Pre-Columbian Pre-Columbian Archaeology of North Archaeology of North

AmericaAmericaWeek 3:Week 3:

History of Archaeology in North History of Archaeology in North America:America:

The Twentieth CenturyThe Twentieth Century

The Classificatory-Historical PeriodThe Classificatory-Historical Period Nels C. Nelson Nels C. Nelson

– 19161916– Chronology for southwestern United StatesChronology for southwestern United States– Based on work at Based on work at Pecos PuebloPecos Pueblo

A. V. Kidder (Alfred Vincent)A. V. Kidder (Alfred Vincent)– Followed on in Nelson’s work at Followed on in Nelson’s work at PecosPecos– Integrated the stratigraphic method into a Integrated the stratigraphic method into a

regional studies of chronology and culture regional studies of chronology and culture changechange

– Key work: Key work: An Introduction to the Study of An Introduction to the Study of Southwestern ArchaeologySouthwestern Archaeology (1924) (1924)

Pecos Pueblo:Pecos Pueblo:Kidd’s Excavations (1920s)Kidd’s Excavations (1920s)

First pre-Holocene artifactsFirst pre-Holocene artifacts

– Jesse Figgins, director of the Colorado Museum of Jesse Figgins, director of the Colorado Museum of Natural HistoryNatural History

A paleontologistA paleontologist– In 1925, given bones of extinct bison (In 1925, given bones of extinct bison (Bison Bison antiquusantiquus) )

found together with a spear point in found together with a spear point in FolsomFolsom, New Mexico , New Mexico in 1908in 1908

– Showed them to Showed them to HrdličkaHrdlička who was skeptical of the who was skeptical of the contextcontext

– Scholars invited to Folsom to see for themselves and Scholars invited to Folsom to see for themselves and more evidence found in situ in 1928more evidence found in situ in 1928

– First good evidence of pre-Holocene occupation of the First good evidence of pre-Holocene occupation of the New WorldNew World

Ancient bisonAncient bison

Bison antiquusBison antiquus 15-20% larger than 15-20% larger than

the modern American the modern American bison/buffalo (bison/buffalo (Bison Bison bisonbison))

220 cm at top of 220 cm at top of hump, 1300 kghump, 1300 kg

Considered ancestralConsidered ancestral Similar behavior Similar behavior

pattern/range as pattern/range as modern bisonmodern bison

The GladwinsThe Gladwins Harold S. and Winifred GladwinHarold S. and Winifred Gladwin

– Extended series of publications between 1928 Extended series of publications between 1928 and 1937and 1937

– Outlined principles of site description, Outlined principles of site description, methodology and nomenclaturemethodology and nomenclature

– Excavated at the sites of Excavated at the sites of Casa Grande Casa Grande and and Snaketown (Arizona)Snaketown (Arizona)

– Major works include:Major works include:– Method for Designation of Ruins in the SouthwestMethod for Designation of Ruins in the Southwest

(1928)(1928)– A Method for Designation of Cultures and their A Method for Designation of Cultures and their

VariationsVariations (1934) (1934)– A series of publications (1929-31) entitled A series of publications (1929-31) entitled The Ancient The Ancient

Civilization of Southern ArizonaCivilization of Southern Arizona Focused on “Focused on “red-on-buffred-on-buff” culture” culture

Red-on-buff CeramicsRed-on-buff Ceramics

Examples of red-Examples of red-on-buff ceramics:on-buff ceramics:– Santa Cruz red-on-Santa Cruz red-on-

buffbuff– Hohokam culture Hohokam culture

(ca. 700-900 AD)(ca. 700-900 AD)– Paddle and anvil Paddle and anvil

techniquetechnique– Top: olla (19.05 cm Top: olla (19.05 cm

high)high)

Paddle and anvil techniquePaddle and anvil technique

In paddle and anvil In paddle and anvil thinning, the potter thinning, the potter holds the anvil on holds the anvil on the interior of the the interior of the vessel while beating vessel while beating the exterior of the the exterior of the vessel with the vessel with the paddlepaddle

Replicas of Replicas of southwestern toolssouthwestern tools

Absolute Dating TechniquesAbsolute Dating Techniques DendrochronologyDendrochronology

– Developed by A. E. DouglassDeveloped by A. E. Douglass An astronomer working in the first half of the 20An astronomer working in the first half of the 20thth century century First began developing series in 1913First began developing series in 1913 Floating chronology based on archaeological finds tied to Floating chronology based on archaeological finds tied to

fixed chronology in 1929fixed chronology in 1929– Built master series of growth ring data from long-lived Built master series of growth ring data from long-lived

tree speciestree species Bristlecone pineBristlecone pine

– MethodologyMethodology– Critical in the development of chronologies in desert Critical in the development of chronologies in desert

environmentsenvironments– Also important in the calibration of radiocarbon dating Also important in the calibration of radiocarbon dating

(C14)(C14) Developed by physicist Willard F. Libby in 1949Developed by physicist Willard F. Libby in 1949 Amount of carbon-14 deposited not consistent over timeAmount of carbon-14 deposited not consistent over time

Bristlecone pineBristlecone pine

Pinus longaeva, Pinus longaeva, Pinus aristataPinus aristata

Western United Western United States at high States at high elevations (above elevations (above 2500 m)2500 m)

Max. height: 18 mMax. height: 18 m Max. girth: 11 mMax. girth: 11 m Methuselah: 4,767 Methuselah: 4,767

years oldyears old

DendrochronologyDendrochronology Wood preserved in Wood preserved in

desert environment of desert environment of the Southwest could the Southwest could be compared to the be compared to the master series and an master series and an absolute date absolute date determineddetermined

Current master series Current master series dates back to 7000 BCdates back to 7000 BC

Sensitivity of rings to Sensitivity of rings to climactic change climactic change depends on their depends on their location, soil, etc.location, soil, etc.

ClovisClovis In 1932, amateur In 1932, amateur

collectors find collectors find projectile points on projectile points on the shore of a shallow the shore of a shallow dry lake in association dry lake in association with the bones of with the bones of extinct animalsextinct animals

Determined to predate Determined to predate Folsom (stratigraphic Folsom (stratigraphic position)position)

Marked beginning of Marked beginning of numerous finds of pre-numerous finds of pre-Holocene artifactsHolocene artifacts

Franz Boas (1858-1942)Franz Boas (1858-1942) German-born anthropologist and ethnologistGerman-born anthropologist and ethnologist Help establish field in North America (Columbia University)Help establish field in North America (Columbia University) His influences directed people to create time sequences for His influences directed people to create time sequences for

projectile point shapes, pottery styles and other material projectile point shapes, pottery styles and other material items items

Culture was defined by him as “a conglomerate of traits Culture was defined by him as “a conglomerate of traits coalesced and held by a group of people resulting either coalesced and held by a group of people resulting either from that group’s own peculiar history of invention or from from that group’s own peculiar history of invention or from contact with new ideas originating outside their society.” contact with new ideas originating outside their society.”

A major goal was the complete description of artifacts and A major goal was the complete description of artifacts and the grouping of artifacts into categories that could be the grouping of artifacts into categories that could be subdivided into artifact types.subdivided into artifact types.

Archaeologists worked to define which cultures were Archaeologists worked to define which cultures were associated with certain types of artifacts. They classified associated with certain types of artifacts. They classified potsherds, arrow points and burial mounds as belonging to potsherds, arrow points and burial mounds as belonging to certain cultures.certain cultures.

Other importantOther importantmid-century theoriesmid-century theories

Structuralism /Structural-Structuralism /Structural-functionalismfunctionalism– Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) and Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942) and

A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)– Holds that culture traits serve some Holds that culture traits serve some

useful purpose or function in the useful purpose or function in the maintenance of societymaintenance of society

– Holds that culture traits serve to Holds that culture traits serve to maintain society's social structuremaintain society's social structure

Cultural EcologyCultural Ecology

Julian Steward (1902-1972)Julian Steward (1902-1972) Major worksMajor works

– Theory of Culture Change; The methodology of Theory of Culture Change; The methodology of Multilinear EvolutionMultilinear Evolution (1955) (1955)

– Evolution and EcologyEvolution and Ecology (1977) (1977)

– Attempted to integrate the various subfields of Attempted to integrate the various subfields of anthropologyanthropology

– Similar environmental challenges resulted in Similar environmental challenges resulted in similar cultural outcomessimilar cultural outcomes

– Focused on how individual cultures evolved Focused on how individual cultures evolved and how environment affects culture and how environment affects culture

– Rejected unilineal Rejected unilineal evolution of culture evolution of culture as as proposed by Edward Tylor (1832-1917) and proposed by Edward Tylor (1832-1917) and Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881).Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881).

Cultural EvolutionCultural Evolution First developed in late 19First developed in late 19thth century using century using

Darwinian models of biological evolution Darwinian models of biological evolution and applying them to cultures.and applying them to cultures.

Tylor and Morgan proposed three stages Tylor and Morgan proposed three stages of cultural evolution:of cultural evolution:– SavageSavage

The lowest stage, subsistence on wild plants, no soil The lowest stage, subsistence on wild plants, no soil tilling or animal domestication tilling or animal domestication

– BarbaricBarbaric Starting to use agriculture Starting to use agriculture

– CivilizationCivilization Begins with the art of writing, which binds together Begins with the art of writing, which binds together

the past and the future the past and the future

Post-World War IIPost-World War II

Beginnings of salvage archaeology in the Beginnings of salvage archaeology in the United StatesUnited States– Interagency Archaeological Salvage ProgramInteragency Archaeological Salvage Program

Excavated sites located along rivers prior to their Excavated sites located along rivers prior to their being dammed.being dammed.

Especially active on the Great PlainsEspecially active on the Great Plains– Missouri River Basin ProjectMissouri River Basin Project

First salvage projectFirst salvage project Lasted from 1946-1967Lasted from 1946-1967 Discovered and recorded more than 20,000 sitesDiscovered and recorded more than 20,000 sites Conducted more than 500 major excavationsConducted more than 500 major excavations More than 2,600 reports and manuscriptsMore than 2,600 reports and manuscripts

Site nomenclature in the United Site nomenclature in the United StatesStates

Site numbers are assigned Site numbers are assigned based on the standard based on the standard developed by the developed by the Smithsonian Institution in Smithsonian Institution in the 1940’s for an the 1940’s for an archaeological River Basin archaeological River Basin Survey project.Survey project.

Site numbers are Site numbers are composed of three composed of three components, which result components, which result in a unique number, but in a unique number, but also allow for the also allow for the identification of a site's identification of a site's state and county level state and county level location. location.

ALAL 0101 HIHI 5050 MAMA 1919 NMNM 2929 SDSD 3939

AKAK 4949 IDID 1010 MIMI 2020 NNYY 3030 TNTN 4040

ARAR 0202 ILIL 1111 MNMN 2121 NCNC 3131 TXTX 4141

AZAZ 0303 ININ 1212 MSMS 2222 NDND 3232 UTUT 4242

CACA 0404 IAIA 1313 MOMO 2323 OHOH 3333 VTVT 4343

COCO 0505 KSKS 1414 MTMT 2424 OKOK 3434 VAVA 4444

CTCT 0606 KYKY 1515 NENE 2525 OROR 3535 WAWA 4545

DEDE 0707 LALA 1616 NVNV 2626 PAPA 3636 WVWV 4646

FLFL 0808 MEME 1717 NHNH 2727 RIRI 3737 WIWI 4747

GAGA 0909 MDMD 1818 NJNJ 2828 SCSC 3838 WYWY 4848

Walter W. TaylorWalter W. Taylor Walter W. Taylor (1913-1997)Walter W. Taylor (1913-1997) Carried out research in the American southwest Carried out research in the American southwest

and Mexicoand Mexico 1948 doctoral dissertation (later published as 1948 doctoral dissertation (later published as A A

Study of ArchaeologyStudy of Archaeology))– Landmark work in the history of North American Landmark work in the history of North American

archaeologyarchaeology– Criticized archaeologists for not focusing on Criticized archaeologists for not focusing on

anthropology. He said that archaeology as it was anthropology. He said that archaeology as it was currently being conducted was not archaeology; rather, currently being conducted was not archaeology; rather, it was historical reconstruction.it was historical reconstruction.

– This was one of the first times that archaeology and This was one of the first times that archaeology and cultural processes were deemed important aspects of cultural processes were deemed important aspects of archaeology.archaeology.

Taylor’s reformsTaylor’s reforms Reforms for the current (1940s) archaeological manner of thinking Reforms for the current (1940s) archaeological manner of thinking

are proposed by Taylor:are proposed by Taylor:– (1) inferences should be based on fact (use of the scientific method);(1) inferences should be based on fact (use of the scientific method);– (2) archaeologists need more categories, not fewer, and need to divide (2) archaeologists need more categories, not fewer, and need to divide

those into empirical versus cultural categories;those into empirical versus cultural categories;– (3) archaeologists need an (3) archaeologists need an emicemic outlook for typology issues; outlook for typology issues;– (4) all research should involve a geographical background; and (4) all research should involve a geographical background; and – (5) cultural ethnography should be done if possible.(5) cultural ethnography should be done if possible.

Taylor also outlines the need for field schools, or places that Taylor also outlines the need for field schools, or places that students can learn from professional archaeologists while the students can learn from professional archaeologists while the professional archaeologists benefit by getting free, trained labor. professional archaeologists benefit by getting free, trained labor.

Other reforms that Taylor advocates are:Other reforms that Taylor advocates are:– (1) data should be quantified;(1) data should be quantified;– (2) hypotheses should be tested;(2) hypotheses should be tested;– (3) archaeologists should excavate less extensively and more (3) archaeologists should excavate less extensively and more

intensively;intensively;– (4) nothing on a site should be thrown away, not even food remains;(4) nothing on a site should be thrown away, not even food remains;– (5) archaeology should embrace more specialties, such as zoology and (5) archaeology should embrace more specialties, such as zoology and

botany; and botany; and – (6) archaeologists should write more effective site reports, including (6) archaeologists should write more effective site reports, including

things like provenience. things like provenience.

New ArchaeologyNew Archaeology Lewis R. Binford (b. 1930)Lewis R. Binford (b. 1930)

– New Perspectives in ArchaeologyNew Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) (1968) Edited with his wife Sally BinfordEdited with his wife Sally Binford

– An Archaeological PerspectiveAn Archaeological Perspective (1972) (1972)– Nunamiut EthnoarchaeologyNunamiut Ethnoarchaeology (1978) (1978)– In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological RecordIn Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record (1983) (1983)

Often referred to as “processal archaeology”Often referred to as “processal archaeology”– Develop general laws of cultural processes Develop general laws of cultural processes

Understanding the archaeological record is only possible through Understanding the archaeological record is only possible through an understanding of the process through which it was formed an understanding of the process through which it was formed

Stressed the importance of “ethnoarchaeology”Stressed the importance of “ethnoarchaeology”– the study of living peoples and their material cultures with the goal the study of living peoples and their material cultures with the goal

being the more complete understanding of the archaeological record. being the more complete understanding of the archaeological record. Challenged assumption that much of the past was unknowable Challenged assumption that much of the past was unknowable

merely because the data did not survive: the job was to develop merely because the data did not survive: the job was to develop methods for extracting such informationmethods for extracting such information

Dominant theoretical perspective in the Americas from the 1960s Dominant theoretical perspective in the Americas from the 1960s onwardsonwards

Other important theoretical approaches in the AmericasOther important theoretical approaches in the Americas Cultural materialismCultural materialism

– Marvin Harris (b. 1927)Marvin Harris (b. 1927) Cows, Pigs, Wars & Witches: The Riddles of CultureCows, Pigs, Wars & Witches: The Riddles of Culture (1974) (1974) Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Culture Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Culture (1978)(1978)

– Cultural materialists study technology, environment, and Cultural materialists study technology, environment, and economic factors.economic factors.

– They believe that these material constraints are the primary They believe that these material constraints are the primary cause of cultural variation.cause of cultural variation.

– They divide cultural traits into three categories: the They divide cultural traits into three categories: the infrastructure, structure and superstructure. infrastructure, structure and superstructure.

The infrastructure is what determines cultural variation and change The infrastructure is what determines cultural variation and change as infrastructure contains sociocultural systems that are as infrastructure contains sociocultural systems that are materialistic, such as physical, mechanical, genetic or biological materialistic, such as physical, mechanical, genetic or biological systems. systems.

– Cultural materialists argue that feedback relationships Cultural materialists argue that feedback relationships between culture and environment select for certain traits between culture and environment select for certain traits within a culture. They also argue that the development of new within a culture. They also argue that the development of new technology precedes, and results in cultural changetechnology precedes, and results in cultural change

Opponents of cultural materialism argue that cultural Opponents of cultural materialism argue that cultural materialists ignore the importance that ideas and political materialists ignore the importance that ideas and political ideologies can have on cultures and culture change.ideologies can have on cultures and culture change.

MarxismMarxism– Still very important in American Still very important in American

academiaacademia– Marx was strongly influenced by Lewis Marx was strongly influenced by Lewis

Henry MorganHenry MorganUnilinear cultural evolutionUnilinear cultural evolution

– Cultural materialists often have strong Cultural materialists often have strong Marxist leaningsMarxist leanings

– Stress on modes of production as Stress on modes of production as correlating with cultural manifestationscorrelating with cultural manifestations

– Emphasis on material culture has Emphasis on material culture has provided a strong connection for many provided a strong connection for many archaeologistsarchaeologists

Federal legislation concerning archaeology IFederal legislation concerning archaeology I Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities

(1906)(1906)– First law of its kind in the United StatesFirst law of its kind in the United States– Fine of $500 for the unauthorized excavation, injury, Fine of $500 for the unauthorized excavation, injury,

destruction or appropriation of historic or pre-historic destruction or appropriation of historic or pre-historic sites sites

Historic Preservation Act 1966Historic Preservation Act 1966– Created the National Register of Historic Places that Created the National Register of Historic Places that

would include districts, sites, buildings, structures, and would include districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that were significant in American history, objects that were significant in American history, architecture, archaeology, and culture. architecture, archaeology, and culture.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969National Environmental Policy Act of 1969– Federal agencies have to write an environmental impact Federal agencies have to write an environmental impact

statement for all major federal actions affecting both the statement for all major federal actions affecting both the natural and man-made environment.natural and man-made environment.

– Also applies to any project receiving federal funding Also applies to any project receiving federal funding (roads, etc.)(roads, etc.)

Federal legislation concerning archaeology IIFederal legislation concerning archaeology II Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979Archaeological Resources Protection Act 1979

– It covers all land that the United States holds and Native American It covers all land that the United States holds and Native American lands, which are held in trust by the U.Slands, which are held in trust by the U.S

– Definition of archaeological resources and how to go about researching Definition of archaeological resources and how to go about researching them.them.

– archaeological resource if material remains of past human life or archaeological resource if material remains of past human life or activities are found. These items must be at least 100 years old and activities are found. These items must be at least 100 years old and contain information dealing with human life or activities.contain information dealing with human life or activities.

– Nothing that has been found on federal or Native American lands can Nothing that has been found on federal or Native American lands can be sold, exchanged, etc. be sold, exchanged, etc.

– Fines of up to $100,000 and prison time of up to five years could be Fines of up to $100,000 and prison time of up to five years could be handed out for breaking these provisions.handed out for breaking these provisions.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990– Museums and agencies that receive federal funding must keep and Museums and agencies that receive federal funding must keep and

inventory all human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects.inventory all human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects.– Federally recognized Native American Tribes, including Native Federally recognized Native American Tribes, including Native

Hawaiian organizations can repatriate these items.Hawaiian organizations can repatriate these items.– A federal agency or tribe must deal with any graves that are A federal agency or tribe must deal with any graves that are

inadvertently discovered. They then contact the affiliated Native inadvertently discovered. They then contact the affiliated Native American group.American group.

Week 2 – Sites (West)Week 2 – Sites (West)

– Pecos PuebloPecos Pueblo– FolsomFolsom– Casa Grande / Casa Grande /

SnaketownSnaketown– ClovisClovis

Major Missouri River Basin Project ExcavationsMajor Missouri River Basin Project Excavations

The EndThe End