predictors of us college students’ participation in study abroad programs: a longitudinal study

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International Journal of Intercultural Relations

30 (2006) 507–521

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Predictors of US college students’ participation instudy abroad programs: A longitudinal study

Susan B. Goldsteina,�, Randi I. Kimb

aDepartment of Psychology, University of Redlands, 1200 E. Colton Ave., Redlands, CA 92373, USAbRhode Island College, USA

Received 22 June 2005; received in revised form 19 September 2005; accepted 1 October 2005

Abstract

This study was designed to identify variables that predict participation in study abroad programs.

A total of 179 undergraduates were followed through their 4-year college career. At year one,

students completed a survey packet that included measures of study abroad expectations,

ethnocentrism, prejudice, intercultural communication apprehension, language interest and

competence, intolerance of ambiguity, and academic and demographic variables. During the

students’ senior year, follow-up data was collected from the college registrar’s database regarding

participation in study abroad, including placement and duration. Students who studied abroad

differed significantly from those who did not in terms of concern about completing their major, study

abroad expectations, ethnocentrism, prejudice, and foreign language interest. Study abroad

expectations and levels of ethnocentrism distinguished participants from nonparticipants in a binary

logistic regression analysis. These findings suggest that participation in international study may be

facilitated in part by interventions that seek to modify expectations, reduce ethnocentrism and

prejudice, and help students understand the value of language study.

r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Study abroad; Ethnocentrism; Prejudice; Language study

see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

.ijintrel.2005.10.001

nding author.

dress: [email protected] (S.B. Goldstein).

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijintrel

ARTICLE IN PRESSS.B. Goldstein, R.I. Kim / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 30 (2006) 507–521508

1. Introduction

Despite the wealth of studies investigating the experiences of students who study abroad,little is known about the factors that impact the decision to participate in such programs.Empirical studies of student sojourners have focused almost exclusively on adjustment tothe host culture and difficulties upon re-entry (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001), withinsufficient attention to the characteristics of students who study abroad as comparedwith those who remain in their home country. Research attempting to predict participa-tion in study abroad (e.g., Carlson, Burn, Useem, & Yachimowicz, 1990) hasdevoted much attention to student perceptions about the relevance of internationalstudy to academic and career goals. Carlson and colleagues (1990) reported that inaddition to interest in experiencing new cultures and continuing language study, USstudents were motivated to study abroad by the expectation that the experience wouldallow them to be more competitive in an increasingly diverse and globally oriented jobmarket. These students were significantly more open with regard to career choice thanthose staying home and viewed study abroad as a critical factor in their careerdevelopment. In contrast, the nonparticipating students viewed study abroad asunnecessary or inappropriate for their major and expressed concern that study abroadwould delay their graduation.This link between academic/career orientation and participation in study abroad has

been cited by international education professionals to explain the consistent under-representation of male students and physical science and math majors in study abroadprograms (Institute of International Education, 2004). These explanations are based on theassumption that physical science and math majors have less flexibility in their academicrequirements than do humanities and social science majors. The gender imbalance hasbeen attributed to the greater representation of female students in the humanities andsocial sciences as well as less rigid career expectations for women (Bloomfield, 2004; Hoffa,1998). The fact that these participation patterns have remained fairly stable over time(Institute of International Education, 2004) despite changes in the career orientation offemale students and the increasing emphasis on global interdependence across thecurriculum indicates a need to explore variables impacting study abroad participationbeyond academic and career concerns.The importance of identifying factors that impact participation in study abroad is

supported by several decades of research documenting the benefits of such programs.These include enhanced cross-cultural skills and global understanding (Kitsantas, 2004;McCabe, 1994), increased foreign language competency (Opper, Teichler, & Carlson,1990) and international political concern (Carlson & Widaman, 1988), greater interest inthe arts, language, and history of countries outside of one’s own (Carsello & Creaser,1976), and the ability to see members of different national groups as individuals ratherthan in association with nonpersonal attributes such as food or geographicalcharacteristics (Drews, Meyer, & Peregrine, 1996). By investigating factors influencingparticipation in study abroad, we hoped to identify avenues for increasing access to thebenefits of study abroad programs.In the initial phase of this research (Kim & Goldstein, 2005) we explored first year

students’ expectations of study abroad. Findings indicated that intercultural variables,rather than academic or career goals, predicted positive expectations of studyabroad. Specifically, foreign language interest, low ethnocentrism, and low intercultural

ARTICLE IN PRESSS.B. Goldstein, R.I. Kim / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 30 (2006) 507–521 509

communication apprehension were associated with more favorable expectations of studyabroad in first year college students. The present study follows these students through theirsenior college year to determine whether intercultural variables and expectations impactactual participation in study abroad programs. It was our intent to identify earlydifferences between students who do and do not study abroad in order to determinewhether interculturally oriented interventions should be explored as a means to increaseparticipation in international programming.

1.1. Expectations of study abroad

Retrospective (Black & Gregersen, 1990) and longitudinal studies (Martin, Bradford, &Rohrlich, 1995; Rogers & Ward, 1993) indicate that expectations may play a significantrole in determining sojourners’ evaluations of, and adaptation to, intercultural experiences.We suggest that expectations are also crucial to the initial decision to become a participantin a study abroad program. In this study, we focused specifically on expectations regardingsocial and personal domains within the context of study abroad (e.g., gaining self-confidence), rather than expectations of the sojourn itself (e.g., the ability to adjust to theclimate), because the majority of the first year students surveyed had not yet been exposedto information on specific international programs. We predicted that more positiveexpectations of study abroad would result in a greater likelihood of participating in aninternational studies program.

1.2. Ethnocentrism

Neuliep and McCroskey (1997a, p. 385) identified ethnocentrism as ‘‘one of the centralconcepts in understanding outgroup attitudes and intergroup relationsy’’ Definitions ofethnocentrism focus on a universal tendency to evaluate other cultures using standardsfrom one’s own value system. In one of the earliest definitions, Sumner (1906, p. 13)described ethnocentrism as the ‘‘yview of things in which one’s own group is the center ofeverything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.’’ Ethnocentrism maydiminish intercultural communication competence by reducing culture-specific andculture-general understanding (Wiseman, Hammer, & Nishida, 1989) and creatingmisperceptions about the behavior of culturally different individuals (Gudykunst &Kim, 1997). Neuliep (2002, p. 203) suggested that one result of ethnocentrism is thetendency to ‘‘yintentionally circumvent communication with persons of differentcultures.’’ In fact, Toal and McCroskey (2001) found ethnocentrism to be a significantpredictor of apprehension about, and failure to use relational maintenance strategies in,interethnic relationships. Thus, it seems likely that greater ethnocentrism would beassociated with diminished interest in intercultural interaction and as a consequence, lowerparticipation in study abroad programs.

1.3. Intercultural communication apprehension

Communicating with culturally different individuals is a key component of the studyabroad experience. Neuliep and McCroskey (1997b) used the term ‘‘interculturalcommunication apprehension’’ to describe anxiety associated with real or anticipatedinteraction with others of different cultural backgrounds from oneself. Neuliep and Ryan


(1998) suggested that the novelty and dissimilarity associated with intercultural contactsituations creates significant potential for stress and anxiety. Intercultural communicationapprehension consistently correlates with ethnocentrism (Lin & Rancer, 2003; Neuliep &McCroskey, 1997b). Lin and Rancer (2003) also found intercultural communicationapprehension to be inversely correlated with a measure of ‘‘intercultural willingness-to-communicate.’’ It seems, then, that individuals with a high level of interculturalcommunication apprehension would be more likely to avoid participating in a studyabroad experience.

1.4. Prejudice

Schneider (2004, p. 27) defined prejudice as ‘‘ythe set of affective reactions we havetoward people as a function of their category memberships.’’ Research has consistentlyindicated that prejudice impacts expectancies about intergroup interaction and tends tolead to avoidance of such interactions (Fiske, 2002). Plant and Devine (2003) suggestedthat a lack of positive previous experiences with outgroup members creates negativeexpectancies about interracial interactions, which result in intergroup anxiety and thusgreater hostility toward and avoidance of outgroup member. A meta-analytic reviewconducted by Dovidio, Esses, Beach, and Gaertner (2003) supports the associationbetween prejudice and lack of willingness to engage in interracial contact. In terms ofintercultural communication, Spencer-Rodgers and McGovern (2002) reported that highlevels of prejudice are associated with more negative emotions regarding communicationwith international students. We expect that higher levels of prejudice will be associatedwith a desire to avoid intercultural interaction and thus, with lower participation in studyabroad programs.

1.5. Language interest and competence

Carlson et al. (1990) found study abroad participants differed from those who remainedat home in their desire to improve their foreign language ability. Hembroff and Rusz(1993) reported that interest in foreign languages is associated with attending internationalprograms on campus and discussing international issues inside and outside of theclassroom. We suggest that interest in foreign languages may be additionally linked withintergroup attitudes in terms of interest in and respect for other cultures. Thus, we predictthat higher levels of interest in foreign languages would be associated with participation instudy abroad.Language competence is a critical component of intercultural communication

competence (Chen & Starosta, 1996; Redmond & Bunyi, 1991; Sercu, 2002)and intercultural sensitivity (Olson & Kroeger, 2001), and has been found to beone predictor of successful cross-cultural adjustment (Ward & Kennedy, 1993).Hembroff and Rusz (1993), in their research on US students of color, identifiedconcern about language difficulties as one factor which may deter individualsfrom participating in study abroad programs. We suggest that individuals with greatercompetence in nonnative languages may be more inclined to participate in a study abroadexperience.


1.6. Intolerance of ambiguity

Budner (1962) defined intolerance of ambiguity as a tendency to perceive ambiguoussituations as a source of threat. Tolerance for ambiguity is consistently reported to be acorrelate of favorable intergroup attitudes and support for diversity programs (Chen &Hooijberg, 2000; Sinha & Hassan, 1975; Strauss, Connerley, & Ammermann, 2003) and acomponent of intercultural competence and adaptation (Cui & Awa, 1992; Leong &Ward,2000). Neuliep and Ryan (1998) found that the anxiety associated with interacting with aculturally different individual creates greater uncertainty about one’s own and one’spartner’s future behavior. We thus predict that those with greater intolerance forambiguity would be less likely to study abroad.

1.7. Travel experience

The role of previous travel experience in the decision to study abroad is an inconsistentone, both theoretically and empirically. It is possible that travel experience may enhancestudents’ interest in cultural diversity and provide them with the skills needed to feelcompetent in a study abroad situation. Contradictorily, previous travel that results in agreater awareness of cultural differences and the potential for intercultural miscommu-nication may actually create more anxiety about intercultural interaction and decreaseinterest in study abroad.

Unfortunately, the relationship between travel experience and participation in studyabroad remains unclear due to largely inconsistent empirical findings on this topic. Tosome extent, prior research has indicated that previous travel experience was not apredictor of study abroad participation (Carlson et al., 1990), or was even inverselycorrelated with students’ participation (Hembroff & Rusz, 1993). Yet in other studies,travel experience was found to be associated with study abroad (Opper et al., 1990) as wellas sojourners’ greater perceived intercultural competence (Martin, 1987). Thus, weincluded previous travel experience as an exploratory variable in the present study.

1.8. Hypotheses

Based on the rationales provided above, we hypothesized that participation in studyabroad would be associated with favorable expectations of study abroad, lower levels ofethnocentrism, intercultural communication apprehension, prejudice, and ambiguityintolerance, as well as higher levels of language interest and competence. Finally, in anexploratory analysis, we investigated the relationship between previous travel experienceand participation in study abroad.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

Questionnaires were administered to 282 first year undergraduates at a small liberal artscollege in the southwestern United States. Of these students, 248 volunteered their studentID numbers to allow for follow-up. By their senior year, 179 (72%) of these students werelisted as ‘‘currently enrolled’’ by the university registrar. The final sample included 90


women and 78 men (11 unidentified)1 with an average age of 18 years when first surveyed.The participants self-identified as 67% European American, 12% Latino/a, 4% Asian/Pacific Islander, 5% multiracial, 2% African American, 1% American Indian, and 9%indicated other or no racial/ethnic identification. The college these students attended offersa wide variety of international study options with substantial financial aid. Approximately40–50% of each graduating class participates in these programs.

2.2. Instruments

The questionnaire used in this study took approximately 20min to complete andconsisted of intercultural measures as well as items on basic demographics (e.g., gender,race/ethnicity, and income) and travel experience. Brief, exploratory items on academicand career concerns related to study abroad were also included. The independent measuresincluded assessments of expectations about study abroad, ethnocentrism, interculturalcommunication apprehension, prejudice, language interest and competence, intolerance ofambiguity, and travel experience. Scales were selected based on evidence of reliability andvalidity, as well as previous use in conjunction with research on intergroup attitudes. Thewording and number of the Likert anchor labels on some of the original scales weremodified slightly in order to create greater consistency across measures.

2.2.1. Expectations of international study

The International Study Expectancies Scale (ISES) is a 10-item inventory constructed bythe authors in order to assess students’ attitudes and concerns about studying abroad.These items address expectations of international studies in relation to social and personaldomains (see Table 1) and were drawn from previous studies indicating the salience ofthese concerns for students considering study abroad (e.g., Carlson et al., 1990; Hembroff& Rusz, 1993; Martin & Rohrlich, 1991). Higher scores on the ISES indicate more positiveexpectations about studying abroad.

2.2.2. Ethnocentrism

Neuliep and McCroskey’s (1997a) Generalized Ethnocentrism scale (GENE) is a 22-item measure that assesses individual differences in ethnocentrism, regardless of culturalbackground. High scores on this measure reflect the view that one’s own culture is superiorto others and should be used as the standard by which other cultures are judged (e.g.,‘‘Other cultures should try to be more like my culture’’ and ‘‘People in my culture couldlearn a lot from people in other cultures’’ [reverse scored]). Several studies using thismeasure have reported strong reliability estimates for the GENE, with Cronbach’s alphasranging from .82 to .92 (Neuliep, 2002). Neuliep (2002) reported that the validity of theGENE is supported by correlations with a variety of intergroup attitude measures,including the Patriotism scale (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950),and the Traveling to Other Countries and Working with Foreigners scales (Neuliep, 2002).

2.2.3. Intercultural communication apprehension

Neuliep and McCroskey’s (1997b) Personal Report of Intercultural CommunicationApprehension (PRICA) was used to assess anxiety associated with real or anticipated

1Several students overlooked the gender item on the last page of the questionnaire used in this study.

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Table 1

Sample International Study Expectancies Scale (ISES) items

1. Participating in an international study program would build my self-confidence

2. International study will be stressful (reverse score)

3. I will enjoy studying in a country other than my own

4. Experiences in my own country can teach me many of the same things one learns through international

study (reverse score)

5. Participating in an international study program would allow me to meet interesting people

S.B. Goldstein, R.I. Kim / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 30 (2006) 507–521 513

intercultural interaction. The higher the score on this 14-item scale, the greaterapprehension indicated. In two studies using this scale with US samples, good internalconsistency was obtained, with Cronbach’s alpha equal to .92 (Lin & Rancer, 2003;Neuliep & Ryan, 1998). Neuliep and McCroskey (1997b) reported support for theconstruct and discriminant validity of the PRICA. Lin and Rancer (2003) found significantcorrelations between the PRICA and a measure of intercultural willingness-to-commu-nicate.

2.2.4. Cognitive subscale of the quick discrimination index

The Cognitive subscale of Quick Discrimination Index (QDI: Ponterotto et al., 1995)has been used to assess attitudes toward racial equality. Ponterotto et al. (1995) reportedtest-retest reliabilities of .90 for the 9-item Cognitive subscale, with coefficient alphasexceeding .80 across several samples. Ponterotto et al. (1995) also provided factor analyticconfirmation of the subscale structure of this measure and evidence for a lack of socialdesirability response bias.

2.2.5. Language interest and competence

Hembroff and Rusz’ (1993) Interest in Foreign Languages Scale, adapted from Barrowset al. (1981), was used to assess language interest. This measure consists of six statementsregarding the usefulness of studying foreign languages (e.g., ‘‘Studying a foreign languagecan be important because it allows one to meet and converse with more and variedpeople’’). Hembroff and Rusz (1993) reported strong internal consistency (Cronbach’salpha ¼ .94) for this measure. Students were additionally asked to indicate their nativelanguage(s) as well as competence in nonnative languages in terms of ability to speak, read,and/or write each language.

2.2.6. Intolerance of ambiguity

Intolerance of ambiguity was assessed by Yellen’s (1992) Ambiguity IntoleranceMeasure. People who score high on this 14-item scale are those who are uncomfortablewhen problems, responsibilities, social situations, or the reactions of others are unfamiliar,complex, or uncertain. Yellen (1992) reported split-half reliability of .81 for this scale.Additional evidence for the reliability of this measure has been reported by Myers,Henderson-King, and Henderson-King (1997) and Goldstein, Dudley, Erickson, andRicher (2002) with Cronbach’s alphas of .86 and .91, respectively.


2.2.7. Travel experience

Based on methodology used in previous research (Hembroff & Rusz, 1993; Martin &Rohrlich, 1991), several aspects of travel experience were assessed. These include thenumber of trips outside of the student’s home country, the length of these trips, thepurpose of these trips, and geographic regions visited.

2.2.8. Academic/career orientation

Three additional Likert-scaled items were used to explore the impact of academic/careerorientation on study abroad. These single item measures assessed the degree to whichstudents perceived study abroad as (1) affecting the likelihood of completing their major,(2) affecting the likelihood of graduating on time, and (3) favorably influencing theperceptions of future employers.

2.2.9. Participation in study abroad

The dependent variable, participation in a study abroad program, was defined asattending a semester or year-long academic program outside of the United States duringthe student’s 4-year college career.

2.3. Procedure

Survey packets were administered by instructors in several first year seminar coursesduring the fall of 2000. Volunteer student participants were read instructions forcompleting the questionnaire, and then did so at their own pace during the class session.During the spring of 2004, the students’ senior year, data was collected from the collegeregistrar’s database regarding academic major and participation in study abroad, includingplacement and duration.

3. Results

Of the students listed in registrar files, 61 had spent at least a semester abroad (or werecurrently abroad) and 105 had not participated in a study abroad program. Thirteenstudents had participated in month-long programs only and were excluded from theanalyses. Nearly all participants (95%) reported that upon entering the college they wereaware of the availability of study abroad programs. Approximately 75% of theparticipants reported having traveled outside of the United States prior to attendingcollege, including countries in North America (49%), Europe (32%), Central America(30%), and Asia (10%). One-fourth of the students reported speaking a language otherthan English at home.

3.1. Scale reliabilities

The reliability analysis of the primary measures resulted in Cronbach’s alphas meetingor exceeding Nunnally’s (1978) standard of .80 for each of the measures, with the exceptionof the QDI Cognitive scale. The reliability analysis of the independent measures resulted inCronbach’s alphas of .87, .89, .76, .87, and .89 for the GENE, PRICA, QDI Cognitive,Interest in Foreign Languages Scale, and Intolerance of Ambiguity scales, respectively. An

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Table 2

Interscale correlations for predictor variables

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. GENE 1.00 .34� .59� �.41� .12 �.44�

2. PRICA 1.00 .21� �.36� .29� �.33�

3. QDI-Cognitive 1.00 �.43� .07 �.38�

4. Interest in Foreign Languages 1.00 .02 .51�

5. Intolerance of Ambiguity 1.00 .02

6. ISES 1.00

�po:001.


alpha of .80 was obtained for the newly designed ISES measure of study abroadexpectations. Table 2 presents interscale correlations for the key variables.

3.2. Predictors of participation in study abroad

One-way analysis of variances (ANOVAs) indicated that the study abroad andcomparison groups were significantly different in terms of scores on the ISES,F ð1; 161Þ ¼ 19:8, p ¼ :000, GENE, F ð1; 161Þ ¼ 16:1, p ¼ :000, the cognitive subscale ofthe QDI, F ð1; 161Þ ¼ 11:0, p ¼ :001, and the Interest in Foreign Languages Scale,F ð1; 161Þ ¼ 9:8, p ¼ :002 (see Table 3). The study abroad and nonparticipant groups alsodiffered on one of three single-item academic/career measures, indicating that those whochose not to study abroad were significantly more concerned about completing theirmajor, F ð1; 163Þ ¼ 11:0, p ¼ :001. The participant and nonparticipant groups did notdiffer significantly in terms of the PRICA, language competence, intolerance of ambiguity,travel experience, concerns about graduating on time, perceptions of future employers,income, race/ethnicity, or academic major.

Backward LR binary logistic regression analysis was used to assess participant andnonparticipant groups on centered key variables (the ISES, GENE, QDI Cognitive,Interest in Foreign Languages, and concern with completing the major) and theirassociated interaction terms. The backward method is appropriate in this study due to itsexploratory nature and the desire to minimize suppressor effects (Menard, 1995). Twovariables, expectations (ISES scores) and ethnocentrism (GENE scores), significantlycontributed to the explanatory power of this model, X 2 ð2;N ¼ 166Þ ¼ 26:4, p ¼ :000.Together, these variables accounted for 23% of the variance (Nagelkerke R2 ¼ :23). Theresults of the final stage of the analysis are summarized in Table 4. This model correctlypredicted group membership 70% of the time. Specifically, the model accurately classified42% of study abroad participants and 85% of nonparticipants. Expectations ofinternational study were found to be significantly related to participation in study abroad(Wald ¼ 5.29, p ¼ :021). As hypothesized, students with more positive expectations ofinternational study were more likely to participate in study abroad programs,Exp ðBÞ ¼ 1:06. GENE scores were also significantly related to participation in studyabroad (Wald ¼ 3.55, p ¼ :059), with higher levels of ethnocentrism associated withdecreased participation, Exp ðBÞ ¼ :97. There were no significant interactions betweenvariables in this analysis.

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Table 4

Logistic regression analysis predicting participation in study abroad

Variable B SE Odds ratio Wald statistic p

GENE �.026 .014 .97 3.55* .059

ISES .063 .027 1.06 5.29* .021

Table 3

Analysis of variance for intercultural variables by participation in study abroad

Intercultural variables Mean (SD) F p

Participants Nonparticipants

GENE 62.9 (14.7) 73.1 (15.6) 16.1 .000

PRICA 38.6 (15.6) 41.3 (14.3) 1.2 .260

QDI-Cognitive 30.7 (8.8) 34.9 (8.0) 9.5 .002

Interest in Foreign Languages 33.9 (5.7) 30.5 (7.7) 8.9 .003

ISES 49.6 (7.5) 43.9 (8.1) 20.2 .000

S.B. Goldstein, R.I. Kim / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 30 (2006) 507–521516

3.3. Gender differences

Slightly more female students (40%) than male students (29.6%) participated in studyabroad. Two-by-two ANOVAs for key variables by gender and participation indicatedmain effects for gender in that women scored significantly lower than men onethnocentrism, had more positive expectations of study abroad, and greater foreignlanguage interest (see Table 5). There were no significant interactions, although the resultsfor each of these factorial analyses were in the expected direction, with female participantsin study abroad scoring lowest in ethnocentrism, and highest in language interest andexpectations, and male nonparticipants scoring highest in ethnocentrism and lowest inlanguage interest and expectations. Exploratory ANOVA of the three single-itemacademic/career measures indicated no significant gender differences among thoseparticipating in study abroad in concerns about completing the major, graduating ontime, or perceptions of future employers.

3.4. Travel experience and language competence

None of the indices of travel experience or self-assessed language competence wereassociated with participation in study abroad. Slightly more students who had traveledoutside of the United States (40%) than those who had not (29%) participated in studyabroad. However, this difference was not statistically significant (X 2 ¼ 1:6, p ¼ :13).Furthermore, students who spoke a language other than English at home (mainly Spanishspeakers) were not significantly different in study abroad participation from those whospoke English as their primary language (X 2 ¼ 1:3, p ¼ :16).

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Table 5

Main effects for gender by ethnocentrism, language interest, and ISES scores

Variables Mean (SD) F p

Women Men

Ethnocentrism 63.4 (13.7) 76.7 (16.4) 27.6 .000

Interest in Foreign Languages 33.2 (5.8) 29.3 (8.8) 10.6 .001

ISES 115.9 (15.3) 108.4 (16.4) 8.0 .005


4. Discussion

Previous research identified academic and career variables as key to understanding ratesof participation in study abroad programs. Our results indicate only minimal support forthese predictors, in that participants in study abroad reported significantly less concernabout completing their major than nonparticipants. However, we found no differencebetween students who participated and did not participate in study abroad in terms ofacademic major, concern about graduating on time, or expectations about how studyabroad would be viewed by future employers. Furthermore, we found that expectationsand intercultural variables played a far more critical role in determining who studiedabroad than academic or career factors.

We hypothesized that participation in study abroad would be associated with favorableexpectations of study abroad, lower levels of ethnocentrism, intercultural communicationapprehension, prejudice, and ambiguity intolerance, as well as higher levels of foreignlanguage interest and competence. As predicted, the study abroad participant group andnonparticipant group were significantly different in terms of scores on the ISES, GENE,the cognitive subscale of the QDI, and the Interest in Foreign Languages Scale. Althoughit seems apparent that expectations would influence participation, we found it surprisingthat expectations assessed during the first semester of college predicted participation,which generally took place during the junior or senior year. This may indicate that theseexpectations remain relatively insulated and unchanged throughout the students’ collegecareer. It may be useful to examine the source of these expectations and the extent to whichstudents communicate with returnees about their study abroad experiences. Given thesefindings, perhaps it is necessary to formalize the process by which returnees shareinformation about their experiences with members of the student body.

Students who indicated high levels of ethnocentrism (GENE) or prejudice (QDI) wereless likely to participate in study abroad. This was expected given the link between thesevariables and levels of apprehension about intercultural interaction (Dovidio et al., 2003;Toal & McCroskey, 2001). It is critical that we investigate the mechanism by whichstudents’ negative affect and beliefs impact decisions about study abroad. It may be thatinterventions such as intercultural training and structured intergroup contact experienceswould provide students with the intercultural skills and knowledge of cultural differencesnecessary to reduce the stereotypes, hostility, or anxiety that dissuade them fromparticipation.

Intercultural communication apprehension (PRICA), though not a significant predictorin this research, may also be a valuable direction for interventions targeting participation


in study abroad. The PRICA was significantly correlated with other intercultural variables(see Table 2), and while it did not account for unique variance in our analyses, it may be animportant component of intercultural attitudes that was subsumed by the assessments ofethnocentrism and prejudice. Efforts to increase participation in study abroad might alsoattend to intrapersonal factors involved in intercultural interaction, such as a student’sown ethnic or cultural identity, in order to provide a more complete picture of howintercultural variables impact the decision to study abroad.With regard to gender, female students scored significantly lower on the ethnocentrism

scale and higher on the language interest and expectations measures, a profile supportingparticipation in study abroad. Interactions between gender and study abroad participationon these measures were not statistically significant, although scores were in the expecteddirection (for example, female participants had the lowest mean ethnocentrism score,whereas male nonparticipants had the highest mean ethnocentrism score). We suggest thatwith a larger sample size, a gender by participation interaction may be found for specificintercultural measures, and that these intercultural variables, rather than academic orcareer factors, may explain the gender gap in study abroad participation rates.The significant difference between the Interest in Foreign Languages Scale scores of

participants and nonparticipants suggests that students who study abroad view learning anew language as an interesting and worthwhile concomitant of international education.Unfortunately, our sample size did not allow for separate analyses by study abroad venue.Further understanding of the role of language interest in study abroad may involve anassessment of the language requirements of specific international programs and thelanguage-related characteristics of students who choose to attend these programs.Contrary to our hypotheses, participation in study abroad was not predicted by

language competence. Future research might investigate the role of language competencein study abroad expectations by using a more refined assessment tool than the self-ratingmeasure used in this study. In addition, it may be helpful to consider whether the student iscompetent in a language relevant to available study abroad opportunities.Intolerance of ambiguity also failed to predict participation in study abroad. Given the

consistency with which previous research has associated tolerance of ambiguity withfavorable intergroup attitudes, we suspect that this finding may be due to the more globalnature of the Ambiguity Intolerance Measure, which addresses ambiguous situations in avariety of domains (academic, work, social, and personal). We suggest that future researchinclude measures of ambiguity intolerance targeted to intercultural scenarios specific tostudy abroad participation.Finally, in an exploratory analysis, we found that students’ previous international travel

experience was unrelated to their participation in study abroad programs. However, ourquestionnaire items focused on the extent, purpose, and location of previous travel ratherstudents’ evaluation of their travel experiences. Perhaps a more targeted qualitativeassessment of previous travel is needed to clarify the conflicting findings in studies of thisvariable.

4.1. Limitations

A key variable in this research, expectations of study abroad, was assessed with a newlydeveloped instrument, the ISES. Although this instrument was found to be acceptable in


terms of reliability and convergent validity, further examination and refinement isnecessary in order to provide more complete psychometric support for this measure.

We have two main areas of concern regarding the generalizability of our findings. First,the liberal arts curriculum in which these students were enrolled may differ from a largeruniversity context in some relevant ways. It may be that the faculty support forinternational study and the flexibility in graduation requirements within this settingreduces the importance of academic predictors of study abroad. Second, we must note thatit was in the second year of this study that the 9/11 attacks took place. Although one mightexpect that concerns about terrorism and political unrest would impact study abroadparticipation decisions, we see no evidence from our data that these rates were changedfrom previous years. National statistics also indicate that the number of US collegeundergraduates who study abroad was not significantly impacted by the events of 9/11 andhas continued to increase throughout the past decade (Institute of InternationalEducation, 2004). It may be possible, however, that these events resulted in changes inthe nature of the group who chose to participate in international programs even if it didnot impact the size of this group.

4.2. Implications

In sum, the present study indicated that intercultural attitudes, specifically study abroadexpectations, ethnocentrism, prejudice, and foreign language interest, were importantpredictors of study abroad participation. Previous research focusing on academicpredictors of study abroad participation led to academically oriented recommendationsfor bringing students into study abroad programs, such as more frequently offeringrequired courses and emphasizing the relevance of study abroad to career goals (Burn,1991). The present study, however, suggests that student participation in study abroadprograms may be better served, in part, by developing and implementing programs thatprovide students with accurate expectations of study abroad, reduce prejudice andethnocentrism, and facilitate students’ understanding of the value of language learning.

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by a Hewlett Foundation Grant for the Improvement ofAcademic Programs through the University of Redlands.

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