Predication, GroundingPredication, Groundingand Refinementand Refinement

Predication, GroundingPredication, Groundingand Refinementand Refinement

André WLODARCZYKAndré WLODARCZYKUniversité Paris-Sorbonne (Paris 4)Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris 4)

Centre for Theoretical and Applied Linguistics (CELTA)Centre for Theoretical and Applied Linguistics (CELTA)

SEMIOTICSSEMIOTICSSEMIOTICSSEMIOTICS

What is meaning ?What is meaning ?What is meaning ?What is meaning ?

X ? Y

SIGN OBJECT

X Y

Today’s difficulty with grasping linguistic meaning lies in the fact that the relation between signs and objects is roughly compositional. Therefore, we need to define at least one other element (Concept) in order to detemine the nature of this composition.

Semiotic TriangleSemiotic TriangleOGDEN & RICHARDS (1923)OGDEN & RICHARDS (1923)

Semiotic TriangleSemiotic TriangleOGDEN & RICHARDS (1923)OGDEN & RICHARDS (1923)

SymbolSymbol ReferentReferent

ConceptConceptSy

mbo

lizes

(a ca

usal

rela

tion)

Stands for(an imputed relation)

Refers to

(other causal relation)

X

Ivor Armstrong RICHARDS [1893-1979] and Charles Kay OGDEN [1889-1957]

FormulaFormula ObjectObject

MeaningMeaning Umberto ECO (1996)

Semiosis Semiosis - - a set-theoretic view (1)a set-theoretic view (1)Semiosis Semiosis - - a set-theoretic view (1)a set-theoretic view (1)

SIGN

f

Significationf: signs –> infons

g

Interpretationg: infons –> objects

X

OBJECT

CONCEPT

o

Wlodarczyk A. (2005)

Composition

g(f(x))=o

SEMIOSIS - a set-theoretic view (2)SEMIOSIS - a set-theoretic view (2)SEMIOSIS - a set-theoretic view (2)SEMIOSIS - a set-theoretic view (2)

Perceiving&

Acting

Memorizing&

Formalizing

Generating&

Compiling

SIGN

A. Wlodarczyk (2008)

INFON

NOEMA

KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

InformationInformation

LANGUAGELANGUAGE WORLDWORLD

GroundingGroundingGroundingGroundingDecoding

(Comprehension) Perception

Encoding(Production)

SIGNSIGNSchema ofthe World

ROY Deb, (2005) “Semiotic schemas: A framework for Grounding Language in Action and Perception”, Artificial Intelligence 167, p. 170–205

Action

Information Flow TheoryInformation Flow TheoryInformation Flow TheoryInformation Flow Theory

A + B

“INFORMATION FLOW- the Logic of Distributed Systemsthe Logic of Distributed Systems” by Jon BARWISE & Jerry SELIGMAN Cambridge Univerity Press (1997).

KK

f’f’ g’g’

CC

AA BB

ff gg

Refinement

Refinement of Information ChannelsRefinement of Information ChannelsRefinement of Information ChannelsRefinement of Information Channels

refinement

SIGN

A. Wlodarczyk (2008)

INFON

NOEMA

KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE

INFORMATIONINFORMATION

LANGUAGELANGUAGE WORLDWORLDOBJECT

carryingcarryingconveyingconveying

ObjectObjectSymbolSymbol

CONCEPTCONCEPT

Preliminary ElementsPreliminary Elementsofof

Distributed GrammarDistributed Grammar

Preliminary ElementsPreliminary Elementsofof

Distributed GrammarDistributed Grammar

BASIC ASSUMPTIONBASIC ASSUMPTION

Language is a symbolic linearly ordered interface between communicating agents endowed with complex distributed information and knowledge processing systems.

The Meaning of a SentenceThe Meaning of a Sentenceuni-dimensional development hypothesisuni-dimensional development hypothesis

The Meaning of a SentenceThe Meaning of a Sentenceuni-dimensional development hypothesisuni-dimensional development hypothesis

Knowledge

Deep Structure

Legend:The Surface Structure of a sentence s is transformed into the Deep Structure tree representation α.

α = M(s)

LogicalForm

In Generative Semanticsα stands for the meaning of a sentence s as transformed into a Logical Form.

Surface Structure

The Contents of DiscourseThe Contents of Discoursebi-dimensional development hypothesisbi-dimensional development hypothesis

Salience

Information

Salience

Information

Relevance

Knowledge

SemanticContents M(u)

PragmaticContents Φ

DownwardDevelopment

UpwardDevelopment

Discourse level

Legend:M(u) stands for an idealised set of propositional formulaeΦ stands for a set of supplementary discourse-related formulae

Main Dimensions and DegreesMain Dimensions and Degrees

Relevance

Knowledge

Attention:Salience is determined by centres of attention. This variation consists of global and local nesting.(A. Wlodarczyk)

Intention:Relevance relies on intentional attitudes which are guided by the attentional control of Salience.(I. Kecskes)

Information

Salience

CORE

IntentionAttention

Developed degree

Underdeveloped degree

Standard degreeStandard levelStandard level

Creativity

Reason

Emotion

Shallow levelShallow level

Deep levelDeep level

Emotion:Creativity is one (but important) of many attitudes which are determined by emotion. In communication, emotion lies at the basis of conceptual blending. (A. Wlodarczyk)

Logical RelationsLogical RelationsLogical RelationsLogical Relations

Φ • α (association)Φ o α (composition)Φ α (⊢ consequence)α Φ (⊇ inclusion)α ≤ Φ (preference order)

Relations often used in descriptionsof partial meanings of utterances α = M(u)

and their developments Φ:

Semantics - Pragmatics - PraxemicsSemantics - Pragmatics - Praxemics

Communicative Meaning = {α, Φ}

Argument = {Claim, Support}

Persuasion = {Argument, Result}

Modality = {Supposed, Presupposed}Aspect = {Analysis, Control}Tense = {Speech Situation Anchoring, Narrated Situation Anchoring}

Cooperative Objectives = {{α, Φ}, r}

Logical Form = {α}

Statement or Claim

THE META-INFORMATIVETHE META-INFORMATIVECENTERING THEORYCENTERING THEORY

(MIC)(MIC)

What is Information in Grammar ?What is Information in Grammar ?What is Information in Grammar ?What is Information in Grammar ?

What linguists,What linguists, following the Prague School’s tradition, following the Prague School’s tradition, usually call usually call information,information, we named we named meta-informationmeta-information. .

In the age of unification of many social sciences under the label of cognitive sciences, it seems justied that the term information were used in the same way, at least, in linguistics and in information science.

The ASMIC framework proposes to define information as the semantic content of an utterance. Information is produced when properties or relations are established for entities.

Centre of Attention in the MIC theoryCentre of Attention in the MIC theoryCentre of Attention in the MIC theoryCentre of Attention in the MIC theory

In linguistics, there was a need to define a general concept In linguistics, there was a need to define a general concept in order to capture what is common between the notions of in order to capture what is common between the notions of Subject, Object, Topic and Focus. In the MIC theory, these Subject, Object, Topic and Focus. In the MIC theory, these concepts are called “Centres of Attention” (CA) and concepts are called “Centres of Attention” (CA) and considered not only as psychological phenomena but also as considered not only as psychological phenomena but also as segments of linguistic utterances.segments of linguistic utterances.

Paradoxically, without the above common concept, the Paradoxically, without the above common concept, the notions above are often mixed up. No judgment may be stated notions above are often mixed up. No judgment may be stated without selecting at least one Centre of Attention (CA).without selecting at least one Centre of Attention (CA).

In the MIC theory, centering is defined as a structuring In the MIC theory, centering is defined as a structuring operation not only within a text (between utterances) but operation not only within a text (between utterances) but basically within the utterance limits.basically within the utterance limits.

Information and meta-informationInformation and meta-informationInformation and meta-informationInformation and meta-information

Level 0XX YY

Def. 1: X is a Def. 1: X is a situation situation iff ∃iff ∃PP such that represent( such that represent(PP, X) – cf. mental situation, X) – cf. mental situationDef. 2: Def. 2: PP is an is an information information on X iff X,Y represent(∃on X iff X,Y represent(∃ PP, X) not-represent(∧, X) not-represent(∧ PP, Y), Y)

Level 1P

GRENIEWSKI Henryk (1968) "Język nauki" (The Language of Science), Zagadnienia Naukoznawstwa (Problems of Epistemology), quarterly, vol. IV, tome 1(13), Polish Academy of Science, Warsaw (in Polish).

Def. 3: Def. 3: PP is an is an absurd informationabsurd information iff ∀ iff ∀PP not-represent( not-represent(PP, X), X)Def. 4: Def. 4: PP is a is a trivial informationtrivial information iff ∀ iff ∀PP represent( represent(PP, X), X)

Level 2 Π

Def. 5: Def. 5: ΠΠ is a is a meta-informationmeta-information iff iff PP is an information on X and is an information on X and ΠΠis an is an information on information on PP..

Centre of Attention and Meta-InformationCentre of Attention and Meta-Information

Meta-Information is information about another information.

In order to achieve the ordering of non-linear mental representations as texts (sequences of linguistic utterances), the speaker needs to select at least one Centre of AttentionCentre of Attention (CA) and predicate predicate about it.

Although meta-information belongs to the pragmatic dimension of language, it is not merely a supplement to the semantic and syntactic structures of utterances.

Information is semanticInformation is semantic

Every expression which represents situations Every expression which represents situations (facts, eventualities) can be seen as Information. In (facts, eventualities) can be seen as Information. In case of a binary relation, it can be represented by the case of a binary relation, it can be represented by the logical formula logical formula p(x, y) p(x, y) in which the participant in which the participant xx enacts the active role and the participant enacts the active role and the participant yy enacts enacts the the passive passive role.role.

InformationInformation is produced when properties or relations are established concerning entities.

Meta-Information is pragmaticMeta-Information is pragmatic

PredicationPredication takes place when the speaker refers to the communicative status whose nature is to inform about the selected chunk of information, i.e. when the speaker produces linguistic expressions in which some selected segments are distinguished (highlighted).

However, it is information that is the pivot of semantic dimension (content) of discourse.

The pragmatic dimension of language, along with the prosodic and syntactic structures, supplement the semantic content of discourse unitsdiscourse units. They are form and strategy of communication.

But, first of all, Pragmatics is the locus where prosody and syntax meet.

Meta-informative statusMeta-informative statusof an Utterance and/or of its partsof an Utterance and/or of its parts

Meta-informative statusMeta-informative statusof an Utterance and/or of its partsof an Utterance and/or of its parts

In order to make an utterance, the speaker must In order to make an utterance, the speaker must choose how to present information. For ths reason, choose how to present information. For ths reason, the meta-informative (pragmatic) validation of an the meta-informative (pragmatic) validation of an utterance has either utterance has either OldOld or (or both) or (or both) New New status(es). It status(es). It differs therefore from its informative (semantic) differs therefore from its informative (semantic) validation whose values are either validation whose values are either True True or or FalseFalse....

Next to the referential (ontological) knowledge of Next to the referential (ontological) knowledge of situations (facts, eventualities) these meta-informative situations (facts, eventualities) these meta-informative statuses of utterances are always motivated by statuses of utterances are always motivated by discourse strategy and context.discourse strategy and context.

Meta-informative statusMeta-informative statusin a contradictory statementin a contradictory statement

Meta-informative statusMeta-informative statusin a contradictory statementin a contradictory statement

Note that the speaker may even contradict generally Note that the speaker may even contradict generally admitted truths. admitted truths.

For example, the famous proposal of CopernicusFor example, the famous proposal of CopernicusThe Earth goes around the SunThe Earth goes around the Sun..

was not the generally admitted truth in his times.was not the generally admitted truth in his times.Nonetheless, this utterance presents the reality using Nonetheless, this utterance presents the reality using

the “Old” meta-informative status in spite of the fact that the “Old” meta-informative status in spite of the fact that generally it was considered to be false.generally it was considered to be false.

The pragmatic meaning of the above statement can The pragmatic meaning of the above statement can be paraphrased as be paraphrased as “since I present this statement using “since I present this statement using an “Old” meta-informative status, you are supposed to an “Old” meta-informative status, you are supposed to take it as a true statement about astronomy”take it as a true statement about astronomy”..

Informative and Meta-Informative Informative and Meta-Informative Assignment FunctionsAssignment Functions

Informative and Meta-Informative Informative and Meta-Informative Assignment FunctionsAssignment Functions

inf(inf(rr)) = = ee m-inf(m-inf(cc)) = = rr

m-infm-inf

RoleRoleor Anchoror Anchor

PragmaticsPragmatics

ccSubject/ObjectSubject/Object

Centre of Centre of AttentionAttention

KnowledgeKnowledge

eeAgent(Figure)Agent(Figure)

LocationLocation

ParticipantParticipantor Locationor Location

infinf SemanticsSemantics

rrActive/PassiveActive/Passive

Constituency and Entailment Constituency and Entailment Constituency and Entailment Constituency and Entailment

ConstituencyConstituencyThe subject is global and the object is localThe subject is global and the object is local

Utterance(Subject(NUtterance(Subject(N11),),

G-Predicate(L-Predicate(V),G-Predicate(L-Predicate(V), Object(NObject(N22))))))

EntailmentEntailmentThe Subject corresponds to the main CA and the The Subject corresponds to the main CA and the Object to the subsidiary (secondary) CAObject to the subsidiary (secondary) CA

Object Object Subject Subject

Definition of Centre of AttentionDefinition of Centre of AttentionDefinition of Centre of AttentionDefinition of Centre of Attention

A A segmentsegment of an expression (representing an element of of an expression (representing an element of a semantic situation or a whole situation) is a semantic situation or a whole situation) is centered centered if it if it has been distinguished among other elements or situations has been distinguished among other elements or situations by linguistic meta-informative (syntactic, morpho-logical, by linguistic meta-informative (syntactic, morpho-logical, prosodic or any pragmatic) markers .prosodic or any pragmatic) markers .

Linguistic expressions may contain more than one Linguistic expressions may contain more than one centred segments (i.e.: seen by the speaker as Centres of centred segments (i.e.: seen by the speaker as Centres of Attention). If this is the case, the CAs are hierarchically Attention). If this is the case, the CAs are hierarchically ordered.ordered.

Semantic ContentSemantic Content

SIT frame: SIT frame: treattreat

(treating : (treating : “Mary”)) (treated :(treated : “Peter”))

SemanticSemanticLevelLevel

information

Utterance:Utterance: Mary treats Peter.

Syntactic Constituency as Meta-InformationSyntactic Constituency as Meta-InformationSyntactic Constituency as Meta-InformationSyntactic Constituency as Meta-Information

SIT : SIT : treat

(treating :(treating : “Mary” ))(treated :(treated : “Peter”))

Semantic LevelSemantic Level

Information

Pragmatic levelPragmatic levelMeta-information

SubjectSubject PredicatePredicate ObjectObject

SUBJECT and PREDICATESUBJECT and PREDICATE

NOUN PHRASENOUN PHRASE VERB PHRASEVERB PHRASE

Syntactic ConstituencySyntactic Constituency

Semantic Informativity (information)Semantic Informativity (information)

SUBJETSUBJET PREDICATEPREDICATE

Subject Status TypeSubject Status Type Predicate Status TypePredicate Status Type

Pragmatic Expressivity (meta-information) Pragmatic Expressivity (meta-information)

BaseBase and Extended Utterances and Extended Utterances(orthogonal system)(orthogonal system)

Su

bje

ctS

ub

ject

Pre

dic

ate

Pre

dic

ate

Su

bject

Su

bject

Pred

icateP

redicate

Topic

Topic

Comm

ent

Comm

entFocu

s

Focus

Backg

round

Backg

round

“Old” Status “New” Status

BaseBase and Extended Utterances and Extended Utterances(duality of meta-informative status)(duality of meta-informative status)

BaseBase and Extended Utterances and Extended Utterances(duality of meta-informative status)(duality of meta-informative status)

Each declarative utterance represents at least one centre of Each declarative utterance represents at least one centre of attention (CA). A CA may have (1) either a attention (CA). A CA may have (1) either a similar similar (Old+Old or (Old+Old or New+New) or (2) a New+New) or (2) a differentdifferent (Old+New or New+Old) meta- (Old+New or New+Old) meta-informative status than what is being predicated upon it (i.e.: the informative status than what is being predicated upon it (i.e.: the rest of the utterance that represents its aboutness).rest of the utterance that represents its aboutness).

Thus, the Thus, the basebase utterances are homogeneous. There is utterances are homogeneous. There is no no contrastcontrast between the status of the global CA and that of the rest between the status of the global CA and that of the rest of the utterance: it is either all New or all Old. Centres of of the utterance: it is either all New or all Old. Centres of attention of extended utterances attention of extended utterances contrastcontrast with the rest of the with the rest of the utterance.utterance.

The Topic bearing an Old meta-informative status is in The Topic bearing an Old meta-informative status is in contrast with the New Comment, the Focus of New meta-contrast with the New Comment, the Focus of New meta-informative status is in contrast with the Old Background (O).informative status is in contrast with the Old Background (O).

Each declarative utterance represents at least one centre of Each declarative utterance represents at least one centre of attention (CA). A CA may have (1) either a attention (CA). A CA may have (1) either a similar similar (Old+Old or (Old+Old or New+New) or (2) a New+New) or (2) a differentdifferent (Old+New or New+Old) meta- (Old+New or New+Old) meta-informative status than what is being predicated upon it (i.e.: the informative status than what is being predicated upon it (i.e.: the rest of the utterance that represents its aboutness).rest of the utterance that represents its aboutness).

Thus, the Thus, the basebase utterances are homogeneous. There is utterances are homogeneous. There is no no contrastcontrast between the status of the global CA and that of the rest between the status of the global CA and that of the rest of the utterance: it is either all New or all Old. Centres of of the utterance: it is either all New or all Old. Centres of attention of extended utterances attention of extended utterances contrastcontrast with the rest of the with the rest of the utterance.utterance.

The Topic bearing an Old meta-informative status is in The Topic bearing an Old meta-informative status is in contrast with the New Comment, the Focus of New meta-contrast with the New Comment, the Focus of New meta-informative status is in contrast with the Old Background (O).informative status is in contrast with the Old Background (O).

Predication and its ExtensionsPredication and its ExtensionsPredication and its ExtensionsPredication and its Extensions

SemanticsSemanticsinformation

meta-information PragmaticsPragmatics

SubjectGlobalPredicate

PredicationPredication

Utterance : As for Mary, it is Peter whom she treats.

LocalPredicateLocalPredicate

ObjectObject

SIT : SIT : treat

(treating :(treating : “Mary” ))(treated :(treated : “Peter”))

Topic

ExtensionsExtensions

CommentBackground

Focus

meta-meta-information

Semantic and pragmatic levelsSemantic and pragmatic levels

Subject : (Predicate (Object))

Semantic levelSemantic level

Information

Pragmatic levelPragmatic level

Meta-information

Role : means

#2#2 Mary treats Peter with aspirin.

Mary treats Peter

with aspirin

Only the semantic role of the instrument is expressed directly in the Only the semantic role of the instrument is expressed directly in the utterance.utterance.

Conceptual IsomorphismConceptual Isomorphismbetween between BaseBase and Extended utterences and Extended utterences

Conceptual IsomorphismConceptual Isomorphismbetween between BaseBase and Extended utterences and Extended utterences

Subject

ObjectVerb

Predicate

Base utterance

Topic

Background Focus

Comment

Extended utterance

Global Aboutness

Local Aboutness

Global Aboutness

Local Aboutness

Global CA Global CA

Local CA Local CA

Meta-informativeMeta-informative pivots of discoursepivots of discourseMeta-informativeMeta-informative pivots of discoursepivots of discourse

Pragmatic UnitsPragmatic UnitsCentres of AttentionCentres of Attention

GlobalGlobal LocalLocal

BaseBase Utterance (Predication) Utterance (Predication) SubjectSubject ObjectObject

Extended Utterance (Extension)Extended Utterance (Extension) TopicTopic FocusFocus

Dialogue/Text (Discourse)Dialogue/Text (Discourse) GeneralGeneral

ThemeTheme

ParticularParticular

ThemeTheme

Implicit Subjects Implicit Subjects and and Topics Topics

FOCUSFOCUS

SUBJECTSUBJECT TOPICTOPIC

Explicature

Implicature

OBJECTOBJECT

Expression

Refinement

Topic and Focus as homotopiesTopic and Focus as homotopiesTopic and Focus as homotopiesTopic and Focus as homotopies

Strongly "implosive" Retraction

Strongly “explosive" Retraction

FOCUSFOCUSTOPICTOPIC

Topic and FocusTopic and Focus(a Set-Theoretical Model)Topic and FocusTopic and Focus(a Set-Theoretical Model)

SelectionSelection

sel: {sel: {ΛΛ} ---> A} ---> A

More than one element setMore than one element setOne element set (singleton)One element set (singleton)

xExtractionExtraction

ext: A ---> {ext: A ---> {ΛΛ}} b

a

Focus(x) ext(b) = xTopic(a) sel(x) = a

CombinabilityCombinabilityof Centres of Attention with Semantic Rolesof Centres of Attention with Semantic Roles

CombinabilityCombinabilityof Centres of Attention with Semantic Rolesof Centres of Attention with Semantic Roles

TopicTopic Subject Subject Active Active rolerole

FocusFocus Object Object Passive Passive rolerole

Meta-informative paraphrasesMeta-informative paraphrasesMeta-informative paraphrasesMeta-informative paraphrases1a. MaryMary treats Peter. (Active voice + [Subject || Active r.] + [Object || Passive r.])1b. Peter is treated by Mary.(Passive voice + [Subject || Passive r.] + [Object || Active r.] )2a. As for Mary, she treats Peter.(Active voice + [Topic || Subject || Active r.] + [Object || Passive r.])2b. As for Peter, he is treated by Mary.(Passive voice + [Topic || Subject || Passive r.] + [Object || Active r.] )3a. As for Mary ,it is Peter whom she treats . (Active voice + [Topic || Subject || Active r.] + [Focus || Object || Passive r.])3b. As for Peter, it is Mary who treats him.(Active voice + [Topic || Object || Passive r.] + [Focus || Subject || Active r.])4a. As for Peter, it is by Mary that he is treated . (Passive voice + [Topic || Subject || Passive r.] + [Focus || Object || Active r.])4b. ?? As for Mary, it is by her that Peter is treated . (Passive voice + [Topic || Object || Active r.] + [Focus || Subject || Passive r.])etc.

Homogeneous and HeterogeneousHomogeneous and Heterogeneousmeta-informative statusesmeta-informative statuses

Homogeneous and HeterogeneousHomogeneous and Heterogeneousmeta-informative statusesmeta-informative statuses

BaseBase Utterance (Schemas) Utterance (Schemas) BaseBase Utterance (Examples) Utterance (Examples)

(New) Subject : (New) Predicate(New) Subject : (New) Predicate #1 A new satellite has been #1 A new satellite has been launched today.launched today.

(Old) Subject : (Old) Predicate(Old) Subject : (Old) Predicate #2 Satellites turn around the Earth.#2 Satellites turn around the Earth.

Extended Utterance SchemasExtended Utterance Schemas Extended Utterance Extended Utterance (Examples)(Examples)

(Old) Topic : (New) Comment(Old) Topic : (New) Comment #3 As regards satellite X03, it has #3 As regards satellite X03, it has been destroyed by a meteorite.been destroyed by a meteorite.

(New) Focus : (Old) Background(New) Focus : (Old) Background #4 It is satellite X03 which was #4 It is satellite X03 which was destroyed today. destroyed today.

Communicative, Cognitive & Epistemic Communicative, Cognitive & Epistemic Motivations of Old/New StatusMotivations of Old/New Status

Communicative, Cognitive & Epistemic Communicative, Cognitive & Epistemic Motivations of Old/New StatusMotivations of Old/New Status

Three kinds of motivations of Old and New meta-informative status:Three kinds of motivations of Old and New meta-informative status:

(a) (a) TThe communicative he communicative motivation is explicit and speech bound. The motivation is explicit and speech bound. The situation spoken about is either connected to another one mentioned situation spoken about is either connected to another one mentioned before (anaphoric) or to be mentioned (cataphoric) or it is a modal before (anaphoric) or to be mentioned (cataphoric) or it is a modal situation (ex. either reported or to be reported). situation (ex. either reported or to be reported).

(b) The (b) The cognitive cognitive motivation is related to the acquisition of knowledge. motivation is related to the acquisition of knowledge. Situations appear as already known (registered) or unknown Situations appear as already known (registered) or unknown (unregistered).(unregistered).

(c) The (c) The referential (ontological) referential (ontological) motivation depends on the knowledge motivation depends on the knowledge stored in long term memory; the situation spoken about is treated either as stored in long term memory; the situation spoken about is treated either as a class (generic, general, habitual or potential) or an instance (specific, a class (generic, general, habitual or potential) or an instance (specific, particular, occasional or actual). particular, occasional or actual).

Grounding and RefinementGrounding and Refinementof the Meta-informative Old or New Statusof the Meta-informative Old or New Status

Grounding and RefinementGrounding and Refinementof the Meta-informative Old or New Statusof the Meta-informative Old or New Status

Dynamics of Centers of AttentionDynamics of Centers of AttentionDynamics of Centers of AttentionDynamics of Centers of Attention

Grosz, B. J., Joshi, A. K., and Weinstein, S. 1995. Centering: A framework for modeling the local coherence of discourse. Computational Linguistics, 21(2).

© André WLODARCZYK

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