 1 July 1988, n.p.
128. Sharafudeen, Vakkom Moulavi, 65.129. Bashir, “Speech Delivered by Mr. K. M. Bashir at the Inaugural meet-
ing of the Trust on 21st June 1987,” n.p.130. Harun Kakkad. “Vakkom Moulavi: Navodhana Chanalile Nitya
Vismayam” [Vakkom Moulavi: The Everlasting Wonder in the Renaissance Tradition], Shabab 24, no.4 (2000), 9.
131. Venugopal, “Three-member Association of Swadesabhimani Move-ment,” 1.
132. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 49.133. Ibid.134. Bashir, “Swadesabhimani Vakkom Moulavi,” 6.135. Abda, “Vakkom Moulavi who Turned Words into Sword,”136. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical
Studies), 182.137. Ramakrishna Pillai died in 1916 due to lung disease.138. K. M. Seethi, “Vakkom Moulaviye Patti Chila Smaranakal” [“A Few
Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 348–349. Vakkom Moulavi was accompanied by A. Muhammad Kunju Sahib, A. M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi, and Kilimanoor Muhammad Abdul Khadir. See also, K. M. Seethi Sahib, Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Few Reminiscences”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 139–140.
139. Lajnat al-Hamadaniya was started by Hamadani Tangal. Seethi Muhammad Sahib was the president and P. K. Muhammadunni was the secretary. See Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 117–119.
140. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-cences,” 140.
141. Venugopal, “Three-member Association of Swadesabhimani Move-ment,” 1.
142. Seethi, “A Few Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi,” 353. K. M. Seethi Sahib and some of his friends also accompanied Vakkom Moulavi, when he went to meet Kalyani Kutty Amma.
143. Ibid., 353.
No t e s202
3 Contributions to Educational Reform
1. K. T. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education among the Mappilas of Malabar, 1800 to 1965 (New Delhi: Nunes Publishers, 1990), 38. Occasionally dars were also held in teachers’ houses.
2. Ibid.3. It is believed that the Ponnai mosque was built at the behest of Shaikh
Fariduddin ibn Abdul Qadir al-Kuhrasani, one of the disciples of Abdul Qadir Jilani. However, Ponnani became the center of Islamic religious studies in Kerala after the arrival of Zayn al-Din ibn Ali (1467–1521). Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 39.
4. Ibid., 39.5. Ibid., 40. Yoginder Sikand, Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and
Islamic Education in India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005), 123.6. This is a collection of ten treatises (Asharatukutub), dealing with vari-
ous subjects, such as aqidah (creeds of faith) or sufism (tasawwuf). Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 40.
7. T. Muhammadali. “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas,” in Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M.Muhammed Koya (Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002), 90.
8. Ibid., 90.9. Ibid.
10. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 37.11. Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic
Trends. Rev. ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1992), 60.12. Stephen Frederic Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The
Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 52.13. Tohfut-ul-mujahideen: An Historical Work in the Arabic Language,
trans. M. J. Rowlandson (London: The Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1833), 30–31 and 38.
14. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 109.15. Taluk is an administrative subdivision of a district within a state. It
exercises certain fiscal and administrative powers over the villages and municipalities within its jurisdiction.
16. M. T. Ansari, “Refiguring the Fanatic: Malabar 1836–1922,” in Muslims, Dalits, and the Fabrications of History (Subaltern Studies, Vol. 12), ed. Shail Mayaram, M. S. S. Pandian, and Ajay Skaria (New Delhi: Permanent Black and Ravi Dayal Publisher, 2005), 37.
17. Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, 122.18. Ibid., 52.19. Ibid., 61.20. Ibid., 52–53. Nerchas are the Mappilas’ largest public festivals. These
are expensive and elaborate ceremonials that combine elements of Islamic and Hindu deity worship. Nercha is a vow made by a devotee to
No t e s 203
present some offering to a deity if prayers are granted. Stephen F. Dale and M. Gangadhara Menon, “Nercca: Saint-Martyr Worship among the Muslims of Kerala,” in Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer (Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995), 174–199.
21. Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, 52.22. Dars were held inside the mosques in Kerala. Accordingly, mosques were
built as two-story buildings whose ground floor was used for prayer and the first floor for teaching and accommodating dars students.
23. The Malayalam word mala literally means garland. However, in Mappilas literature mala is a poem that commemorates stories of mar-tyr saints or heroic events from the history of the community. Malas are more or less like tadhkirahs in other parts of India. Malas are writ-ten in Arabic meters and praise the saintly qualities of awliyas and their barakahs. At the same time, they are also prayers to these saints. The Muhiyid al-Din mala is the earliest existing mala, which was composed, in 1607, by Qadi Muhammad of Calicut, in praise of Muhyi al-Din ‘Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani. There are more than three hundred popular malas circulated among the Mappilas. In every house, malas are sung after Maghrib prayers. Mappila women memorize many popular malas. The Muhiyid al-Din mala, which is considered second in importance only to the Qur’an, is sung reverently in every Mappila household at appointed hours, and girls were supposed to memorize it before their marriage. See V. Kunhali, Sufism in Kerala (Calicut: Publication Division, University of Calicut, 2004), 10. Similarly, Haddad Rateeb could usually be recited by any Mappila from memory.
24. Wood’s Despatch on education was considered to be the “Magna Carta of Education in India.” It was the first authoritative declaration on the part of the British Parliament about the educational policy to be followed in India. The dispatch enunciated the aim of educa-tion as the diffusion of the Arts, Science, Philosophy, and Literature of Europe. It laid down that the study of Indian languages was to be encouraged, that English language should be taught wherever there was a demand for it, and that both English and the Indian lan-guages were to be regarded as media for the diffusion of European knowledge.
25. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 124, f.n. 13.26. C. A. Innes, Malabar (Gazetteer), vol. 1 and 2, edited by F. B. Evanas,
Reprinted (2nd reprint) by The State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers (Thiruvananthapuram, 1997), 297.
27. Ibid., 299.28. T. Muhammadali, “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality
in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas,” in Kerala Society Historical Perceptions, 95.
29. Ibid., 95–96.30. Innes, Malabar (Gazetter), 300. Several Mappila leaders condemned
the Mappila riots. In 1896, Makti Tangal was brought to Malappuram
No t e s204
by government officials to address the Mappilas on the “futility” of rioting with their Hindu brethren and killing them. He asked Muslims to be patriotic. He was physically attacked at Cannanore but was saved by a group of Hindus. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements among the Muslims of Kerala: c1900–1930.” Paper written for Vakkom Moulavi Bibliography Project: Reform Movements, Trivandrum, [1995?], [7].
31. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 78.32. Ibid., 92–93. Himayatul Islam Sabha was one of the organizations
founded in 1890 under the patronage of Khan Bahadur Muthukoya Tangal to promote modern education among the Muslims of Calicut. It demanded educational concessions for Mappilas and expressed con-cern about poverty among them.
33. In 1872, the government established separate schools for Mappilas. The British government recognised the Ernadu and Valluvanadu taluks as “backward class” for educational purposes. They provided free educa-tion for Mappila students in elementary schools under public manage-ment. Under the grant-in-aid code, all Muslim schools were treated as poor. Government separated vernacular schools from the mosque and placed them under the jurisdiction of local boards. An additional 14 primary schools intended exclusively for Mappilas were opened in Ernad and Valluvanad taluks. More educational inspectors were appointed. The government also introduced a Mappila scholarship scheme. Special scholarships were instituted for Mappila students of primary schools in Ernad and Valluvanad taluks. In 1889–90, three preparatory or ses-sional training schools were started in Tellicherry, Malappuram, and Tirur in order to train teachers for Primary School Examination.
34. Innes, Malabar (Gazetter), 300.35. Ibid.36. Ibid. Many small madrasas took advantage of this system. Thus between
1881 and 1886 alone 380 madrasas were brought under the grant scheme. Moreover, during this time many new madrasas were estab-lished in order to receive government grants. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements . . . .,” [8].
37. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 84.38. Innes, Malabar (Gazetter), 300.39. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 88.40. Innes, Malabar (Gazetter), 300.41. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 77.42. Ibid., 77.43. Ibid., Mohammed Ali quotes E. K. Moulavi.44. C. N. Ahammed Moulavi and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem,
Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 496.
45. Richard Maxwell Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 294.
No t e s 205
46. Salah Punathil, “Kerala Muslims and Shifting Notions of Religion in the Public Sphere” in South Asia Research, 33 no.1 (2013): 12.
47. Tangals trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad and dominate the socio-religious and political society of Mappilas.
48. It was common for wa‘z, which were more or less like entertainment programs, to last until late in the night. However, these sermons were greatly influenced common Muslims, especially women.
49. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements,” [7].50. Ibid.51. Sree Mulam Tirunal, who was the ruler of the Princely State of
Travancore for around four decades (1885–1924), established the Sree Mulam Praja Sabha (Popular Assembly), on October 1, 1904, to provide increased participation by the people in the state admin-istration. The members of the Assembly were chosen by the Division Peishkars (District heads) from among landholders who paid annual land revenue of not less than Rs. 100 and landholders or traders whose net annual income was Rs. 6,000 or above. The first meeting of the Assembly was held on October 22, 1904 at the Victoria Jubilee Town Hall (VJT Hall) in Trivandrum. A landmark change took place a year later when more than two thirds of the representatives were elected from among the people. The regulation granting the people the privilege of electing their representatives was issued on May 1, 1905. Of the 100 members, 77 were to be elected and rest nominated. The historic first meeting of the Assembly took place on October 21, 1905. See “History of legislative bodies in Kerala—Sri Mulam Popular Assembly,” http://keralaassembly.org/history/popular.html, accessed on January 1, 2008.
52. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 142. Due to World War I, the delegation could not reach its destination.
53. Muhammadali, “Colonial Education,” 96–97.54. This roused the sentiments of the Muslim middle class and caused them
to rally behind anti-Memorialists. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform,” [11–12].
55. G. Arunima, “Imagining Communities-Differently: Print, Language and the ‘Public Sphere’ in Colonial Kerala.” The Indian Economic and Social History Review 43, no. 1 (2006): 69.
56. Prior to Vakkom Moulavi, Shaykh Muhammad Hamadani Tangal (d. 1922) compiled, with the help of his disciple Sayyid Muhammad Tangal, an Arabic-Sanskrit-Malayalam dictionary, although only a con-cise version of it was published.
57. A. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom Moulavi: Nammude Navodhana Nayakan” [“Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader”]. Hijra 4, no.11 (November 1985): 9.
58. K. M. Seethi Sahib, “Parethanaya Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Chila Smaranakal” [“Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Few Reminiscences”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal
No t e s206
[Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 137.
59. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998), 72.
60. Excerpts from several other articles are found in Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi. Unfortunately, we do not have those articles in full length.
61. Quoted by Mohammed Kannu. See Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries] (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 58–59.
62. O. M. Cherian was the central divisional officer in the Education Department of the Travancore Government. In his article, he men-tioned that in his educational district, composed of ten taluks, there were 8,589 Muslim children in the age group between 15 and 20 but those educated amounted to only 713. In the Quilon Taluk, including Quilon Town, of the 2,464 Muslim children in the age group between 10 and 15 the literate among them were only 42. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 146.
63. ME means the Malayalam Era.64. Quoted by Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education. See Kannu,
Vakkom Moulavi, 80–81.65. Ahamed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila
Literary Tradition, 213–214. However, Miller states that the madrasa was built in the twelfth century or earlier. See, Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 260.
66. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 83–84.67. K. K. Muhammad Abdul Kareem, “Thiruvithamkoorile Adyakala
Vidyabhasa Pravarthanangal” [Early educational endeavors in Travancore], in Souvenir: Mujahid State Conference, 97, no publication details, 238. This article was written by Vakkom Moulavi under the title, “To the Travancore Muslims” in Muslim 4, nos. 4&5 (n.d.): 132–136.
68. Ibid.69. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 67–68.70. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 23–24.71. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 59.72. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 25.73. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 63–64.74. Vakkom Moulavi, “A Preface,” 8375. Ibid.76. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Strekal” [Our Women], in Vakkom
Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publica-tions, 1979), 186.
77. Ibid., 186–187. As we noted earlier, in madrasas, students were basically taught only to read.
78. Ibid., 185.79. Ibid., 186.
No t e s 207
80. The article was published in Muslim, 5 no. 8–9 (Meenam–Medam [March–April], 1091 ME (Malayalam Era), [1916]).
81. Quoted by Samad. Samad, Islam in Kerala, 63.82. Albert Habib Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 238–239.83. Francis Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,”
“Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” Modern Asian Studies 42, 2/3 (2008): 269.
84. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [“An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 100.
85. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 228.86. Vakkom Moulavi read this opinion, which he fully supported, in a
book. However, he does not mention the name of the book. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 17.
87. Vakkom Moulavi, “Moulidunnabavi” [Mawlid al-Nabawi], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 81; Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 15.
88. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Avasta” [Our Condition], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 182.
89. Vakkom Moulavi, Islam Mata Navikaranam [Islamic Religious Renewal], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 98.
90. Ibid., 104.91. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 230.92. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islamic Religious Renewal,” 99–101.93. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 15–16.94. Ibid.95. Ibid.96. Vakkom Moulavi, “Swagatha Prasangam” [“Welcome Speech”]. In
Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 3–4.
97. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 104.98. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 59.99. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 227–228.
100. Vakkom Moulavi, “Our Condition,” 182–183.101. Ibid., 183–184.102. Vakkom Moulavi, “Our Condition,” 182.103. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 36–37.104. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 67.105. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 37.
No t e s208
106. Vakkom Moulavi, “Our condition,” 180.107. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 17–18.108. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 23.109. Samad quoted the forward to al-Islam. Samad, Islam in Kerala,
67–68.110. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 105.111. Vakkom Moulavi, “Welcome Speech,” 5.112. During this time peasant Muslims in Malabar rebelled against British
policies. They believed that British policies favored janmis and oppressed peasants.
113. Francis Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 275.
4 Promotion of Islamic Reform
1. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhidum Shirkum” [Tawhid and Shirk]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 175–176.
2. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [“An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 101–102.
3. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhid and Shirk,” 174–175.4. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 109.
See also Vakkom Moulavi. “Tawhid and Shirk,” 173–174.5. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhid and Shirk,” 173.6. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,”
112–113.7. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 123.8. Ibid., 123–125.9. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Mata Navikaranam” [“Islamic Religious
Renewal”], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 96–97. See also Vakkom Moulavi, “Swagatha Prasangam” [“Welcome Speech”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 4–5.
10. Vakkom Moulavi, “Our Condition,” 182.11. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islamic Religious Renewal,” 103–104.12. Here the reference is to the festival of Muh}}arram among the Shi>‘as.13. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhid and Shirk,” 171.14. Vakkom Moulavi, “Al-Islahudinniyu” [al-Islah al-Dini], in Vakkom
Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom
No t e s 209
Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publica-tions, 1979), 155–156.
15. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhid and Shirk,” 170.16. Vakkom Moulavi, “al-Islah al-Dini,” in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiran-
jedutha Kruthikal, 154–156.17. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islamic Religious Renewal,” 104.18. Ibid., 95.19. Vakkom Moulavi, “al-Islah al-Dini,” 153.20. Ibid., 153–154.21. Kosugi Yasushi, “Al-Manar Revisited: The “Lighthouse” of the Islamic
Revival,” in Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, ed. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi (London: Routledge, 2006), 5.
22. Francis Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” Modern Asian Studies 42, 2/3 (2008): 269.
23. Ibid., 132–133.24. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 129.25. Francis Robinson, “Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the
Impact of Print,” Modern Asian Studies 27, 1 (1993): 243.26. He did not explain either these prophesies or their fulfillment.27. Vakkom Moulavi, “Qur’an Padanathinu Oru Muqavara” [“An
Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an”], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 82.
28. Ibid., 68.29. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,”
90–91.30. Vakkom Moulavi, “Mathaparamaya Chila Chodyagalum Avaykku
Moulaviyude Samadanagalum” [“Certain Religious Questions and Moulavi’s Response to Them”], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 145. Hereafter “Certain Religious Questions”
31. Rida distinguished between acts of worship and those of morality, acts oriented toward God (laid down in the Qur’an and authentic hadith) and those oriented toward other men (traditions that developed around the Qur’an and hadith). The first have been laid down for all time and completely in the Qur’an and hadith; they can never be changed, and no addition can be made to them.
32. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 129–130.
33. Ibid., 91, 129.34. Ibid., 132–133.35. Ibid., 129.36. Albert Habib Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 233; Wael B. Hallaq,
No t e s210
A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 214–220.
37. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 129–130.
38. Not negating religion but not guided by religious leaders in state affairs.
39. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 108.40. Vakkom Moulavi, “Vallathol,” 125.41. Vakkom Moulavi, “Tawhid and Shirk,” 172–173. See also Vakkom
Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 108–109.42. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matathekuriche Mahakavi Valltholinte
Abadha Dharana” [“Poet Vallathol’s Misunderstanding about Islam”], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 125. Shirk is to believe that other things have this divine power and to express their devotion and faith toward them. It is giving divinity to them.
43. Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 50.
44. Ibid.45. Talqin is to remind the dying person of the two shahada (state-
ment of faith) (i.e., Ashhadu Alla ilaha illal l-lahu wa ashhadu anna Muhammadan ‘abduhu wa-rasuluh; I testify that there is no god but God, I testify that Muhammad is His messenger).
46. It is significant to note that while analyzing the Muslim decline in Kerala, Vakkom Moulavi did not take the socio-economic history of Mappilas into consideration. To a large extent, it was colonial policies and the attitudes of administrators toward Muslims that were respon-sible for their failure.
47. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 274–275.48. Steve Bruce, Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 13–14.49. Bruce, Religion in the Modern World, 14.50. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 269.51. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 265.52. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 263.53. Fazlur Rahman, Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual
Tradition (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982), 155.54. Ibid., 15.55. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 270.56. Hourani notes that a special section of each issue of al-Manar was ded-
icated to answering questions on morality and practice sent by readers of the periodical—and perhaps sometimes contributed by the editor himself. “There is scarcely any problem in the moral life of the com-munity which is not touched on somewhere in the Manar.” Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 237.
57. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 87.58. Ibid., 125.
No t e s 211
59. Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” 49.60. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 112.61. Ibid., 110–111.62. Ibid., 130–131.63. Ibid., 131–132.64. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 232.65. Ibid., 224–225.66. Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” 52.67. Vakkom Moulavi, “Welcome Speech I,” 20–21.68. Vakkom Moulavi, “Moulidunabavi” [Mawlid al-Nabawi], in Vakkom
Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 81–82.69. K.M. Bashir, “ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulaviyum’ Swadeshabhi-
mani Ramakrishna Pillayum” [“ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai”] (Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, n.p.) 6.
70. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Avasta” [“Our Condition”], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 184.
71. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 270.72. Annemarie Schimmel, Gabriel’s Wing: A Study of the Religious Ideas
of Sir Muhammad Iqbal, 2nd ed. (Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 1989), 42–43, and Ayesha Jalal, Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850 (London: Routledge, 2000), 166, 178.
73. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 265.74. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 92.75. Vakkom Moulavi, “Certain Religious Questions and Moulavi’s
Response to them,” 140.76. Vakkom Moulavi, “Upakrama Prasangam I” [Opening Remarks I], in
Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 26.77. Vakkom Moulavi, “Certain Religious Questions and Moulavi’s Response
to them,” 141–144.78. Ibid., 146.79. Ibid., 145–148.80. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 33–34.81. He did not elaborate on this point.82. Ibid.83. Vakkom Moulavi, “Wahhabitam” [Wahhabism], in Vakkom Moulavi:
Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 116.84. We have no details about this book. In the introduction to the article,
Vakkom Moulavi noted that the book contained letters of endorsement from ten to twelve prominent religious scholars of Kerala. Ibid., 109.
85. Vakkom Moulavi, “Wahhabism,” 110–111.86. Conservative ‘ulama’ published a tract condemning Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab
and Ibn Taymiyya. However, we do not know details of this tract. Scanty information from the book suggests that the tract was writ-ten by Kunjammu Musaliyar in response to certain questions raised by
No t e s212
Aarukutty Muhammad Musaliyar. Vakkom Moulavi, “Lawh al-Sabah,” in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 241 and 200.
87. Mohamed Abda did not include original quotations from Arabic but only its Malayalam translations. Also, he printed the book in Malayalam script. In footnotes, he explained the meaning of most of the technical Arabic words.
88. M. A. Shakoor, “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who Led the Islamic Renaissance in Kerala.” http://vmmrcblogspotcom.blogspot.com. Accessed June 1, 2008.
89. See Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Alasdair C. MacIntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988).
90. Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 3.
91. Ibid., 4.92. As quoted by Zaman; Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam, 4.93. Ovamir Anjum, “Islam as a Discursive Tradition: Talal Asad and His
Interlocutors,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no.3 (2007): 659. Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 28.
94. Anjum. “Islam as a Discursive Tradition,” 659.95. Ibid., 661.96. Talal Asad, The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam (Washington: Center
for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1986), 14.97. Robinson, “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia,” 267.98. Zaman, The Ulama in Contemporary Islam, 7–8.99. Ibid., 10.
100. Ibid., 3–4.101. Zaman argued that classical Islamic historiography and Sufism are
other discursive traditions in Islam.102. Wael B. Hallaq, “What Is Shari‘a?” Yearbook of Islamic and Middle
Eastern Law 12 (2005–2006): 155.
5 Representing Islamic Modernity
1. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), xiv.
2. Sumit Sarkar, A Critique of Colonial India (Calcutta: Papyrus, 1985), 38.
3. Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 57–58. According to Vakkom Moulavi, the din of Allah is the same
No t e s 213
among all communities: the differences lie only in branches of law (furu‘ ahkam), rituals, and practices.
4. Vakkom Moulavi, “Qur’an Padanathinu Oru Muqavara” [An Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 82–84.
5. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matathekuriche Mahakavi Valltholinte Abadha Dharana” [Poet Vallathol’s Misunderstanding about Islam], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 121. Hereafter “Vallathol.”
6. Ibid.7. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [An Outline
of Islamic Religious Principles], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 103–104. See also Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” 53.
8. Vakkom Moulavi, “Upakrama Prasangam I” [Opening Remarks I], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 19.
9. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Avasta” [Our Condition], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 182.
10. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 10–13.11. Vakkom Moulavi did not mention the name of this dam. The estab-
lishment of Baghdad in the upper valley around 750 AD by the Abbasid Caliphate led to development of extensive system of canals and subterranean aqueducts for irrigation, f lood control, and swamp drainage.
12. Vakkom Moulavi mentions that Ibn Battuta also visited Mangalore on the southwest coast of India, where he found four thousand Muslims living and mentions that their standard of living was very high.
13. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 67–68, 65–68.
14. Vakkom Moulavi, “Swagatha Prasangam” [Welcome Speech], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 2–4.
15. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 12. Vakkom Moulavi used the Malayalam word naveena parishkaram. The word parishkaram can be translated as “modernization.”
16. Tahtawi was one of the earliest Egyptian scholars to write about Western culture in an attempt to bring about reconciliation and understanding between Islamic and Western civilizations. Tahtawi was born in 1801 in the village of Tahta, Egypt. His work influenced that of many later scholars including ‘Abduh. K. Öhrnberg, “Rifā‘a Bey al-Tahtawi,” in Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed., 8: 523. Hereafter EI2.
17. Khayr al-Din argued that the Arab world needed to adopt Western institutions, especially those which protected individual liberty and property rights, and to promote free inquiry and education. G. S. van Krieken, “Khayr al-Dīn Pasha,” in EI2, 4: 1153.
18. Albert Habib Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 235–236.
No t e s214
19. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 9.
20. Kosugi Yasushi. “Al-Manar Revisited: The ‘Lighthouse’ of the Islamic Revival,” in Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, ed. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi (London: Routledge, 2006), 31, f.n. 13.
21. Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe, 29.22. Mansoor Moaddel, “Religion and Women: Islamic Modernism versus
Fundamentalism,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, no. 1 (March, 1998), 115.
23. Ibid., 116.24. Vakkom Moulavi, “Oru Avatharika” [A Preface], in Vakkom Moulavi:
Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 84.25. Here Vakkom Moulavi might be referring to the first act of human sin
recorded in Genesis 3.26. Ibid.27. Ibid., 85.28. This is Picktall’s translation, which is close to Vakkom Moulavi’s
Malayalam quotation. “English translation of the Holy Quran,” http://www.ishwar.com/islam/holy_quran_(pickthall), accessed on January 3, 2008.
29. This is Pickthall’s translation. http://www.ishwar.com/islam/holy _quran_(pickthall), accessed on January 3, 2008. Vakkom Moulavi, “A Preface,” 85–86. This was the preface that Vakkom Moulavi wrote for the Malayalam translation of the book Women under Islam by Shaikh Mushir Hosain Kidwai. The book was translated by Pir Muhammad Sahib and M. Ahmad Kannu and was published in 1920. The first Indian edition of the book was published in English by Seema Publications, Delhi, 1976.
30. Ibid., 86.31. Ibid., 87.32. Ibid., 87–88.33. Steve Bruce, Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 9.34. Ibid., 10.35. However, he argues that “just as the medieval Church related and
temporarily reversed the ethical rationalization inherent in Judaism and early Christianity, so the development of science was retarded by the Church’s imposition of orthodoxy on all fields of thought . . . The Reformation, by breaking the power of the Church . . . made way for a variety of thought and for the questioning of tradition which is so vital to natural science.” Ibid., 21.
36. Ibid., 9–10.37. Ibid., 15–16.
No t e s 215
38. Ibid., 47–48.39. Ibid., 20.40. Pouchepadass, review of Provincializing Europe, 384.41. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 113.42. Ibid., 113–114.43. Ibid.44. Commenting on it, Venugopal argues that Vakkom Moulavi did not
advocate the creation of a system in which one receives adequate wages. T. Venugopal, “Vakkom Moulaviyude Samuhya Chintakal” [Vakkom Moulavi’s Social Views], Madhyamam, July 1988, n.p.
45. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 114–115.
46. Ibid., 115.47. Venugopal further argues that Vakkom Moulavi envisaged a kind of
feudal socialism—a socialistic structure without changing feudalism, a paternalistic structure that does not abolish feudal structure based on the doctrine of zakat. Venugopal, “Vakkom Moulavi’s Social Views,” n.p.
48. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,” 117–118.
49. Ibid., 120.50. Ibid., 119–120.51. Ibid., 121–123.52. Vakkom Moulavi, “Mathavum Sastravum” [Religion and Science], in
Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 191.53. Ibid., 189.54. Ovamir Anjum, “Islam as a Discursive Tradition: Talal Asad and His
Interlocutors,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no. 3 (2007): 659.
55. Vakkom Moulavi, “Vallathol,” 118.56. Ibid., 119.57. Vakkom Moulavi, “Religion and Science,” 189–190.58. Vakkom Moulavi, “Vallathol,” 117.59. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements . . .” [7].60. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education . . . 138.61. Ibid.62. Due to lack of support the journal had to be stopped after nine months.63. The poet Vallathol made this claim in 1929 during a meeting that was
held to celebrate the sixtieth birthday of Mahatma Gandhi. Vakkom Moulavi, “Vallathol,” 117.
64. Ibid., 124.65. Ibid., 127. See also Vakkom Moulavi, “Surat al-Fatiha,” 48–49.66. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,”
115–117.67. Vakkom Moulavi, “Moulidunabavi” [Mawlid al-Nabawi], in Vakkom
Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, 80.
No t e s216
68. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 15.69. Vakkom Moulavi, “A Preface,” 88–89.70. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an,”
45–46.71. Vakkom Moulavi, “An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles,”
132–133.72. Vakkom Moulavi, “Bhayam” [Fear], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiran-
jedutha Kruthikal, 196–197.73. Ibid., 195–196.74. Ibid.75. Ibid., 196–197.76. Ibid.77. Ibid., 195–196.78. Bruce, Religion in the Modern World, 1.79. Ibid., 43–44.80. Ibid., 230.81. Ibid., 44.82. Muhammad Iqbal, “Presidential Address Delivered at the Annual
Session of the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad on the 29th December 1930,” in Iqbal, Jinnah, and Pakistan: The Vision and Reality, ed. C. M. Naim (Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1979), 193.
83. Ibid., 193–194. Also, Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan and Institute of Islamic Culture, 1989), 123.
84. Iqbal, “Presidential Address,” 193.
6 Community Mobilization
1. Several Mappila Muslim scholars held that Vakkom Moulavi was also influenced by Muhmmad ‘Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani’s (1839–1897) understanding of patriotism. According to Shahul Hamid, there were at least three objectives for ‘Abduh’s religious reform movement: (1) to propagate modern education among common people and make them aware of their rights; (2) to use media to instil a nationalistic out-look in people; and (3) to empower them to challenge corruption. To persuade rulers to implement reform, at least to a certain extent. P. M. Nair, Swatantrya Samara Senanikal [Freedom Fighters] (Trivandrum: Forward Publications, 1980), 218; “Vakkukale Padavalakkiya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom Moulavi Who Turned Words into a Sword], Madhyamam, September 12, 1988, n.p.
2. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 115.3. Nair, Freedom Fighters, 217–218.4. Ibid., 217.5. K. M. Bashir, “Speech Delivered by Mr. K. M. Bashir at the Inaugural
Meet of the Trust on 21st June 1987,” http://www.vmft.org/docu ments/kmbspeech1.htm, accessed on August 1, 2008.
No t e s 217
6. Mr. A. K. Pillai was a graduate of Madras University. In 1920, at the launching of the noncooperation movement, he was a law student at Oxford University. In England, he took a keen interest in Indian affairs, speaking at public meetings and writing for the British press. He was an active member of the Oxford Majlis, which he represented at the inter-varsity debates on more than one occasion. He responded to the call of Mahatma Gandhi and left his studies in England. In 1921, he returned to Kerala and assumed the responsibility of organizing the work of Indian National Congress. He started a vernacular news-paper, the Swarad, to mobilize people. He married Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai’s daughter, Gomati Amma.
7. C. K. Kareem, Kerala Muslim History, Statistics and Directory, vol. 1, History of Kerala and of Her Muslims (Edapally: Charitram Publications, 1997), 580.
8. Haji M. Kannu, Vakkom Moulaviyum Navothana Nayakanmaurum (Jeevacarithra Padanangal) [Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical Studies)] (Trivandrum: By the author, 1982), 47. Majlis is the Arabic word for council or assembly.
9. K. M. Seethi, “Vakkom Moulaviye Patti Chila Smaranakal” [A Few Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda (Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979), 352–353. K. M. Seethi Sahib and his fellow students at the Muslim Hostel were friends and fellow workers of A. K. Pillai.
10. Ibid., 351–353. Ramakrishna Pillai wrote a biography of Gandhi while he was in South Africa.
11. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Sma-ranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries] (Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982), 116.
12. Ibid. The Khadi movement, initiated by Gandhi to promote national-ism in India, aimed at boycotting foreign goods and promoting Indian goods.
13. The Khilafat movement (1919–1924) was a campaign launched by Indian Muslims to protect the Caliphate in Turkey in the aftermath of World War I. In India, it won the support of Mahatma Gandhi and the movement became part of the noncooperation movement.
14. K. M. Seethi, “A Few Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi,” 350.15. Ibid. Tagore also disapproved of the boycott. He believed that since
there were no alternatives to education, students should not be forced to forgo their studies.
16. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 12.17. Ibid., 60.18. K. M. Bashir, “ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulaviyum’ Swadeshabhi-
mani Ramakrishna Pillayum” [“ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi’ and Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai”] (Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, n.p.), 6.
No t e s218
19. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Avasta” [Our Condition], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 181.
20. Ibid.21. Ibid., 180.22. Ibid., 180–181.23. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 59.24. Vakkom Moulavi. “Upakrama Prasangam I” [Opening Remarks I], in
Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 27–28.25. Ibid., 30–31.26. Vakkom Moulavi, “Nammude Avasta” [Our Condition], in Vakkom
Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 178–179.27. Ibid.28. K. T. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education among the
Mappilas of Malabar, 1800 to 1965 (New Delhi: Nunes Publishers, 1990), 146, f.n. 32.
29. K. K. Muhammad Abdulkareem, “Thiruvithamkoorile Adyakala Vidyabhasa Pravarthanangal” [Early Educational Endeavors in Travan-core], in Souvenir: Mujahid State Conference, 1997 (No publication details), 237–238.
30. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 71–72.31. Ibid., 72.32. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 72–73. According to Kannu, the meeting
was held in the building where Doctor Munawari Sahib had estab-lished a dispensary.
33. Ibid., 73.34. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th
Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998), 65.35. Abdulkareem, “Early Educational Endeavors in Travancore,” 239.36. Vakkom Moulavi, Vakkom Moulavi, “Upakrama Prasangam II”
[Opening Remarks II], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Sma-ranakal, 32. Muslim organizations also raised funds for scholarships for higher education.
37. Ibid., 32–33.38. K. M. Seethi Sahib, “Parethanaya Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi:
Chila Smaranakal” [Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Few Reminiscences], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 149.
39. Ibid., 149.40. Ibid., 150–151.41. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 105–107. Today, inspired by the idea of the
Muslim Hostel, the Trivandrum Muslim Association is managing a Muslim men’s hostel and a working women’s hostel.
42. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 35–36.43. Ibid., 36.44. During those days English and Malayalam schools were separate.
Ibid., 34.45. Ibid., 35–36.
No t e s 219
46. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 43.47. K. Mohammed Kutty Sahib, a liberal philanthropist and timber mer-
chant of Vazhakkad, was the founder of this college. Ibid., 53. The madrasa was patronized by the Koyappathodi family.
48. Yoginder Sikand, Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005), 124.
49. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 42.50. M. Kabir, “Socio-Religious Reform Movements among the Muslims of
Kerala: c1900–1930.” Paper written for Vakkom Moulavi Bibliography Project: Reform Movements, Trivandrum, [1995?], 8.
51. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 36.52. It seems that according to Vakkom Moulavi’s understanding, religious
and moral education were more or less the same. In several places in his writings, he has used these terms interchangeably. See, Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 23–27.
53. Ibid., 23–27.54. Ibid., 26–27.55. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 35–36.56. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century,
63–64.57. Ibid.58. Kareem, “Early Educational Endeavors in Travancore,” 239.59. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few
Reminiscences,” 155–156.60. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 75–77 and Kannu,
Vakkom Moulavi, 82.61. M. Mohammed Kannu, “Samudaya Uthejakanaya Vakkom Moulavi”
[Vakkom Moulavi: One who Inspires Community], in Thirurangadi Yatheem Kahana Silver Jubilee Souvenir, April 5, 1970, no publication data, 115.
62. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 25.63. He was an Arabic teacher and contributed an article titled “Muhammad
Nabi and Carlyle,” which was published in the first issue of Muslim. C. N. Ahammed Moulavi and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition] (Calicut: By the authors, 1978), 582 and Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 61.
64. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 81 and A. Muhammad Javed, “Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Addehatinte Jeevithathilekhum Pravarthanan-galilekhum Oru Ethinottam” [Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Glimpse into his Life and Work], in Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal, 34.
65. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 81. Also Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 133–134.
66. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 81–82.67. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 38–39.
No t e s220
68. Ibid., 39–41.69. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 24–25.70. Vakkom Moulavi was unable to establish such a madrasa during his
lifetime. Afterwards, the Mappilas did not care to carry out his dream project.
71. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks II,” 41.72. Vakkom Moulavi, “Welcome Speech,” 5.73. Vakkom Moulavi, “al-Islah al-Dini.” In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiran-
jedutha Kruthikal, 156.74. Vakkom Moulavi, “Islam Mata Navikaranam” [Islamic Religious
Renewal], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal, 106–107.75. Sikand, Bastions of the Believers, 3.76. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 89.77. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-
cences,” 155.78. Later, A. M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi worked as its editor when it was
published as a biweekly journal from Alleppey. Until 1920, it was pub-lished regularly by the Muslim Publishing Company.
79. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 558.
80. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-cences,” 142.
81. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 73.82. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila
Literary Tradition, 559.83. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-
cences,” 144–145.84. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram), 95.85. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-
cences,” 155–56.86. Ibid., 143.87. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 53 and 72; Miller,
“Mappila,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed., 6: 462.88. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 152.89. Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic
Trends. Rev. ed. (Madras: Orient Longman, 1992), 273–274.90. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 47.91. During those days he was protected by Manappatt Veetil Kunjahammad
Haji, Seethi Muhammad Haji, and K. M. Seethi Sahib.92. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-
cences,” 168–169.93. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 46–47. See also A. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom
Moulavi: Nammude Navodhana Nayakan” [“Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader”]. Hijra 4, no.11 (November 1985): 11–12.
94. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 46–47.
No t e s 221
95. Shahul Hamid, “Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader,” 11–12. We do not have any details about this obituary.
96. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-cences,” 141.
97. Ibid., 158.98. Ibid., 148.99. We don’t know when he began to subscribe to al-Manar. Miller notes
that it was from Muhammad Sahib that Vakkom Moulavi received cop-ies for the first time. However, according to Mohammed Kannu, it is from Rappid Rida that Vakkom Moulavi got a copy of al-Manar for the first time. Miller, Mappia Muslims of Kerala, 270.
100. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-cences,” 148.
101. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 562.
102. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 72. See Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradi-tion, 562.
103. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-cences,” 148.
104. Ahammed Moulavi and Muhammed Abdulkareem, Great Mappila Literary Tradition, 552.
105. Ibid., 555.106. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 79–80.107. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 153.108. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 81.109. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminis-
cences,” 150.110. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 153. See also Samad,
Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 69.111. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 153.112. Samad. Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 69.113. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 154.114. It was at the first annual meeting that K. M. Seethi Sahib met Vakkom
Moulavi for the second time (the first time he met him was in 1912, when Moulavi stayed at his home with Ramakrishna Pillai). It was at the sixth annual meeting that K. M. Moulavi met Vakkom Moulavi met for the second time (the first time was at the Ottappalam Congress meeting) and he became his disciple and friend and began to stay at his home. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminiscences,” 141; Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 47–48.
115. Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal.116. Edava is nearly 15 kms from Varkala.117. He was also an active member of Chirayinkil Taluk Samajam and
worked as its president for some time. Both he and Muhammed Kunju
No t e s222
Srankh were close friends of Vakkom Moulavi. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminiscences,” 157–158.
118. Ibid.119. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 82–83.120. Nilakkamukku, which is a Muslim majority area, is situated two miles
northeast of Vakkom.121. It seems that this organization was formed in line with Sree Narayana
Dharmaparipalana yogam, an organization formed in 1903 to propa-gate and promote the ideas of Sree Narayana Guru, the greatest socio-religious reformer of the twentieth century Kerala.
122. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 70.123. Mahal is a smaller revenue unit, a subdivision of a taluk.124. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 96–97.125. Ibid., 97–98.126. Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century, 70.127. Special prayers performed at night during the month of Ramadan.128. Ibid., 98–99.129. He was the elder brother of Prem Nasir (1926–1989), greatest
Malayalam film actor, whose original name was Abdul Khadir.130. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 42.131. Ibid., 42–45.132. Pallipuram is a Muslim populated area in Trivandrum District.133. All of them were also associated with Jamamat-e-irshad.134. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 39–41.135. Vakkom Moulavi, “Opening Remarks I,” 28.136. Vakkom Moulavi, “Welcome Speech,” 5–7.137. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 94–95. According to K. M. Seethi Sahib,
Dr. Captain A. Muhammad Mytheen of Trivandrum, who was an offi-cer in the Madras Medical Department and a close friend and devo-tee of Vakkom Moulavi, and S. Muhammad Sulaiman Sahib, Muslim Education Inspector, and other friends, helped Vakkom Moulavi in convening this meeting. See Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A few Reminiscences,” 150–151.
138. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 95–96.139. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few
Reminiscences,” 150–151.140. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 59.141. Ibid., 62–63.142. According to Mohammed Kannu, an organization known as Nishpaksha
Sangham [Impartial Association] was founded in 1922 in order to put an end to competition and sectarian tendencies among the Muslims of Kodungallur, which was later transformed into the Kerala Muslim Aikya Sangham. Manappattu P. Kunhimuhammd Haji, Kottappurathu Seethi Muhammad Sahib, K. M. Seethi Sahib, Sikkandar Haji, K. M. Moulavi, E. K. Moulavi, and Shaykh Hamadani Thangal were the prominent leaders involved in its establishment. Ibid., 65.
No t e s 223
143. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 206.144. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 103.145. Ibid., 102–104. During the conference, a committee was constituted to
establish a Muslim college at Alwaye, and it raised a sum of Rs. 10,000 toward that purpose. Vakkom Moulavi was keenly interested in estab-lishing this college. He, along with his friends, such as V. Chandamiya Sahib, who was a retired jail superintendent, Captain Muhammad Mytheen, and S. Muhammad Sulaiman Sahib actively worked toward it. For the establishment of the college, the government granted eight acres of land in Alwaye. However, Muslims had to raise 10,000 rupees to avoid the government taking the land back. Seethi Sahib, “Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Few Reminiscences,” 159.
146. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi, 102.147. Moidu Moulavi was the editor of al-Islah.148. Kannu, Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance, 56.149. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala, 206, 207.150. Mohammed Ali, The Development of Education, 154–157.
Conclusion
1. M. Abdul Samad, Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century (Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998), 66.
Bibl iogr a ph y
Primary Sources
Abda, S. Mohamed. Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi]. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
Abdulkareem, K. K. Muhammad. “Thiruvithamkoorile Adyakala Vidyabhasa Pravarthanangal” [Early educational endeavors in Travancore]. In Souvenir: Mujahid State Conference, 1997, 237–240. No publication details.
Kannu, Haji M. Mohamed. Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram) [Vakkom Moulavi (Biography)]. Trivandrum: By the author, 1981.
———. Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries]. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. Vakkom Moulaviyum Navothana Nayakanmaurum (Jeevacarithra Padanangal) [Vakkom Moulavi and Leaders of Renaissance (Biographical Studies)]. Trivandrum: By the author, 1982.
Moulavi, Vakkom. Editorials of Swadeshabhimani [First Published, 1905–1910].
———. al-Manar, 30 no. 2 (1348 Safar [July 1929]).———. “al-Islah al-Dini.” In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal
[Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 153–157. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Bhayam” [“Fear”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 192–198. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Lawh al-Sabah.” In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 199–331. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Islam Matha Sindhanta Samgraham” [An Outline of Islamic Religious Principles]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 85–135. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Mathaparamaya Chila Chodyagalum Avaykku Moulaviyude Samadanagalum” [“Certain Religious Questions and Moulavi’s Response to Them”]. In VakkomMaulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 136–152. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
Bi bl io gr a ph y226
———. “Mathavum Sastravum” [“Religion and Science”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 188–191. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Nammude Avasta” [“Our Condition”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 177–184. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Nammude Strekal” [“Our Women”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 185–187. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Qur’an Padanathinu Oru Muqavara” [“An Introduction to the Study of the Qur’an”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 65–84. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Surat al-Fatiha.” In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 39–64. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Tawhidum Shirkum” [“Tawhid and Shirk”]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 169–176. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Islam Mata Navikaranam” [“Islamic Religious Renewal”], in Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 95–108. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Islam Matathekuriche Mahakavi Valltholinte Abadha Dharana” [“Poet Vallathol’s Misunderstanding about Islam”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 117–127. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Moulidunabavi” [“Mawlid al-Nabawi”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 67–82. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Oru Avatharika” [“A Preface”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 83–94. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Swagatha Prasangam” [“Welcome Speech”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 1–7. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Upakrama Prasangam I” [“Opening Remarks I”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and
Bi bl io gr a ph y 227
Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 8–28. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Upakrama Prasangam II” [“Opening Remarks II”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 29–41. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. “Wahhabitam” [“Wahhabism”]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 109–116. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
———. Vakkom Moulaviyude Deepika Ottavaliathil [Vakkom Moulavis Deepika in One Volume]. Thiruvananthapuram: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, 1992. [First Published, 1930–1931].
Secondary Sources
Abda, Mohamed. “Vakkukale Padavalakkiya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom Moulavi who turned Words into a Sword]. Madhyamam, September 12, 1988, n.p.
Abdulkareem, K. K. Muhammed and C. N. Ahammed Moulavi. Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition]. Calicut: By the authors, 1978.
Ali, K. T. Mohammed. The Development of Education among the Mappilas of Malabar, 1800 to 1965. New Delhi: Nunes Publishers, 1990.
Amma, B. Kalyani. “Moulaviyum Swadeshabhimaniyum” [Moulavi and Swadeshabhimani]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 343–347. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
Amma, K. Gomati. “Vishista Vyaktitvam” [Unique Personality]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 333–342. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
Anjum, Ovamir. “Islam as a Discursive Tradition: Talal Asad and His Interlocutors.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27, no. 3 (2007): 656–692.
Ansari, M. T. “Refiguring the Fanatic: Malabar 1836–1922.” In Muslims, Dalits, and the Fabrications of History. Subaltern Studies, vol. 12, ed. Shail Mayaram, M. S. S. Pandian and Ajay Skaria, 36–77. New Delhi: Permanent Black and Ravi Dayal Publisher, 2005.
Appan, M. P. “Vakkom Moulavi: Adyatmiyatayum Bhautikatayum Othinaggiya Mahan” [“Vakkom Moulavi: The Saint who Combined Spirituality and Materialism”]. Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust Newsletter 4, nos. 1&2 (March–April, 1993): 13–17.
Arunima, G. “Imagining Communities-Differently: Print, Language and the ‘Public Sphere’ in Colonial Kerala.” The Indian Economic and Social History Review 43, no. 1 (2006): 63–76.
Bi bl io gr a ph y228
Asad, Talal. The Idea of an Anthropology of Islam. Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1986.
———. Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
Aziz, M. Abdul. Rise of Muslims in Kerala Politics. Trivandrum: CBH Publications, 1992.
Bashir, K. M. “ ‘Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulaviyum’ Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillayum” [Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi and Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai]. Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, n.p.
———. “Speech Delivered by Mr. K. M. Bashir at the Inaugural meet of the Trust on 21st June 1987.” http://www.vmft.org/documents /kmbspeech1.htm. Accessed on August 1, 2008.
Bashir, M. “Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi.” Shabab, October 27, 2000, 6, 13, 15.
Bayly, Susan. Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Asian Society, 1700–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Bose, Sugata and Ayesha Jalal. Modern South Asia: History, Cultre and Political Economy. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2011.
Bruce, Steve. Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Chari, P. Rajagopala. Dewan’s Note Dated 15th August 1912, on the Suppression of the Swadeshabhimani Newspaper. Trivandrum: n.p, 1912.
Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Cherian, P. J. ed. William Logan’s Malabar Manual in Two Volumes (New Edition with Commentaries). Vol. 1. Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Gazetteers, 2000.
Choudhary, Sukhbir. Moplah Uprising: (1921–23). Delhi: Agam Prakashan, 1977.
Dale, Stephen Frederic. Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier: The Mappilas of Malabar, 1498–1922. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980.
Dale, Stephen F. and M. Gangadhara Menon. “Nercca: Saint-Martyr Worship among the Muslims of Kerala.” In Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer, 174–199. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995.
Dudoignon, Stephane A., Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, eds. Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication. London: Routledge, 2006.
Eaton, Richard Maxwell. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
Engineer, Asghar Ali, ed. Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995.
Bi bl io gr a ph y 229
“English translation of the Holy Quran.” [Online Version]. Trans. M. Pickthall. http://www.ishwar.com/islam/holy_quran_(pickthall). Accessed on January 3, 2008.
Ganesh, K. N., ed. Culture and Modernity: Historical Explorations. Calicut: University of Calicut Publication Division, 2004.
———. “Cultural Encounters under Colonialism: The Case of Education in Keralam.” In Culture and Modernity: Historical Explorations, ed. K. N. Ganesh, 152–192. Calicut: University of Calicut Publication Division, 2004.
Gopalakrishnan, Chunakkara. “Vakkom Maulavi.” In Mahacha-rithamaala-156 (Biographies of Vakkom Maulavi, Malloor Govinda Pillai, K. Kunhikkannan, V. A, Sayed Muhammed), 3–42. Kottayam: Kairali Children’s Book Trust, 1986.
Grewal, Inderpal. Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.
Gundert, H. A Malayalam and English Dictionary. Mangalore: Basel Mission Press, 1872.
Gupta, Sunil. “A Historiographical Survey of Studies on Indo-Roman Sea Trade and Indian Ocean Trade.” Indian Historical Review, 32, no. 1 (2005): 140–162.
Habibi, Don. “The Moral Dimensions of J. S. Mill’s Colonialism.” Journal of Social Philosophy 30, no. 1 (1999): 125–146.
Haddad, Mahmoud. “The Manarists and Modernism: An Attempt to Fuse Society and Religion.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, ed. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, 55–73. London: Routledge, 2006.
Hallaq, Wael B. “Can the Shari‘a Be Restored?” In Islamic Law and the Challenges of Modernity, ed. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Barbara Freyer Stowasser, 21–53. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004.
Hallaq, Wael B. A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
———. “What Is Shari‘a?.” Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 12 (2005–2006): 151–180.
Hamid, A. Shahul. “Vakkom Moulavi: Nammude Navodhana Nayakan” [Vakkom Moulavi: Our Reform Leader]. Hijra 4, no. 11 (November 1985): 7–12.
“History of legislative bodies in Kerala—Sri Mulam Popular Assembly.” http://keralaassembly.org/history/popular.html. Accessed on January 1, 2008.
Ho, Engseng. “Empire through Diasporic Eyes: A View from the Other Boat.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 46, no. 2 (2004): 210–246.
———. The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
Bi bl io gr a ph y230
Hobsbawm, Eric and Terence Ranger, eds. The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Hourani, Albert Habib. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Innes, C. A. Malabar (Gazetter). Thiruvananthapuram: The State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers, 1997.
Iqbal, Muhammad. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan and Institute of Islamic Culture, 1989.
———. “Presidential Address Delivered at the Annual Session of the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad on the 29th December, 1930.” In Iqbal, Jinnah, and Pakistan: The Vision and Reality, ed. C. M. Naim, 191–207. Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1979.
Jalal, Ayesha. Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam since 1850. London: Routledge, 2000.
Janaki, M. “Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan in Malabar.” In Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer, 103–118. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995.
Javed, A. Muhammad. “Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Addehatinte Jeevithathilekhum Pravarthanangalilekhum Oru Ethinottam” [Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Glimpse into his Life and Work]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 17–37. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
Jeffrey, Robin. The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore, 1847–1908. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1976.
———. “The Three Stages of Print: Testing Ideas of ‘Public Sphere,’ ‘Print-Capitalism’ and ‘Public Action’ in Kerala, India.” Paper presented at the 15th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies Association of Australia, Canberra (June 29–July 2, 2004).
Joy, R. J. Hepzi. History and Development of Education of Women in Kerala (1819–1947). Thiruvananthapuram: Seminary Publications, 1995.
Kabeer, V. A. Ahmad. A History of Muslims in Kerala. Vol. 1. Trivandrum: Velavoor Publishing House, 1989.
Kabir, M. “Socio-Religious Reform Movements among the Muslims of Kerala: c1900–1930.” Paper written for Vakkom Moulavi Bibliography Project: Reform Movements, Trivandrum [1995?].
Kakkad, Harun. “Vakkom Moulavi: Navodhana Chanalile Nitya Vismayam” [Vakkom Moulavi: The Everlasting Wonder in the Renaissance Tradition]. Shabab 24, no. 4 (2000): 8–9, 16.
Kannu, M. Mohammed. “Samudaya Uthejakanaya Vakkom Moulavi” [Vakkom Moulavi: One who inspired a community]. Thirurangadi Yatheem Kahana Silver Jubilee Souvenir 5 (April 1970): 111–116.
Kareem, C. K. Kerala Muslim History, Statistics and Directory. Vol. I. History of Kerala and of Her Muslims. Edapally: Charitram Publications, 1997.
Kareem, N. A. “Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Abdul Khadir Moulavi.” Madhyamam, March 24, 2001, 4.
Bi bl io gr a ph y 231
Kareem, N. A. “Moulaviyum Deepikayum (Padanam)” [“Moulavi and Deepika: A Study”]. In Vakkom Moulaviyude “Deepika” Ottavaliathil [Vakkom Moulavi’s Deepika in a Single Volume]. Trivandrum: Vakkom Moulavi Foundation Trust, 1992.
Kawashima, Koji. Missionaries and a Hindu State: Travancore 1858–1936. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Kizhakkemuri, D. C. Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishnapillai. Trivandrum: Department of Publication for the University of Kerala, 2000.
Krieken, G. S. van. “Khayr al-Dīn Pasha.” In EI2 4: 1153.Koya, S. M. Muhamed. Mappilas of Malabar: Studies in Social and Cultural
History. Calicut: Sandhya Publications, 1993.Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 5th ed.
New York: Routledge, 2010.Kumar, Suresh. Political Evolution in Kerala: Travancore 1859–1938. New
Delhi: Phoenix Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, n.d.Kunhali, V. Sufism in Kerala. Calicut: Publication Division, University of
Calicut, 2004.Kunju, A. P. Ibrahim. Mappila Muslims of Kerala: Their History and Culture.
Trivandrum: Sandya Publications, 1989.———. “Origin and Spread of Islam in Kerala.” In Kerala Muslims: A
Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer, 22–23. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995.
Kurian, Prema. “Colonialism and Ethnogenesis: A Study of Kerala, India.” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 385–417.
Kurup, K. K. N. “British Colonial Policy in Malabar and Its Impact on Land Settlement and Revenue (1792–1800).” Journal of Kerala Studies 3, no. 3 & 4 (1976): 421–430.
———. Aspects of Kerala History and Culture. Trivandrum: College Book House, 1977.
Kutty, K. Gopalan. “Rural Revolts in South Malabar in the Nineteenth Century.” In Kerala Muslims: A Historical Perspective, ed. Asghar Ali Engineer, 119–132. Delhi: Ajanta Publications, 1995.
Logan, W. Malabar Manual. Vol. I. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press, 1887.
MacIntyre, Alasdair C. Whose Justice? Which Rationality. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988.
Malekandathil, Pius. “Agrarian Production and Control Systems in Malabar under the Portuguese.” Journal of South Indian History 2, no. 1 (March 2005): 7–18.
Malieckal, Bindu. “Muslims, Matriliny, and a Midsummer Night’s Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India.” The Muslim World 95, no. 2 (2005): 297–316.
Mann, Michael. “Torchbearers upon the Path of Progress: Britain’s Ideology of a ‘Moral and Material Progress’ in India.” In Colonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British India, ed. Harld Fischer-Tine and Michael Mann, 1–26. London: Anthem Press, 2004.
Bi bl io gr a ph y232
Menon, A. Sreedhara. A Survey of Kerala History. Rev. ed. Chennai: S. Viswanathan Printers & Publishers, Pvt., Ltd, 2003.
Menon, Dilip. “Houses by the Sea: State-Formation Experiments in Malabar, 1760–1800.” Economic and Political Weekly, 17 (1999): 1995–2003.
Metcalf, Barbara D. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982.
Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Miller, Roland E. Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Rev. ed. Madras: Orient Longman, 1992.
Mohamed, K. M. “Arab Relation with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th Centuries.” The Malabar 1, no.1 (2001): 8.
Mohamed, P. A. Sayed, Kerala Muslim Charithram [Kerala Muslim History]. Trichur: Current Books, 1969.
Moore, Lewis. Malabar Law and Custom. 3rd ed. Madras: Higginbotham & Co., 1905.
Moulavi, C. N. Ahammed and K. K. Muhammed Abdulkareem. Mahathaya Mappila Sahithya Parampariam [Great Mappila Literary Tradition]. Calicut: By the authors, 1978.
Moulavi, K. M. “Parethanaya Muhammad Abdul Khadir Moulavi” [Late Muhammad Abdul Khadir Moulavi]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 174–177. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
Muhammad, T. Jamal. Swadeshabhimani Vakkom Moulavi. Thiruvanan-thapuram: Prabhatham Book House, 2010.
Muhammadali, T. “Colonial Education, Public Sphere and Marginality in Kerala: The Case of the Mappilas.” In Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. V. Kunhali, 86–100. Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002.
Nair, P. M. Swatantrya Samara Senanikal [Freedom Fighters]. Trivandrum: Forward Publications, 1980.
Nair, Ramakrishnan. The Political Ideas of Swadeshabhimani (1878–1916). Trivandrum: The Kerala Academy of Political Science, 1975.
Nandy, Ashis. “A Post-Colonial View of the East and the West.” Alternatives 8, no. 1 (1982): 25–48.
———. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983.
Narayanan, Vasudha. “Religious Vocabulary and Regional Identity: A Study of Tamil Cirappuranam.” In Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia, ed. David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence, 74–97. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.
Ochaduruth, John. “Islamika Navodhanavum Vakkom Moulaviyum” [Islamic Reform and Vakkom Moulavi]. Matrubhoomi, November 4, 1982, n.p.
Öhrnberg, ‘Abduh. K. “Rifā‘a Bey al-Tahtawi.” In EI2 8: 523.
Bi bl io gr a ph y 233
Osella, Filippo and Caroline Osella. “Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India.” Modern Asian Studies 42, no. 2/3 (2008): 317–346.
Paniikkar, K. M. A History of Kerala: 1498–1801. Annamalainagar: The Annamalai University, 1960.
Panikkar, K. N. “Peasant Exploitation in Malabar in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Kerala Studies 11 (1984): 155–185.
———. “Land Control, Ideology and Reform: A Study of the Changes in Family Organization and Marriage System in Kerala.” Indian Historical Review 4, no. 1 (1997): 30–46.
Pillai, Chirayinkil C. P. Govinda. “Vakkom Moulaviyum and Swadeshabhimaniyum” [Vakkom Moulavi and Swadeshabhimani]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 196–199. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
Pillai, Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan. Studies in Kerala History. Kottayam: National Book Stall, 1970.
Pillai, T. K. Velu. The Travancore State Manual. Trivandrum: Government of Kerala, Kerala Gazetteers Department, 1996 [first published 1940].
Prange, Sebastian R. “ ‘Measuring by the Bushel’: Reweighing the Indian Ocean Pepper Trade.” Historical Research 84, no. 224 (2011): 212–235.
Prakash, Gyan. “Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 32, no. 2 (April 1990): 383–408.
———. “Postcolonial Criticism and Indian Historiography” Social Text 31/32 (1992): 8–19.
Pouchepadass, Jacques. “Pluralizing Reason.” Review of Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, by Dipesh Chakrabarty. In History and Theory 41 (October 2002): 381–391.
Punathil, Salah. “Kerala Muslims and Shifting Notions of Religion in the Public Sphere.” South Asia Research 33, no. 1 (2013): 1–20.
Raghavan, Puthupally. Kerala Patrapravarthana Charitram [History of Newspapers in Kerala]. Kottayam: D. C. Books, 2001.
Rahman, Fazlur. Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
Rasheed M., Swathantrya Samarathile Muslim Nayakar [Muslim Leaders of Freedom Struggle]. Calicut: Yuvatha Book House, 2000?.
The Regional Records Survey Committee, Kerala State. The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885–1938). Vol. II. Trivandrum: Department of Cultural Publications, Government of Kerala, 2001.
Robinson, Francis. “Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print.” Modern Asian Studies 27, 1 (1993): 229–251.
———. “Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 42, no. 2/3 (2008): 259–281.
Samad, M. Abdul. Islam in Kerala: Groups and Movements in the 20th Century. Kollam: Laurel Publications, 1998.
Sarkar, Sumit. A Critique of Colonial India. Calcutta: Papyrus, 1985.
Bi bl io gr a ph y234
Schimmel, Annemarie. Gabriel’s Wing: A Study of the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. 2nd ed. Lahore: Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 1989.
Seethi Sahib, K. M. “Vakkom Moulaviye Patti Chila Smaranakal” [A Few Reminiscences about Vakkom Moulavi]. In Vakkom Maulaviyude Thiranjedutha Kruthikal [Selected Writings of Vakkom Maulavi], ed. S. Mohamed Abda, 348–354. Vakkom: Vakkom Maulavi Publications, 1979.
———. “Parethanaya Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: Chila Smaranakal” [Late Vakkom M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi: A Few Reminiscences]. In Vakkom Moulavi: Prabhandhangal, Smaranakal [Vakkom Moulavi: Essays and Obituaries], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, 137–173. Trivandrum: Arafa Publications, 1982.
Shakoor. M. A. “Introduction.” In Vakkom Moulavi (Jeevacaritram) [Vakkom Moulavi (Biography)], ed. Haji M. Mohamed Kannu, i–viii. Trivandrum: By the author, 1981.
———. “Vakkom Moulavi: The Man Who Led the Islamic Renaissance in Kerala.” http://vmmrcblogspotcom.blogspot.com. Accessed June 1, 2008.
Shanavas, S. A. “Translations of Qur’an in Malayalam.” Islam and the Modern Age 24 (November 1993): 271–278.
Sharafudeen, S. “Vakkom Maulavi: A Pioneer Journalist of Kerala.” Journal of Kerala Studies 8 (March–December 1981): 93–102.
———. Vakkom Moulavi (A Study). Trivandrum: Samkramanam, 1983.Sikand, Yoginder. Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education
in India. New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2005.Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. “Of Imarat and Tijarat: Asian Merchants and State
Power in the Western Indian Ocean, 1400 to 1750.” Comparative Studies on Society and History 37 (1995): 750–780.
Tharakan, P. K. Michael. Socio-Economic Factors in Educational Development: The Case of Nineteenth Century Travancore. Working Paper no. 190. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies, 1984.
Thottupuram, Kurian Cherian. “Foundations of Kerala Education: An Investigation into Selected Historical Roots.” PhD diss., Loyola University, 1981.
Thurston, E. Castes and Tribes of India. Vol. IV. Madras: Government Press, 1909.
The Travancore Deportation: A Brief Account of the Deportation of K. Ramakrishna Pillai. Kottakkal: Ramgopal & Co., 1911.
Varghese, T. C. Agrarian Change and Economic Consequences. Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1970.
Venugopal, T. “Vakkom Moulaviyude Samuhya Chintakal” [Vakkom Moulavi’s Social Views]. Madhyamam, n.d. July 1988, n.p.
———. “ ‘Swadeshabhimani’ Prasthanathinte Muvar Sangham” [Three-member association of Swadeshabhimani Movement]. Madhyamam, n.d. July 1988, n.p.
Bi bl io gr a ph y 235
Vijayalekshmy, M. “Towards Understanding the Islamic Diaspora in Pre-Colonial Kerala.” In Kerala Society Historical Perceptions: Essays in Honour of Dr. S. M. Muhammed Koya, ed. Dr. V. Kunhali. 26–35. Calicut: University of Calicut, 2002.
Wasti, S. Tanvir. “Mushir Hosain Kidwai and the Ottoman Cause.” Middle Eastern Studies 30, no. 2 (1994): 252–261.
Weil, Shalva. “Indian Judaic Tradition.” In Religions in South Asia, ed. Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby, 169–183. London: Palgrave Publishers, 2006.
———. “Cochin Jews.” In Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture, ed. Judith Baskin, 107. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Yasushi, Kosugi. “Al-Manar Revisited: The “Lighthouse” of the Islamic Revival.” In Intellectuals in the Modern Islamic World: Transmission, Transformation, Communication, ed. Stephane A. Dudoignon, Komatsu Hisao, and Kosugi Yasushi, 3–39. London: Routledge, 2006.
Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
Zayn al-Din, Shaykh. Tohfut-ul-mujahideen: An Historical Work in the Arabic Language. Translated by M. J. Rowlandson. London: The Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, 1833.
A. K. Pillai, 138, 159, 217A. M. Abdul Khadir Moulavi,
153, 159A. Muhammad Kannu, 24, 41, 138,
144, 152A. Muhammad Kunju Moulavi, 24,
35, 138, 152, 159, 161, 201A. R. Rajaraja Varma, 23, 187Abd al- Qadir al-Jilani, 4Abdul Salam, 24, 39, 41, 139Abu Hanifa, 110Adam Sait Sahib, 144, 163, 186agency, 17, 18, 115Ahl-i Sunnat wa-Jama‘at, 41Ahmad Kunju, 22Ahmed Kunju Moulavi, 145, 153,
161Aikya Sangam, 137Alappuzha Lajnat
al-Muhammadiyya, 20, 153, 157, 158
Alappuzha Sulayman Moulavi, 23, 186
Alexander Orme, 6al-Faruq, 39algebra, 118al-Ghazali, 24, 152, 154, 155, 162,
187Alhambra, 119Aligarh, 16, 65, 73, 78, 157, 170Al-Irshad, 37, 165al-Islah al-dini, 95, 96al-Islam, 21, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 88,
154, 155, 162, 208All India Muhammadan Education
Conference, 58
All Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema, 154, 156al-Manar, 16, 17, 21, 35, 36, 37,
38, 40, 58, 89, 153, 154, 155, 156, 170, 192, 221
Amina, 24Anglo-Mysore war, 6Anjuthengu, 26, 28, 189Arab, 1, 2, 3, 4, 23, 72, 81, 91,
100, 110, 117, 118, 119, 121, 132, 151, 179, 213
Arabia, 2, 3, 20, 22, 23, 24, 35, 40, 41, 80, 110, 117
Arabic, 3, 4, 42, 56, 58, 66, 67, 69, 72, 73, 86, 90, 95, 100, 109, 110, 111, 118, 143, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156, 157, 160, 162, 175, 178, 181, 187, 203, 212, 217, 219
Arabic Examination Board, 149, 150Arabie-Malayalam, 3, 4, 14, 21, 25,
35, 41, 42, 67, 72, 74, 103, 111, 130, 147, 153, 158, 161, 165, 169, 175, 186, 187, 192
Arakkal Muhammad Sahib, 155Arya Bhushanam, 28asceticism, 105, 106Ashraf ‘Ali Thanawi, 102atheism, 40, 188Attingal Gopalan Nair, 138awliya’, 38, 94, 101, 111Ayroor Kayippurath, 22Ayyankali, 11
Barakat al-Muslimin, 158Basel Mission, 70, 188Benjamin Bailey, 51, 52, 188, 196
Inde x
I n de x238
bid‘a, 17, 41, 87, 93, 94, 95, 101, 111, 151, 170
Brahmins, 1, 10, 12, 13, 47, 53, 54, 180, 183, 194
Bukhari, 24
Calicut, 1, 4, 5, 70, 154, 165, 179caste system, 3, 10, 12, 183Chalai Riot Case, 57Chinnakada Jama‘at-i Islami
Sangahm, 161Chirayinkil, 22, 149, 150, 152,
160, 161Chirayinkil Jamaat-e-Irshad, 161Chirayinkil Taluk Muslim Samajam,
160, 221Chirayinkizhu C. P. Govinda
Pillai, 26Christians, 1, 2, 10, 12, 15, 45, 46,
47, 74, 90, 121, 139, 181, 195Church Missionary Society, 47, 48,
52, 188, 196civil service, 12, 14, 26, 43, 53, 54,
57, 67, 74, 144, 167, 169civilizing mission, 6, 7, 14, 48, 51,
65, 87, 101, 120, 167, 169, 171Cochin, 1, 5, 6, 26, 37, 47, 50, 51,
53, 73, 96, 130, 147, 154, 164, 175, 179, 188
coconut, 1, 12, 22colonial education, 14, 47, 48, 49, 50colonialism, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 18, 45,
52, 65, 67, 72, 115, 167, 168, 171colonized, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 19,
115, 120, 123, 168, 171community, 3, 5, 12, 15, 19, 20, 26,
27, 28, 34, 38, 39, 40, 42, 51, 54, 58, 62, 65, 67, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 94, 103, 107, 108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 125, 127, 131, 132, 134, 135, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 151, 157, 162, 164, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 183, 186, 197, 198, 203, 210
contemplation, 92, 93corruption, 13, 29, 30, 33, 43, 55,
56, 57, 100, 168, 812, 198, 216
Dar al-‘Ulum, 147dars, 66, 67, 69, 70, 86, 202, 203decline, 7, 15, 16, 19, 65, 77, 81,
82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 94, 101, 109, 112, 115, 132, 140, 145, 164, 172, 210
Deepika, 21, 39, 40, 41, 42democracy, 8, 29, 43, 58, 60, 115,
168devadasi system, 48Dewan, 13, 43, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58,
59, 60, 61, 197, 198, 199discourse, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15,
16, 18, 19, 21, 40, 65, 68, 74, 96, 107, 112, 113, 114, 115, 119, 120, 123, 130, 167, 170, 171, 172
discursive tradition, 89, 114, 170, 212
Doctor Palpu, 26
E. K. Moulavi, 147, 164, 204, 222E. V. Ramanunnithan, 30East, 8, 9, 15, 115, 121Enlightenment, 8, 9, 173, 183epistemology, 9, 15, 167ethical principles, 103, 127, 148Europe, 7, 8, 9, 16, 52, 119, 132,
172, 178European modernity, 8, 9, 112,
115, 170, 171Europeans, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 18,
19, 45, 49, 61, 69, 89, 115, 119, 120, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 145, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 183, 203
Ezhavas, 10, 11, 12, 45, 46, 47, 54, 183
fasting, 125, 126Father Samuel Daniel, 23Fazlur Rahman, 15, 16, 17, 170
I n de x 239
female education, 48, 70, 73, 120, 169
freedom struggle, 58, 61
Gandhi, 138, 139, 159, 201, 215, 217government by the people, 61grant-in-aid, 50, 51, 71, 143, 204Gustave Le Bon, 40
hadith, 17, 23, 66, 70, 79, 82, 83, 85, 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 109, 111, 112, 124, 127, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 170, 204
Hadramaut, 1, 2, 3, 179hajj, 124, 126, 127, 193Halima, 24Hamadani Tangal, 73, 96, 201, 205haram, 77, 82, 83, 90, 132, 146, 147Hermann Gundert, 51Himayatul Islam Sabha, 71, 204Hindu, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 43, 44, 50,
68, 72, 74, 131, 139, 145, 180, 183, 194, 195, 202, 204
Hippalos, 1historicism, 7historiography, 15, 212Hyder Ali, 6, 68
‘ibada, 91, 98, 100, 101, 131Ibn Battuta, 5, 119, 213Ibn Taymiyya, 42, 106, 111, 112,
181, 211Ibrahim Rawther, 157immorality, 57, 103, 106, 116, 135Indian National Congress, 19, 137,
138, 159, 217Indian Ocean, 1, 14, 76, 178individualism, 19, 134, 167, 172Islah al-dın, 38, 95islahi, 17, 20, 21, 24, 39, 41, 89, 94,
111, 138, 144, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165
Islam Dharma Paripalana Sangham, 111, 159
Islamic law, 16, 23, 34, 109, 114, 120
Islamic modernity, 115, 171Islamic principles, 10, 15, 17, 41,
42, 58, 65, 75, 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101, 108, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 129, 145, 164, 170, 171, 172, 173
Islamic Publishing House, 39Islamic reform, 15, 16, 17, 21, 87,
89, 96, 101, 137, 138, 171, 172, 173
‘izza, 85
janmam, 44, 45janmi, 5, 44, 45, 68, 208Jews, 1, 2, 90, 181jihad, 68John Munro, 53John Start Mill, 7, 8journalism, 25, 28, 29, 30, 61,
62, 191
K. M. Moulavi, 20, 139, 147, 154, 162, 164, 221, 222
K. M. Seethi Sahib, 20, 63, 75, 152, 153, 155, 192, 201, 217, 220, 221, 222
K. Muhammadali, 144K. Shahul Hamid, 144Kalyanikutty Amma, 64, 191kanakkar, 45kanam, 44Kayal Patanam, 23Kerala Dharpanam, 29Kerala Muslim Aikya Sangham, 20,
155, 163, 164, 165, 222Kerala Nadvat-ul-Mujahideen, 154,
172Kerala Panchika, 29, 190Kerala Varma, 23, 26, 187Kerala Vipanchika, 26Keralan, 29, 30, 191Khilafat, 139, 152, 217khutba, 109, 110, 160, 161Kimiya’ al-Sa‘ada, 24, 41, 152, 155Kizhakara, 23, 186
I n de x240
kudiyan, 45Kulachal, 22, 185Kumaran Asan, 13, 145Kunjahammad Haji, 147, 220Kunji Poker Musliyar, 23
Lajnat al-Hamadani Sabha, 73Lajnat al-Hamadaniya, 64, 201Lajnat al-Islam Sangham, 73land, 5, 10, 12, 44, 45, 46, 68,
178, 179, 197, 205Latin, 49, 54Lawh al-Sabah, 3, 111, 112, 159legal reform, 171liberalism, 8, 18, 134library, 20, 22, 67, 137, 138, 156,
158, 160, 162, 176, 192, 200London Missionary Society, 47Lord Headley, 42, 193Lothrop Stoddard, 42
Ma‘arif, 40, 41madrasa, 76, 87, 100, 137, 147, 148,
150, 151, 158, 160, 165, 186, 204, 206, 219, 220
madrasa reform, 147, 148, 169, 171Maharaja, 13, 30, 53, 54, 55, 56,
57, 59, 60, 61, 157, 190, 197, 198Makti Tangal, 73, 96, 130, 148,
192, 203Malabar, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 20, 26, 27,
36, 38, 46, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76, 96, 100, 130, 145, 147, 154, 155, 156, 175, 178, 179, 186, 197, 208
Malayala Manorama, 23, 26, 189, 200
Malayalam, 3, 10, 13, 14, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 58, 65, 66, 72, 74, 75, 78, 109, 110, 111, 130, 139, 149, 150, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 169, 172, 212, 213
Malayalam Bible, 52, 188Malayali, 14, 27, 54, 74, 169
Malayali Memorial, 54, 74Malayali Social Union, 54Manasid al-Islam Sangham, 159, 163Mappila Labba Alim Sahib, 23, 24Mappila Rebellion, 69, 145, 154Marthanda Varma, 6Marumakathayam, 3maslaha, 99material, 17, 18, 19, 80, 81, 83, 84,
85, 89, 97, 98, 115, 134, 135, 145, 151, 170, 171, 172, 185
Mayan Kutty Elava, 25medieval, 4, 15, 16, 44, 68, 83, 89,
114, 122, 169, 170, 183, 214modern education, 11, 122, 14,
15, 19, 20, 21, 29, 34, 35, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 87, 115, 135, 137, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 154, 156, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173, 204, 216
modernity, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 34, 72, 87, 88, 96, 112, 113, 115, 120, 145, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 183, 185
modernization, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 33, 34, 46, 52, 73, 77, 112, 119, 120, 122, 134, 135, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 213
money economy, 12, 46monsoon, 1, 2moulid, 69Muhammad Abda, 24, 95, 188Muhammad ‘Abduh, 17, 21, 89, 111Muhammad Iqbal, 17, 107, 135,
170, 187Muhammad Ismail, 31Muhammad Kannu, 34, 35, 38, 41,
63, 108, 138, 139, 144, 149, 152, 157
Muhammad Kunju, 22, 24, 35, 138, 152, 159, 161, 201
Muhammad Kunju Srankh, 155, 158
I n de x 241
Muhammad Muhiyiddin, 22Muhammad Mytheen, 159, 161, 162Muhammad Nuh Kannu Musaliyar,
24, 187Muhammad Sulaiman Sahib, 156,
163, 222, 223Muhammad Yakub Khan, 40Muharram, 41, 192Muhiyuddin mala, 4Mulla, 67, 71, 76Musaliar, 76, 85, 152Muslim (journal), 21, 33, 34, 35,
37, 41, 63, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 88, 96, 109, 141, 142, 144, 152, 153, 154, 155, 162, 164, 168, 169, 172, 219
Muslim Aikyam, 165Muslim Hostel, 144, 154, 155, 156,
217, 218Muslim modernists, 15, 16, 17, 18,
86, 89, 102, 114, 120, 135, 170, 171
Muslim Publishing Company, 35, 220
mutawatir, 98Mu‘tazilites, 95Muthukoya Tangal, 71Muziris, 1, 5, 179
N. A. Mohammed Kunju, 157Nairs, 2, 3, 5, 10, 12, 43, 44, 45,
46, 54, 180, 183, 197, 198Namboodiris, 1, 5, 10, 43, 44, 45, 46Nasrani Deepika, 23, 200nationalism, 9, 13, 14, 18, 19, 21,
43, 61, 115, 120, 135, 216, 217nepotism, 13, 33, 54, 55, 56, 57,
100, 168nerchas, 69, 202newspapers, 12, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29, 34, 40, 56, 59, 60, 151, 187, 188, 189, 200
Neyyanttikara, 28Nilakyamukku Muslim Samajam,
20, 138, 159non-Malayalee Brahmins, 13, 54
O. M. Cherian, 75, 141, 206opinions/interpretations, 81, 82,
98, 111, 112, 128, 129, 135, 146
opportunity, 22, 25, 26, 38, 40, 48, 51, 53, 63, 73, 79, 109, 127, 138, 142, 143, 146, 149, 155, 165, 168
Orient, 6, 7, 15, 65Orientalism, 6, 7, 15, 16, 87, 89,
114, 120, 167, 169, 170ottupallis, 66, 67
P. Abdul Khadir Moulavi, 156P. Habib Muhammad, 139, 144,
145Parayas, 5, 10, 195Pathe Khan, 22patriotism, 19, 21, 137, 138, 139,
159, 168, 216Pattom Proclamation, 12, 46pepper, 1, 2, 6, 12, 157, 178Persian, 1, 4, 22, 23, 24, 41, 42, 67,
73, 178, 181Ponnani, 25, 66, 69, 76, 202Poonthran Vilakam, 22popular religion, 21, 169Portuguese, 5, 14, 67, 68, 88, 121,
189prayer, 66, 91, 92, 96, 101, 103, 104,
110, 127, 144, 161, 203, 222printing, 24, 25, 26, 48, 52, 59,
62, 102, 128, 132, 158, 188, 189, 199
Prophet Muhammad, 2, 42, 73, 93, 97, 106, 116, 129, 130, 132, 133, 168, 205
prostration, 91Protestant, 11, 17, 43, 45, 47, 48,
49, 102, 122, 123, 170public welfare, 13, 21, 27, 31,
32, 43, 54, 55, 57, 103, 124, 144, 197
pulappedi, 48, 195Pulayas, 5, 10, 12, 14, 76, 143, 183,
195
I n de x242
Rajagopalachari, 57, 58, 60, 73, 198, 200
Ramakrishna Pillai, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 42, 43, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 75, 80, 152, 155, 190, 191, 193, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 217, 221
Rashid Rida, 15, 16, 17, 21, 35, 36, 38, 39, 58, 80, 82, 84, 89, 99, 106, 154, 170, 192
rasul, 94, 111, 152rationalization, 17, 101, 108, 122,
123, 214reason, 17, 37, 82, 89, 90, 97, 98,
99, 101, 103, 108, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 170
religious education, 19, 20, 66, 67, 69, 70, 73, 76, 83, 85, 86, 87, 110, 135, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 169, 171, 172, 187
religious reform, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 33, 34, 37, 38, 43, 58, 65, 72, 87, 88, 89, 95, 96, 101, 137, 138, 139, 141, 147, 151, 158, 162, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 187, 216
remembrance, 91, 92, 93, 187Royal Proclamation, 33, 59, 60, 197
S. Sulaiman Sahib, 149, 157, 159salaf al-salih, 17, 82, 96, 152, 170salafi, 112, 173Sanskrit, 4, 23, 44, 48, 49, 205Sayyid Ahmed Khan, 16, 17, 65,
96, 170, 171Sayyid Hamid Koyamma Tangal, 24Sayyids, 3, 76science, 15, 16, 17, 18, 35, 40, 48,
49, 52, 78, 85, 89, 101, 113, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 147, 150, 158, 170, 203, 204
secular, 9, 18, 19, 43, 71, 72, 73, 74, 100, 115, 128, 134, 135, 148, 159, 160, 167, 169, 172, 173, 183
Seethi Sahib, 20, 63, 64, 75, 144, 152, 153, 155, 157, 159, 201, 221, 222
Shafi’i, 4shahid, 68, 69, 70, 72Shari‘a, 110, 114Shawkat ‘Ali, 38Shibli Nu‘mani, 39, 40shirk, 17, 35, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95,
101, 118, 170, 210social mobility, 11, 12, 43, 46, 50,
51, 167Sree Mulam Popular Assembly, 55,
58, 73, 144, 148, 205Sree Narayana Guru, 11, 22, 183,
222stagnation, 15, 16state, 22, 29, 30, 33, 43, 46, 47,
48, 54, 55, 57, 60, 61, 62, 67, 68, 100, 134, 135, 167, 168, 171, 197
Sufism, 16, 106, 187, 202, 212Sulayman Nadwi, 40, 41, 42superstitious, 58, 112, 117, 123, 158,
160, 161, 162, 164, 171, 172Surat al-Baqara, 40Surat al-Fatiha, 40Swadeshabhimani, 13, 21, 26, 27,
28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 43, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 96, 138, 152, 154, 155, 168
Syriac, 2, 49
T. Madhava Rao, 50tabi‘un, 93, 94Taj Mahal, 119talqin, 101, 210Tamil, 4, 22, 23, 24, 48, 186, 187Tangals/Tannals, 3, 72, 205taqrır, 98taqwa, 102, 106taravad, 3tawhid, 35, 80, 90, 93, 94, 98, 107,
111, 116, 117, 118, 132, 152, 156Tellicherry, 5, 25, 154, 155, 165,
188, 204
I n de x 243
The English East India Company, 5, 6, 189, 194
The Qur’an, 16, 17, 23, 24, 29, 39, 40, 42, 66, 70, 81, 82, 83, 86, 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, 118, 121, 124, 127, 133–4, 140, 149, 150, 151, 152, 156, 157, 158, 170, 189, 203
Tipoothil Kunjahamad, 25, 188Tipu Sultan, 6, 68Tirurangadi, 25Travancore, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 73, 74, 75, 85, 86, 87, 99, 100, 109, 111, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 168, 169, 173, 175, 186, 189, 190, 195, 197, 198, 199, 205, 206
Travancore Malayali Sabha, 54Travancore Muslim mahasabha, 20,
58, 153, 159, 160, 163Trinity, 130Trivandrum, 28, 32, 33, 48, 56, 63,
64, 137, 139, 142, 144, 145, 152, 153, 154, 155, 163, 165, 188, 189, 190, 191, 199, 205, 222
Tuhfat al-Mujahidin, 67, 76, 88
Udayabhanu, 30‘ulama,’ 16, 39, 72, 73, 78, 85, 86,
94, 95, 97, 99, 110, 111, 112, 124, 130, 135, 141, 147, 150, 151, 152, 164, 169, 172, 211
Uloor S. Parameswara Iyer, 26umma, 84, 106, 140un-Islamic, 17, 38, 41, 72, 94, 95,
96, 101, 135, 156Urdu, 3, 4, 22, 23, 24, 25, 40, 41,
42, 73, 153, 175, 187‘urs, 101“useful” knowledge, 15, 168
Vallathol, 131, 215Varkkala, 22Veli Vilakam P. Krishna Pillai, 30verumpattakkar, 45vilakkathirkkal, 66Vivekananda, 11
Wahhabi, 17, 37, 38, 95, 110, 111, 112, 164, 170, 171, 173, 193
West, 7, 8, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 28, 38, 49, 50, 52, 71, 72, 86, 104, 113, 115, 120, 121, 122, 133, 134, 135, 167, 171, 172, 185, 193, 213
White Man’s Burden, 8William Tobias Ringeltaube, 47women, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 15, 19, 35,
40, 43, 47, 48, 51, 57, 75, 78, 79, 80, 91, 104, 120, 121, 122, 125, 133, 134, 135, 160, 167, 169, 172, 188, 203, 205, 218
Wood’s Despatch, 70, 203
Yusuf an-Nabhani, 110Yusuf Assuddin Moulavi, 156Yuvalokam, 37, 187
zakat, 124, 125, 131, 132, 215Zamorin, 5, 181Zayn al-Din, 68, 70, 76, 88, 202