practicalmanual -...

PRACTICALMANUAL

on

FIELD CROPS (Kharif)

Dr. L.R. Yadav

Dr. O.P. Sharma

Dr. N.L.Jat

2012

Department of Agronomy

S.K.N. College of Agriculture (SK Rajasthan Agricultural University)

Campus : Jobner – 303329 (Rajasthan)

SKN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

(S.K.RAJASTHAN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY: BIKANER)

JOBNER-303329 Distt. - Jaipur (Raj.)

Phone: 01425-254022 (O), 01425-254022 (Fax) 01425-254023(R)

Dr. G.L. Keshwa Dean

FOREWORD

A large population of the country is dependent on agriculture. Yet, the average

agricultural productivity is very low in our country. Agronomic practices contribute greatly in

increasing the productivity. Hence, it is essential that the students are aware of modern

agronomic practices of different crops. The present manual on ―Field Crops (kharif)" is a step in

this direction to provide practical knowledge on modern agricultural practices. The manual

intends to provide a useful information on seeding, germination, intercultural operations,

fertilizer and irrigation management, judging maturity and harvesting of kharif crops.

I acknowledge the immense interest taken by Dr. L.R. Yadav, Dr. O.P. Sharma

and Dr. N.L. Jat for bringing out this manual for benefit of students, readers and all

those involved in crop cultivation.

PREFACE

Ever increasing population has forced and awakened the agricultural scientists to increase

agricultural production through better crop improvement, crop production and protection measures.

Sound agronomic practices are required to get maximum production of field crops. In this connection, to

provide better understanding to undergraduate students the present manual has been prepared.

This manual contains seventeen exercises. The material has been drawn

from various publications with and without seeking permission from authors/publishers.

The authors would like to express their gratitude to all of them. The authors would be

grateful to receive suggestions from readers for further improvement of this manual.

The authors duly acknowledge the inspiration, guidance and technical support from

Professor G.L. Keshwa, Dean, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner for preparation of this manual.

February, 2012 Jobner Authors

CONTENTS

S No.

Particulars

Page No

Date

Signature of Teacher

1 Identification of seeds , crops and other inputs

2 Sowing methods of different kharif crops

3 Seed bed preparation for kharif crops

4 Working out seed rate real value and related numerical

5 Seed treatment and preparation of seed materials for sowing

6 Preparation of seed materials for planting of grasses

7 Fertilizer application in crops including top dressing

8 Identification of weeds in pearl millet and other crops

9 Acquaintance with plant protection measures in different crops

10 Irrigation operation in various crops

11 Judging physiological maturity in standing crops

12 Yield attributes of crops and calculation on theoretical and harvest index

13 Cotton seed treatment

14 Harvesting of kharif crops

15 Yield estimation of kharif crops

16 Visit to an agricultural farm Annexure

Date_______

Exercise No. 1

Identification of seeds, crops and other inputs

A large number of crops or varieties are grown in India. Many of these crops have great

morphological similarity in their seeds, although they belongs to different taxonomic groups.

Varieties also differ among each other in seed characteristics. Similarly, various inputs like

organic manure, cakes, fertilizers, amendments are used, therefore, it is necessary to identify

these inputs and to know content in them. Followings are the different crops and inputs used. A. Kharif crops

S. No. Common name Botanical name Family

Cereals and millets

1. Rice

2 Maize

3. Sorghum

4. Pearl millet

Minor millets

5. Finger millet

(Ragi/Mandua)

6. Proso millet , cheena

(Common millet )

7. Barn yard millet or

Sanwa

8. Foxtail millet or Italian

millet

9. Kodo millet or kodon

millet

10. Little millet or Kutki

Pulses

11. Pigeon pea

PRACTICAL MANUAL ON FIELD CROPS (KHARIF) 1

12. Mungbean

13. Urdbean

14. Cowpea

15. Mothbean

Oilseed crops

16. Groundnut

17. Soybean

18. Sesame

19. Sunflower

20. Castor

Fibre crops

21. Cotton

22. Jute

23. Sun hemp

Fodder grasses

24. Napier

25. Sewan grass

26. Anjan grass

27. Black Dhaman

28. Blue panic

29. Para grass

30. Dinanath geass

31. Rhodes grass

B. Manures and fertilizers with nutrient content

Nitrogen fertilizers Content(%)

Nitrate

1.

2.

3.

4.

Ammonical


5. 6. 7.

Nitrate and ammonical 8. 9. 10.

Amide 11. 12.

Phosphate fertilizers

Containing water soluble phosphoric acid or

mono calcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

13. 14. 15. 16.

Containing citrate soluble phosphoric acid

(CaHPO4) 17. 18.

Containing insoluble phosphoric acid

19. 20.

K fertilizers

21. 22.

Biofertilizers

23. 24.


25.

26.

27.

28.

Organic manures and oil cakes

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

Others

39. Gyspum

40. Pyrite

41. Borax

42. Copper sulphate

43. ZnSO4

44. Ammonium molybdate

45. Mn SO4


Dated_____________

Exercise No. 2 Sowing methods of different kharif crops

Sowing is the placing of a specified quantity of seeds in the soil in the optimum position for

germination and growth while planting is the putting of plant propagules (seeds, seedlings, cuttings,

tubers, rhizomes, clones etc) into the ground to grow as crop plants.Seeds are sown either directly in the

field or in the nursery (nursery bed) whereas seedlings are raised and transplanted later. The various methods of sowing are: 1. Broad casting

Broadcasting is the scattering or spreading of seeds on the soil which may or may not be incorporated or

covered with soil. Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreaders or aeroplanes. This method

is suitable for close sowing crops which do not require specific spacing for the optimum expression of their growth

and development. Crops such as upland and flooded rice, millets, mustard, jute, fodder crops such as dinanath

grass, berseem, lucerne, etc and spices like cumin and coriander are generally sown by this method. For mixed

cropping, broadcasting is the usual practice of sowing seeds.

Though it is an easy, quick and cheap method of sowing, there are difficulties in uniform

distribution, placing in optimum and uniform depth of soil and in providing soil cover and compaction.

Germination is uneven and weed control manually or mechanically is difficult. More quantity of seeds is

required in this method. Broadcasting of seeds is done in dry, semi dry and wet fields. 2. Dibbling

This is a method of putting a seed or a few seeds or seed material in a hole or pit made at predetermined

spacing and depth with a dibbler or planter. This method is suitable for wider space planted crops requiring a

specific spacing for their canopy development or cultural practices such as weeding, earthing etc. Seeds may be

dibbled in level fields or on ridges. For this method, the entire field need not be prepared for seed bed, only the

seeding zones. This method is suitable for planting maize, cotton, castor, groundnut, pigeon pea, onion, ginger etc.

Dibbling is more laborious, time consuming and expensive as compared with broadcasting but requires less seed

and gives rapid germination and seedling vigour. Unnecessary competition between plants is avoided.

3. Drilling/line sowing

Drilling is a practice of dropping seeds in furrows. Furrows of predetermined spacing are

made, seeds are dropped at a definite depth and distance, covered with soil and compacted.

Sowing implements such as ‘seed drill’ or ‘seed cum ferti lizers drill’ are used. The use of

seeding funnel (pora & kera) and sowing behind the plough are also practiced.

During seeding, other operations such as application of manures and fertilizers, pesticides and soil amendments

are also done. Drilling requires more time, energy and cost but it maintains uniform plant population per unit area. Row

spacing is also set. Crops such as wheat barley, upland rice, jowar, pulses, safflower, sesame, taramira etc are


sown by dri lling. 4. Planting

When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by manual labour, it is called

planting. Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those requiring wider spacing are sown

by this method. Planting is done for crops like cotton, maize, potato, sugarcane etc. 5. Transplanting

When more than one crop is to be sown in a year on the same piece of land, the time occupied

by each crop has to be reduced. The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings need

extra care for establishing in the field because of their tenderness. Small seeded crops like tobacco,

chillies, tomato are to be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination. Taking care of

germinating seed/seedlings which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to application of

water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area called nursery. When

they grow to certain stage, they are pulled out from the nurseries and transplanted in the main field.

The advantages of transplanting are saving in irrigation water, good stand establishment and

increase in cropping intensity. The thumb rule for the optimum age of seedlings is one week for

every month of total duration of the crop. Puddled rice is mainly grown by transplanting method.

Problem: Demonstrate different methods of sowing in field and also

diagrammatically show in space provided.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 3

Seed bed preparation for kharif crops

The land is prepared well with disc plough or MB plough. Then sowing is done by

adopting suitable method. After sowing, seed bed is prepared to facilitate easy irrigation in

crops if required. Seed bed preparation for few crops is given as under:

1.25m (i). Raised nursery bed for rice Materials required

Spade, hand hoe, rake, measuring tape, seed, water etc. 8.0m

Measurements: 8.0 m x 1.25 m Procedure

1. Earmark the area around four sides at right angle. 2. Prepare a bund of 30 cm thickness in the

middle of the row taking soil from both sides.

3. Prepare raised beds of 1.25 m x 8 m size, 20 cm above ground surface 4. Prepare a channel 30 cm wide on both sides to drain excess water. 5. Pulverize the soil inside bed with the help of spade or khurpi to a desirable depth. 6. Sow rice seeds in rows 10 cm apart and irrigate with 1-2 days interval during rainless

period. Seedlings are ready to transplant within 25-30 days.

7. 50 such beds of 8 m x 1.25 m = 10 m2 size are sufficient to transplant the seedlings in 1

ha field i.e. area of nursery required for 1 ha is 1/20 ha. Precautions

1. Seed bed should be free from weeds, pebbles and clods. 2. Bed should be raised by 20 cm from soil surface to provide good drainage. (ii) Seed bed preparation for maize

Materials required : Measuring tape, khurpi, spade, kassi, rake etc.

Measurement : 3.5 m length, 2.4 m width . Width of bed may be decided on the basis of row spacing.

Procedure:

1. Demarcate the area from all four sides keeping corners at 90

0 angle.

2. Bund the area with 30 cm thickness on the earmarked line taking soil from both the sides.

3. Soil inside bed should be mellow and friable. 4. Demarcate the rows at 60 cm keeping first and last row at 30 cm in width of the bed and

make shallow furrows with the help of hand hoe.


5. Sow seeds in furrows at a depth of 4-5 cm keeping plant to plant distance of 25 cm. Observations

(i) There will be 4 rows each at 60 cm in a entire width of bed (2.4 m) (ii) As per P x P spacing of 25 cm, there will be 14 plants in 3.5 m length of row. (iii) Total number of plants in a bed of 3.5 m x 2.4 m size will be 56. (iv) Keeping the above crop geometry (60 x 25 cm). One hectare planting requires 66,666 plants.

(v) Keep seed rate of maize 20-25 kg/ha. Precautions:

(i.) Seed bed should be free from weeds, pebbles and clodes. (ii.) Seed bed should be thoroughly leveled.

( iii. ) Spacing of fir st and last row and fir st and last plant wit h in r ow should be half of t he norm al.

( iii). Seed bed preparation for pearl millet

Materials required : Spade, measuring tape , khurpi, , kassi, rake etc.

Measurement : 3.6 m length, 2.7 m width

Method:

9. Demarcate the measured area on all four sides at right angle to each other.

10. Bund the area taking half soil from both the sides of row.

11. Prepare shallow furrows at a row spacing of 45 cm along the width of bed.

12. Sow seeds 3-4 cm deep in furrows.

13. Maintain plant to plant spacing of 15 cm thinning extra plants two weeks after sowing.

Observations:

10. Keeping R x R spacing of 45 cm, there will be 6 rows in above bed.

11. Keeping 15 cm spacing between plants, there will be 24 plants in a single row.

12. Total no of plants/bed will be 24 x 6 = 144.

13. Using above crop geometry i.e. 45 cm x 15 cm, 1,48,000 plants/ha are required.

14. Seed rate of pearl millet is 4 kg/ha Precautions:

1. Seed bed should be mellow and friable.

2. It should be free from debris.

3. Seed bed should be well leveled. Problem: Demonstrate seed beds of different kharif crops in the field and also

diagrammatically show it in the space provided.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 4

Working out seed rate, real value and related numerical

To select a seed lot for sowing purpose, its purity and germination test is the first requirement which can

be determined as per procedure given below. Seed is divided into different component is weighed separately and then

percentage are determined for purity test. A suitable size of seed sample is taken, say 100 in a petri dish or other method

and suitable conditions are provided for germination. Germination percentage is determined accordingly by counting

healthy and germinated seedlings after suitable period prescribed for a crop (Table 4.1). Table 4.1: Calculation of purity percentage. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Components Weight Percentage _____________________________________________________________________________________ Pure seed Other crop seeds

Weed seeds Inert

matter _____________________________________________________________________________________ Total _____________________________________________________________________________________

Wt. of individual fraction % Wt. of each fraction = ———————————————————————————— x

100 Total wt. of sample obtained

Percent of each fraction to the extent of 5% or more should be calculated and reported

while components of less than 0.05% should be reported as ‘traces’.

Seeds possessing minimum limits of purity must be rejected because these seeds will result in:

(i) Poor plant population and ultimately the yield. (ii) Poor price of produce in market (iii) Higher cost of cultivation because of higher cost of plant protection. (iv) Higher cost of seed itself. (v) Spread of new diseases, insect pests and noxious weeds.

Germination test of seed

(i) Petri dish method- Suitable for small seeds (ii) Rolled towel test- Suitable for large seeds (iii) Sand method – For all seeds (iv) Folder paper towel method – For large seeds


Points to be remembered

(i) Only healthy seeds separated out during purity test should be taken for test. (ii) Sterilization of the materials used. (iii) Ideal germination requirements should be provided viz., substratum, moisture,

temperature, light, air etc for getting satisfactory test data .

According to ‘ Indian’ Seed Act 1966 ’ which has been in force from 1st

Oct., 1969,

seed must have minimum prescribed germination per cent. Read value of seed

Represents its seed quality in terms of purity and germination. It can be evaluated by multiplying purity %

and germination % of seed sample dividing the product by 100. Thus, it is a standard measure for comparison

to two or more seed lots. A sample having higher real value is always better than one having lower R.V.

Sample A Sample B

Purity % 85 Purity % 98

Gr. % 95 Gr. % 80

A = 85 x 95 98 x 80

————— B = ——————-

=

100 100

80.75 = 78.40

It is more economical and better to buy the seed from seed lot of sample ‘A’. A seed lot

having < 70 R.V. is not preferred for sowing purpose because of poor germination and purity values. Calculation of seed requirement for kharif crops

Seed rate is calculated on the basis of number of plants required for unit area taking

into consideration the germination and purity per cent of the seed lot. Examples: (i) Calculate seed rate of upland rice on the basis of following data

(a) Spacing — 20 cm x 3 cm (b) Germination % - 89 (c) Purity % of seed = 82 (d) Test weight – 26 g (e) Number of damaged seeds /m

2 area which needs to be replaced by another – 12 seed

/m2 area. Solution : Total number of seeds required = No. of seeds required/ha + No. of seeds

needed for replacing damaged seeds

10000 10000 No. of seeds required/ha = __________ = _______ =1666666.6 seeds

Spacings .20 x.03 No. of damaged seeds/ha = 10000 x 12 =120000 Therefore total no. of seeds = 1666666.6 + 120000 = 1786666.6 seeds/ha Thus seed rate would be


Total no. of seeds/ha x test wt x 100 x 100 = __________________________________________

kg/ha 1000 x germination % x purity % x 1000

1786666.6x 26 x 100 x 100 = ______________________________ = 63.65

kg/ha 1000 x 89 x 82 x 1000

(ii) Calculate seed rate of groundnut in terms of kernels as well as unshelled pods:

(a) Spacing 40 cm x 15 cm (b) Germination % = 90 (c) Purity % = 84 (d) Test weight of kernels -650 g (e) Shelling percentage —75

10000 x 650 x 100 x 100 Solution : Seed rate of kernels = __________________________ =

114.6 kg. (kg/ha) .5 x .15 x 90 x 84 x 1000 x 1000

Quantity of unshelled pods needed for sowing in kg/ha Amount of kernels in kg/ha x 100 114.6 x 100

= ___________________________ = _________________ = 191 kg.

Shelling per cent 60 (iii) Calculate the seed rate of mungbean from the following details

(a) Spacing — 30 cm x 10 cm

(b) Germination % = 92

(c) Purity% = 85

(d) Test weight = 36 g Sol:-

Area(m2) x test weight x100 x 100

Seed rate(kg/ha) = ______________________________________ Spacing(m

2) x germination % x purity % x1000 x 1000

10,000 x test weight x 100 x 100

= ——————————————————————————————- 0.3 x 0.1 x 92 x 85 x 1000 x 1000

10, 000 x 36 x 100 x 100 = —————————————————————————————

0.3 x 0.1 x 92 x 85 x 1000 x

1000 3600 = ———————————————-

234.6 = 15.34 kg/ha


Problems 1. Calculate seed rate of pigeon pea based on following data

(i) Spacing— 60 cm x 25 cm (ii) Germination % — 87 (iii) Purity % — 86 (iv) Test weight — 70g

Solution:

2. Calculate seed rate of maize in kg/ha based on following data.

(a) Spacing — 60 cm x 25 cm (b) Germination% — 88 (c) Purity % — 90 (d) Test weight— 250 g

Solution :


3. Calculate seed rate of cotton based on followingobservations:

(a) Spacing 75 cm x 30 cm (b) Germination % = 90 (c) Purity % = 90 (d) Test weight = 140 g

Solution: 4. Calculate seed rate of pearl millet based on following data.

(a) Spacing — 45 cm x 12 cm (b) Germination % — 87 (c) Purity % — 84 (d) Test weight— 8 g Solution:


Dated___________

Exercise No. 5

Seed treatment and preparation of seed material for sowing

Seed treatment is a process of application of chemicals or protectants with fungicidal,

insecticidal, bactericidal or insecticidal properties to seeds that prevents the carriage of insects

or disease causing pathogens in/on the seeds which protect the seed from any kind of damage..

Seed treatment also enables the seed to overcome seedling infection by soil borne pathogens. Conditions requiring seed treatments

(i) Injured seeds : Mechanical injury to seed coat attracts attack of insect pests and

diseases and under such circumstances, it becomes essential to treat the seed.

(ii) Diseased seed : The seed may get infected during production, harvesting, threshing

etc. which makes it necessary to treat the seed

(iii) Undesirable soil conditions : Undesirable soil conditions prevailing during seed production

promote growth and disease pathogens which infect seed, hence it needs treatment.

Seed treating chemicals (Fungicides) (i) Mercurials

(a) Organo mercurials: These are used for treating small seeds, grains, flax, cotton,

safflower etc. but the treated seeds cannot be stored for long time.

(b) Inorganic mercurials: The chemicals used belonging to this group are mercuric

chloride, mercurous chloride and mercuric oxide but these chemicals are injurious to seeds.

(ii) Non-mercurials:

(b) Organic: Thiram and Captan are most widely used as they are safe for seeds and

users. The treated seeds may be stored for long time.

(b) Inorganic: Copper sulphate, copper carbonate, cuprous oxide are the chemicals

belonging to this group. These are injurious to lettuce and crucifers. Caution : The treatment should be given in order of Fungicide, Insecticide and

Rhizobium (FIR) Methods and equipments used depend upon type of chemicals used. 1. Dust treatment

Bulk of seed is treated by dust formulation which do not require very complicated

equipments. Factory made closed barrel type rotating drums are used for seed treatment which

reduce the inhalation hazards also. These drums treat the seed quickly and uniformly. 2. Wet treatment

Water soluble chemicals are dissolved in water in containers of convenient size and seeds are dipped for a


certain period of time and then dried properly before packing and storage. This method is time

consuming and cumbersome . It seed is not properly dried, it is likely to be damaged during

storage. Metallic containers are not suitable for mercurial compounds as seed treatment. 3. Slurry treatment

The slurry method of seed treatment eliminates the difficulties of both dry and wet treatments. This method

is most suitable for wettable powder formulations. The chemicals are mixed with small quantity of water and then

mixture is applied to seeds in automatic or semi automatic machines suitable for large scale treatment . 4. Pelleting

It is mostly used as a protectant against soil organisms and as a repellent against birds

and rodents. The method has very limited application, hence, it is not extensively used. Seed coating

Seed coating may be defined as the addition of materials for seed which may aid in growth

and survival of seedling plants. The method is mostly adopted in case of leguminous plants for use

of inoculum followed by coating with limiing materials. Additional materials may also be used

provided they do not interfere with effectiveness or survival of the inoculants applied to the seed. Seed treatment to break dormancy

Dormancy is referred to as rest period of seed in which embryo does not germinate but the seed

remains viable for a period of few days. It is found in case of tree seeds, grass seeds, potato tubers, ginger,

colocasia etc. Thus freshly harvested seeds can not be used for immediate sowing utill they complete their

rest period. Dormancy becomes a serious problem in case of potato because the seed crop of potato is

grown on hills during May to July and the same tubers when harvested are used for planting in Oct/Nov. in

the plains. These tubers remain dormant and they can be used only if dormancy is broken. Dormancy can be

broken by special treatments which may be grouped into two broad categories. (i) Physical treatments

(a) Heat treatment at 40 to 45 0C for different durations.

(b) Low temp treatment at 2 to 8

0C for 12-24 hours to pre- soaked seeds.

(c) Alternate heating and cooling for several times.

(e) Alternate drying and wetting for several times.

(f) Dehusking or removal of seed coats.

(ii) Chemical treatments (a) Inorganic chemicals

1. By acid treatment –Dil sol of HNO3, HCl, H2SO4 (0.1 – 0.5%) for

different duration in minutes


2. By KNO3 (1-3%) NH4NO3 (1-3%), H2O2 H3Bo4 etc. (b) Organic chemicals

Non hormonal –Thioura, KSCN, Ascrobic acid (10-100 ppm)

Hormonal- GA (1-100 ppm), Kinetin (1-100 ppm), Ethylene 100-300 ppm. (iii). Planter or Hopper box treatment –Required quantity of dust is mixed with the seed in the hopper

box of a seed drill just prior to its sowing. It is advantageous as there is not wastage of chemical.

Problem: Give flow chart of different seed treatments.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 6 Preparation of seed material for planting of grasses

Pastures in India are as old as agriculture. Growth and development of live stock production depends on

good pasture development. In our country, there are several regions of green pastures. Establishment of grasses

into new area or fields requires special attention. Followings are the some of the grasses of India (Table 6.1). Table 6.1 : Important forage grasses of India

S.No Common name Botanical name S.No. Common name Botanical name

1. Blue panic Panicum antidotale 8. Dinanath grass P ennis ettum pedic ell atum

2. Anjan or Buffel Cenchrus ciliaris 9. Rhodes grass Chloris gayana

3. Bird wood or Cenchrus setigerus 10. Sudan grass Sorghum vulgare var kala dhaman Sudanese

4. Marvel grass Dicanthium annulatum 11. Sewan grass Lasiurus sindicus

5. Stylos Stylosanthes hemata 12. Dhawalu grass Crysopogon fulvus

6. Napier grass P ennis ettum p urpureu m 13. Guinea grass Panicum maximum

7. Para grass Brachiara mutica 14. Saen grass Sehima nervosum

Establishment of selected species

Sown pastures may be grass alone, mixed grass and legume, or pure legume. A pure grass pasture

is usually preferred in situations where land is limited and/or very valuable as in dairy farms near to urban

areas. Usually good herbage yields are obtained from pure grass pastures heavily fertilized with nitrogen,

irrigated and cut. Considering the high cost of nitrogen fertilizers, mixed grass-legume pasture sometime is

more desirable depending on the suitability of the mixtures, the ability of the legume comp onent to fix

sufficiently adequate nitrogen from the air and also the land size to be grown with. Shrub legumes such as

Leucaena leucocephala can be grown as mono crop and cut as fodder for the dairy animals. Techniques of establishment

Generally, there are 4 essential steps to be followed for establishing improved pastures; (i) preparation of

land,( ii) preparation of planting material either using seed or vegetative material, (iii) sowing or planting, and (iv)

management of the forage crop during establishment period. Pastures usually require a well-prepared seedbed for

good germination and establishment. If vegetative planting materials are used a rougher bedding is tolerated. Land

preparation can either be done manually or mechanically depending on the size of the area to be cultivated. The

most important factor in controlling germination, other than the viability of seed, is the soil moisture conditions

before or after sowing or planting. Thus the choice of planting time coinciding with rain is critica l. The shrub legume

Leucaena leucocephala is also planted along the fence lines as hedge, or planted in a block or

interspersed with the grass.

Propagation methods

Planting grass species using vegetative planting materials would require about a tonne of the planting


material for every hectare of land. When seeds are used, the seeding rate is usually between 2-6 kg/ha

depending on quality and size of the pasture seeds. Selection of planting materials depends on the size

of the land to be planted with and also the availability and price of pasture seed is high. Normally, forage

legumes are propagated by using good quality seed. Many legume seeds have tough seed coat and are

not able to germinate even when they are provided with sufficient moisture. Their seed coat has to be

broken or scarified by mechanical, chemical or other forms of seed treatments. There are different ways

of establishing grass-legume mixed pastures. If both are planted from seeds: 1. They may be broadcast together in the same manner; 2. They may be seeded in rows; 3. They may be seeded in alternate rows. If the grass component is propagated vegetatively and the legume by seeds: 1. The legume may be seeded in the same row with the grass; 2. The legume may be seeded in between rows of the grass.

Before planting the grasses, the field requires well prepared land (2–3 ploughings followed by 3–4 harrowings).

It can be established by planting of rooted slips in lines keeping a distance of 1 m from line to line and 50 cm slip to slip.

It can be established by seed alsowherein 3–6 kg seed/ha is required but percent germination should be tested before

sowing. Being highly responsive to manuring, 10–20 t/ha of FYM and 30 kg/ha P2O5as basal dose should be applied to

the crop. After each cut 50–60 kg N/ha are applied. After a period of 4–5 years, replanting of the crop is required.

Problem: Name the important grasses of India .


Dated___________

Exercise No. 7 Fertilizer application in crops including top dressing

Method of application varies according to the spacing of crop, type of fertilizer material, time of application, etc. A brief account of these points could be explained as under: 1. Methods of application of solid fertilizer materials. (a) Broadcasting: Evenly spreading of dry solid fertilizers over the entire field before or after sowing of the

crop is termed as broadcasting. This method proves effective when the crops have a dense stand, when the

plant roots absorb nutrient from whole volume of soil, when soil is rich in fertility, when large amount of

material is to be used. Though this method is easy, less time consuming, cheap and more convenient to the

farmers, yet, it is not advantageous because it encourages weed growth all over the field, most of the material

remains on the soil surface and does not reach to the root zone for uptake by plants, there is great loss of

fertilizer nutrients due to washing, run-off, volatilization, etc. Hence the recovery (extent of fertilizer used by

plants) ranges between 25 to 45 per cent or even less. Broadcasting may be done in following ways: (i) Basal application: Spreading of fertilizers before sowing or planting of the crops and mixing them by

cultivating the soil during seed-bed preparation is termed as basal application through broadcasting. (ii) Top-dressing: Spreading of fertilizer in standing crops is termed as top dressing without

considering the crop rows but when the crop rows are taken into account and the material is

dropped on the ground surface near the crop rows, then it is called as side dressing. (b) Placement of solid fertilizers: This refers to applying fertilizers into the soil where the crop roots can take them easily and maximum portion of the material can be used by plants and losses through uptake by

weeds, washing, run-off, volatilization etc. could be eliminated to the greatest extent. Placement can be done in following ways: (i) Plough sole placement: When the fertilizers are applied in furrows at plough sole level then

it is termed as plough sole placement. This could be done by kera, pora, chonga, etc. (ii) Deep placement: The method is adopted in dry land condition where the fertilizers are placed deeper than plough sole level then it is called as deep placement. This helps in maximum root elongation and also eliminates various

losses of nutrients from the soil. (iii) Sub-soil placement: When fertilizers are placed still deeper than the seeding or

planting depth and also deeper than the previous two methods, the method is termed as sub-soil placement. (c) Localized placement: There is distinction between placement and localized placement. The former refers to

applying fertilizer into the soil without special reference to the location of seed or plant while the latter implies the

application of fertilizer into the soil close to the seed or plant. The method could be adopted in following ways


(i) Contact Placement: When fertilizer is placed along with seed then it is called as contact

placement. This is done by using seed-cum-fertilizer drill. (ii) Band placement: This is a localized placement of fertilizers by the side of plants in the hill for widely spaced

plants like maize (termed at discontinuous bands) or along the rows of the crop for closely spaced crops like

cereals, minor millets (termed as continuous band placement). This method has a definite relationship of fertilizers

with seedlings or seed, hence, this method gives very promising results when soil surface is dry.

(iii) Spot placement: When fertilizers are placed at a fixed spot by the help of a bamboo peg having a hole

at the bottom in case of very widely spaced crops then the method is termed as spot placement method.

(iv) Pellet placement: This method is adopted specially in case of deep water rice cultivation where it is

difficult to apply fertilizers in normal methods as the fertilizer granules get dissolved in water before

reaching to the ground level. In this method fertilizers (specially nitrogenous ones) are mixed with clay

soil in the ratio of one part of fertilizer into 10-15 parts of soil. The fertilizer is well mixed with soil after

slight moistening then filled in gunny bags and stored for 2-3 days. Now small mud balls are prepared

and these ball or pellets are dropped near the crop rows in rice or jute under deep water conditions.

Localized placement of fertilizers have many advantages over broadcasting such as relatively lesser quantity is

required for production of an ideal crop, weed growth is suppressed, fertilizer losses are reduced, fertilizers are placed in

moist zone, fertilizers come in easy reach of crop roots, fertilizer recovery and response of crops to applied fertilizer is increased. But the method is very technical and needs special precaution. It

is very expensive also. 2. Methods of application of liquid fertilizers

Use of liquid fertilizers is not very common practice in India but in advanced countries

this is most common method. It is most suitable method under dry land agriculture and in the

areas which are prone to erosion problems. Liquid fertilizers may be applied in following ways (i) Use of starter solution: Starter solutions usually contain N, P, K in 1 : 2 : 1 or 1 : 1 : 2 ratio. This

method is used for transplanted crops where in place of irrigation water this solution is applied just

to wet the field so that the seedlings may establish quickly. Thus it serves as irrigation water as well

as nutrient solution for the crops. This is also used for treating the seedling root. (ii) Fertilizer application through irrigation water: The required quantity of fertilizer material is dissolved in

irrigation water and can be used in sprinkler or drip irrigation systems. It is also known as fertigation.

(iii) Nutrient injection method: In USA and some other countries anhydrous ammonia is injected into the

soil at a depth of about 20-25 cm and at a pressure of about 200 pound per square inch. The anhydrous

ammonia is the cheapest source of nitrogen because of its lower unit value. For this method the soil should

have fine tilth, enough moisture etc. so that loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia does not take place.


(iv) Foliar spraying of nutrient solutions: In this method of fertilizer application, urea, micro-nutrients

and other required materials are dissolved in water, filtered and sprayed over the crop foliage by the help

of a suitable sprayer. This method is preferred to other methods because it needs very little quantity of

materials, the crop plants respond within 24 hours of application, soil reaction, topography and soil

textures have no adverse effect on the nutrient availability and fertility status of the soil, however, uneven

spraying and improper concentration of the solution may lead to hazardous effect over the crop.

Problems 1. Classify different methods of fertilizer application.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 8 Identification of weeds in pearl millet and other crops

Presence of weeds in agricultural fields causes enormous damage to crops. Due to onset of monsoon,

kharif season crops are badly affected by weeds. It is essential to identify the weeds for their proper management. Enlist important weeds of following field crops:

Rice Pearl millet

Maize Sorghum


Groundnut Kharif pulses

Soybean Cotton


Dated___________

Exercise No. 9 Acquaintance with plant protection measures in different crops

Insects and diseases cause heavy loss to both quality and quantity of field crops. Environmental

conditions such as high humidity and favorable temperature enhance the development and spread of insect pest

and disease causing organisms. Therefore, it is essential to know the dynamics of the insect and pathogens to

control them. Some important diseases and insect of the field crops and their management is as under: Rice The important insects are- Striped stem borer, pink stem borer, white and yellow stem borers,

leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, army worm, gall midge, Gandhi bug, mole cricket etc. These

insects can be controlled by applying different insecticides. Diseases Blast -Spraying of bavistin (0.1%) or hinosan 625 g in 625 litres of water/ha at 25, 35, and 45

days after transplanting controls the disease.

Bacterial leaf blight -Spraying with a mixture of 75 g of agrimycin 100 and 500 g of copper

oxychloridc in 500 litres of water/ha 3-4 times at 10-12 days interval controls the disease.

Bacterial leaf streak -Spraying with 12 g of streptocycline or 75 g of agrimycin 100/ha dissolved

in 500 litres of water once or twice destroys the bacteria.

Brown spot -Three to four sprayings of 0.25% of Diathane M-45 at an interval of 10-12 days

after 45 days of transplanting takes care of the disease. Seedling blight and foot rot-Seed treatment with 2 g of benlate/kg of seed helps in control of the disease. Khaira -This is a zinc deficiency disease and could be controlled with basal use of 25 kg zinc

sulphate/ha or with spraying of 5 kg zinc sulphate + 2.5 kg of lime/ha.

Roguing -Roguing of wild rice plants, disease affected plants, especially those infected wi th

tungro virus and false smut and off-types thrice-once at panicle initiation, next at flowering and

final near maturity keeps seed free of admixtures.

Maize Inset-pest Stern borer and pink borer: 1. Spraying of 0.03% of endrin 20 E.C. 15 days after sowing or Thiodan 35 E.C. of 0.1%

solution, or sevin 50% W.P. of 0.2% solution.

2. Application of lindane granules 1% or sevin granules 4% in the leaf-whorls at the rate of 12 to 15 kg/ha.

3. Infestation at the grain filling stage damages the grains, therefore, spraying of 0.2% sevin

solution must be done. For hairy caterpillar, army worms and hoppers and maize beetles: Application of 5% BHC at 15 kg/ha at the time of sowing or at the time of last harrowing controls the insects.


Shoot bug and aphid: Spraying of metasystox 0.25% solution one week after sowing and its

repeated application at 10 days interval, if required, helps in controlling the insects.

Seedling blight and seed rot: Seed treatment with organomercurial compounds like ceresan,

Agrosan G.N checks the disease.

Leaf blight: Apply mancozeb @ 0.2% spray at 30 DAS. Repeat after 10-15 days. Downey mildew: Treat with Ridomil MZ or Agrosan 35 WS@ 4g/kg seed. Sorghum Shoot fly 1. Seed treatment with Carbofuran at the rate of 50 g/kg of seed. 2. Application of Carbofuran 3% granules at the rate of 20 kg/ha or disulphoton 5% at the rate of 15 -18 kg/ ha

or Phoratc granules 10% at the rate of 12-15 kg/ha in the seed rows while Sowing controls the insect. Stem borer: Two to three applications of endosulphan 4% at the rate of 8 kg or furadon 3% G

@ 10 kg/ha. The granular material of any of these chemicals should be applied at 10 days

interval after 20 days of sowing. Control of diseases:

Leaf spot disease: Spraying of 0.2% dithane Z-78 solution at fortnightly interval after 45 days of

sowing prevents the infection of the disease.

Ergot disease: Two applications of a mixture of ziram 0.2% and sevin 0.1% at boot leaf stage prevent the disease. Ear moulds. Captan (0.2%) or bavistin(0.1%) solution should be sprayed at the grains filling

stage for control of this disease.

Pear millet White grub and shoot fly: They may be controlled by soil application of thimet (phorate) at the

rate of 15 kg/ha in the seed rows.

Leaf feeding insets: The group includes grasshopper, leaf roller and army worm which could be

controlled by (dusting with BHC 10% at 20 kg/ha rate while sucking insects like aphids, jassids

could be controlled by spraying of dimethoate 30% E.C. at 250 ml/ha in 500 litres of water. Control of diseases Smut. Seed treatment with agrosan GN at the rate of 2.5g/kg prevents attack of the disease. Rust. Spraying with Zineb 50% W.P. at the rate of 1 kg/ha controls the disease. It controls leaf spot disease also. Green ear disease. Spraying with Zineb 50% W.P. at the rate of 1.2kg/ha checks the disease.

Its application could he repeated, if cloudy weather continues, at ten days i nterval.

Ergot disease. Spraying with Ziram 0.15 per cent or with a mixed solution of copper oxychloride

(fytolan) and Zineb (Dithane Z-78) prepared in 1: 2 ratio at boot leaf stage. Two to three

sprayings at 5 days interval controls the disease.

Groundnut Insects:


Red hairy catterpiller— Endosulphan @ 2-2.5 litres/ha White grub : Serious pest of groundnut. Apply 20-25 kg /ha phorate 10 G before sowing. Seed

treatment with chlorpyriphos @ 1 litre/40 kg seed. Diseases Tikka disease- Seed treatment with Thiram or Captan @ 2-3 g/kg seed. Rosette- It is a viral disease. Control of aphid by 0.1 % malathion or matasystox @ 0.2- 0.3 % the disease.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 10 Irrigation operation in various crops.

Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the field surface, by applying it beneath

the soil surface, by spraying it under pressure or by applying it in drops. The water supply, type of soil,

slope of the land and the crop to be irrigated determine the method of irrigation to be used.

The various methods of irrigation are : 1) Surface irrigation 2) Sub-surface irrigation 3) Over-head or sprinkler irrigation 4) Drip or trickle irrigation

A. Surface irrigation method (Gravity irrigation)

In surface irrigation, water is conveyed at the point of infiltration, directly on the surface

by gravity flow from the channels. These methods can be used nearly on irrigable soils and for

most crops with a wide range of steam size and soil types. These methods are: 1. Free flooding : Water is brought perpendicular to the slope in a channel and applied directly

to the field without any control on the flow. The advancing sheet of water is controlled primarily

by the topography of the field with some guidance from the cultivators spade.

Advantages :

1) Suitable for all irrigable soils and close growing crops.

2) Can be followed in highly sloppy lands (up to 10% slope).

3) Initial cost is low. Limitations :

1) Distribution of water is not uniform and water application efficiency is low

2) There will be erosion hazard. 2. Controlled flooding: (i) Border strips : Here the field is divided into number of long parallel strips called borders that are

separated by low ridges. The width of border usually varies from 3 to 15 metres and the length varies from 60

to 120 metres in sandy and sandy loam soils and 150 to 300 metres in clayey soils. An essential feature of

border strip irrigation is to provide an even surface cover which the water can flow down the slope with nearly

uniform depth in the entire width of the border. Normally, the direction of the border strip is in the direction of

the slope, but when the land slope exceeds non-erosive limits, border strips may be laid across the slope. Advantages

1) Suited well for close growing crops such as wheat, barley and fodder crops especially in

black soils which need light irrigations.


2) Water application efficiency is better and initial cost in low. Limitations

1) Extensive land grading is necessary 2) Relatively large stream flows are required.

(ii) Flat bed or check basin method : A check basin is an area completely levelled and surrounded by

a bund. Here, water is conveyed by a stream of supply channel and lateral field channels. The supply

channel is assigned on the upper side of the area and there is usually one channel for every two rows of

check basins. Water from the laterals is turned into the beds and cut off when sufficient water has been

applied to the basin. Water is retained in the basin until it soaks into the soil. Advantages :

1) Ideally suited for orchard crops and close growing crops like transplanted paddy, wheat, barley etc.

2) There is good control of irrigation water and fairly high water application efficiency. 3) Useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.

Limitations (i) Ridges or bunds occupy considerable land and interfere with the movement of farm machinery for interculture.

(ii) Labour requirement in land preparation and irrigation is much higher. (iii) Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions like maize, potato etc. (ii) Ridge and furrow method : This method is used to irrigate row crops with furrows developed between the

rows where water is applied by running into small streams. It is the most suitable method of irrigation for crops

sensitive to the pounded surface water or susceptible to fungal root rot, root injury et c. Irrigation furrows may be

classified as graded furrows, level furrows, contour furrows, corrugations and alternate furrows. Straight ridges and

furrows are formed on a levelled topography while contour ridges and furrows are formed on steep slopes. This

method is suitable for irrigating maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, potato and other vegetables. Advantages :

1) Suited to all row crops and especially for crops that are sensitive to excess moisture like maize and vegetables.

2) There is good control of water and water application efficiency is high. Limitations :

1) Labour charge is higher. 2) There is erosion hazard.

(iii) Ring and basin method: This method of irrigation is essentially a check basin method

applied to orchards where basins are circular and are made around each tree. The entire land is

not wetted in the ring method of basin irrigation of orchards. From the supply ditch water is

conveyed to the basin either by flowing through one basin into another, or preferably by small

lateral channels. The round furrow is termed ring and the raised portion is known as basin.

Advantages :

1) Best suited to broadly spaced crops like orchards.


2) There is high water application efficiency with uniform distribution. Limitations :

1) Intercultivation by bullock drawn implements is difficult 2) Initial cost is high.

B. Sub-surface irrigation

In sub-surface irrigation, water is applied below the ground surface by maintaining an artificial water

table at some depth depending upon the soil texture and the depth of the plant roots. Water reaches the plant

roots through capillary action. Water may be introduced through open ditches or under ground pipelines such

as tile drains or mole drains. The depth of open ditches vary from 30 to 150 cm and they are spaced about 15

to 30 metres apart. The water application system consists of field supply channels, ditches or trenches

suitably spaced to cover the field adequately and drainage ditches for the disposal of excess water.

The method can be adopted in soils having a low water holding capacity and a high

infiltration rate where surface methods can not be used and sprinkler irrigation is expensive. C. Sprinkler irrigation system

Sprinkler or overhead irrigation system is a means of applying water to the surface of any soil or crop just

like rain-water is sprayed into the air through a sprinkler nozzle under pressure. With careful selection of nozzle

sizes, operating pressures and sprinkler spacing, the amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone

can be applied nearly uniformly at a rate to suit the infiltration rate of soil, thereby obtaining efficient irrigation.

Two major types of sprinkler system are rotating head system and perforated pipe system. In the rotating

head system, small size nozzles are placed in riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of the lateral

pipe. The most common device to rotate the sprinkle r head is with a small hammer activated by the thrust of the

water striking against a vane connected to it. Most of the sprinklers used in agricultural field are of slowly rotating

with either one or two nozzles. The pressure requirement in rotating head system is 2-10 kg/cm2 . In perforated

pipe system, small holes are provided in a pipe in specially designed manner so that water comes out through

these holes and irrigate a crop. Here, pressure requirement is much less i.e. 0.5 to 2 kg /cm2.

Advantages : 1. It is best suited for sandy soils where infiltration rate is high and for shallow soils where the

topography prevents proper levelling for surface irrigation methods.

2. It is suitable for steep slopes and easily erodable soils. 3. Water application efficiency is high because surface run off and percolation is very much reduced. 4. Wastage of land is avoided by eliminating ditches, furrows and borders which generally

occupy 5% of total area.

5. Soluble fertilizers can be applied through sprinklers. 6. Sprinkler irrigation can be used to protect the crop from frost damage and scorching temperatures. Limitations 1. Initial investment is high compared to surface irrigation methods.


2. During windy days distribution of water is not uniform. D. Drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation also referred to as trickle irrigation is one of the most efficient methods of irrigation. It

was first designed in Israel by Simca Blass, a water engineer in 1959. It involves slow application of water to

the plant root zone. The losses of water by deep percolation and evaporation are minimized. Precise amount

of water is applied to replenish the depleted soil moisture at frequent intervals for optimum plant growth.

It consists of an extensive network of pipes usually of small diameter that deliver filtered water

directly to the soil near the plant. Main components of drip irrigation system are storage tank with filters,

mains and sub-mains, laterals and drip nozzles or emitters. The water outlet device in the pipe namely

emitter discharges only a few litres per hour. From the emitter, water spreads laterally and vertically by

soil capillary forces. The area wetted by an emitter depends upon the flow rate, soil type, soil moisture

etc. Trickle irrigation is suitable for fruit crops and orchards which are widely spaced such as tomatoes,

citrus and grapes. It is not practical or economical for closely planted crops such as cereals. Advantages : 1. Water application efficiency is very high and water saving of 30 to 50 per cent over other

irrigation methods is obtained in the system.

2. Greater crop yields and better quality are obtained as root zone is moistened constantly. 3. Insect, disease and weed problem are reduced by minimizing the wetting of soil surface. Limitations : 1. Initial investment is high and cannot be followed in cereals and closely spaced crops. 2. Clogging of emitters is a serious problem. 3. Salt deposition occurs near the edge of wetted zone at the soil surface, severe damage

may be caused to crop, if it is flushed to root zone by rains. Problem: Explain diagrammatically different irrigation methods.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 11 Judging physiological maturity in standing crops

Plants have various phases of growth and development. Maturity is the stage at which the plant almost

ceases its physiological processes and the formation of the grain or fibre or synthesis of produce of economic

value is complete. In certain crops this stage can be judged by seeing the colour of the leaves, stem and grains

and through the physical appearance of the plant, while in others by certain specific tests (as in sugarcane). In

pulses, one should know that they do not ripen uniformly. Hence, repeated plucking is advisable.

In a large number of crops, the plants turn yellow and dry at maturity, while in other crops, the plants

remain green but the seeds are fully matured as in the case of most of the dwarf varieties of rice, jowar, maize, etc.

Therefore, mere judging of maturity on the basis of the visual symptoms of the crops may not hold true and, hence,

the inspection of the seed is also necessary to judge the harvesting stage, while the crop is green. Precautions: Do not apply the same standards for judging maturity in all the crops

for harvesting. Spraying of any insecticide or fungicide at the time of

harvesting should be avoided. Do not allow over-ripening.

Do not delay harvesting of pulses or bolls in cotton till complete maturity of the terminal

pod/ boll. Harvesting in fodder crops beyond 75% flowering stage should be followed. Procedure Visit the field and look at the crop conditions. Make visual observations with regard to color of leaf/stem/ pod/ earhead /grain. Feel the consistency of grain/ leaf in tobacco. Observe the colour of the grain/ pod/boll (cotton), etc. Determine the moisture content of the grain. Cereals Rice Observe the crop for maturity after 30 days of flowering. Leaf colour - it should be pale green. Colour of the husk on the panicle—it should be pale yellow to brownish yellow. Take out the grain, cut it with your nail—it should break with difficulty. Cut the grain between the teeth—it should give a dull metallic sound on breaking. Sorghum and minor millets Observe the colour of the leaf/ stem—it should be pale yellow to yellow. Condition of the leaves—they should be brittle. Grain consistency —it should be hard and milk should not ooze out when crushed.


Seed colour — it should be whitish, and in minor millets, typical of the crop variety, as

marketed. Beat the earhead against a hard surface—note shattering out of grains. Moisture content of the grain—it should be less than 25%. Colour of the leaf, stemt and cobs of maize—it should be pale green

to yellow Observe the condition of the leaves—they should be brittle. Consistency of the grain—it should be hard, and milk should not ooze out when pressed

between the teeth. Cut the grain with the teeth—it should give a dull metallic sound. Pulse crops and legumes Observe the, colour of the leaf/ stem/pod—it should be yellow

to brown. Note the dried appearance of the plant and pod.

Note the falling of leaves. Observe the pods—75% are completely filled; the outer surface or hull is nearly

dried. Colour of the seed—it should be typical of the crop variety, as marketed. Condition of the cotyledon—on splitting, they should separate easily. Grain moisture content— it should be less than 35%. In soybean, it should not be more than 20%. Note the pod filling in vegetable peas/ cowpea/ soybean—75% pods are completely filled and fresh green in colour. Groundnut Colour of the leaves/haulm – it should be pale green to

yellow. Crop condition—it should not be dried up completely. Record the condition of the leaves—lower leaves start shedding. Dig out nuts at a few places and note the pod filling—the pod should have grain of full size and

75% of the grain should be hard.

Colour of the kernel—it should be typical of the variety. Inner surface of the shell—it should be smooth, brown, with darkened veins. Pressing the kernel between fore-finger and thumb—it should be hard and should not be easy to press.

Rub the kernels between the palms—note that the seed skin is not easily removed or deformed. Observe in the runner types—the haulms should be greenish yellow, leaves turning yellow,

flowers may still be present. Sesame Colour of stem/leaf/ capsule—it should be yellowish green. Condition of the capsules— not open, likely to open within 3-4 days. Plants are not dried. Cotton Crop plant—note that a few bolls are fully opened with the lint hanging out and puffy, a few bolls are

about to open, and others are growing; a few flowers are fully opened and others are still developing. Observe the mature bolls and the kapas present (seed cotton)—it should be puffy, hanging

downward and bright and easily separated from the bracts.


Calyx or boll shell- it should be completely dried. Lower leaves—they should be dried. Observe the same in the 2nd and 3rd picking. In hybrid cotton, more picking may be needed.

Observations

S.No. Name of the Visual Moisture content Duration from Date of

crop symptoms at in grains sowing /planting maturity

maturity to harvesting

stage


Dated___________ Exercise No. 12

Yield attributes and calculation on theoretical yield and harvest index.

Yield potentials of crops/varieties can be assessed on the basis of yield attributes. Different crops have

different yield attributing characters. After collecting information on these attributes, theoretical yield. These

observations help farmers to choose a suitable crop or variety for cultivation. Some of the examples are: 1.. Find out the yield of cotton in terms of seed-cotton, cotton seed, lint and ginning percentage

if following data are provided:

(i) Plant spacing -90 cm x 60 cm (ii) Average no. of sympodial branches/plant -5 (iii) Average no. of bolls/branch -4 (iv) No. of locules/boll -4 (v) Average no. of seeds/locule -8 (vi) Seed to lint ratio -2.5 : 1 (vii) Test weight of cotton seed -140 g. (viii) Area under crop -one

hectare Solution

Yield of cotton seed (q/ha)= Area x test wt(g) x No.of sympodial branches x No. of boll/branch x locules/boll x seeds/locule ___________________________________________________________________________

Spacing x 1000 x1000 x100

10000x 140 x 5 x4 x 4 x 8 _______________________________ =

16.6 q/ha 0.9 x 0.6 x 1000 x 1000 x 100

Yield of lint in q/ha

Yield of cotton seed in q/ha = _______________________

Seed to lint

ratio = 16.6 x1 / 2.5 = 6.64 q/ha

Yield of seed cotton = Yield of cotton seed + yield of lint = 16.6 + 6.64 = 23.24 q/ha.


Ginning percentage = Yield of lint in q/ha ___________________ = 6.64 x 100/ 23.24 = 28.45 % Yield of seed cotton in q/ha

2. Calculate the expected yield of maize grain in t/ha from the following details : (1) Spacing-75 cm x 30 cm (2) Average no. of cobs/plant-2 (3) Average no. of grain rows/cob-10 (4) Average no. of seeds/grain row-25 (5) Test weight of seeds-

250 g. Solution

Yield of maize grains in t/ha = 1000xcobs/plantxgrain rows/cob x grains/rowxtest.wt.inSpacing in sq.m.x

1000x1000x100x10 = 10000x2x10x25x2500.75x0.30x1000x1000x100x10 = 5.56 t/ha Yield of Maize grain would be 5.56 t/ha. 3. What would be the yield of rice grains, if (a) The average earhead density/m2 - 260 (b) Average no of filled grains/panicle- 136 (c) Test weight - 20 g Solution Yield of rice t/ha = = 10000 x earhead/m2 x no. of fi lled grains/earhead

x test wt. 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 10

= 10000x260x136x201000x1000x100x10 =

7.08 t/ha Yield of rice would be 70.8q/ha

4. From the following details, work out the grain yield, percentage of unfilled grains, fertility

ratio and hulling percentage of rice.

Spacing-- 20 cm x 20 cm Average no. of effective tillers/hill-- 9

Average no. of grains/panicle- 160

Average no. of unfilled

grains/panicle- 20 Test weight-22 g. Yield of unhusked rice-4.5

t/ha Solution


No. of filled grains/panicle = No. of total grains/panicle- No. of unfilled grains/panicle = 160-20 = 140 = 10000 x effective tillers/hill x no.of filled grains/ panicle x test wt.

Spacing x 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 10 = 10000x9x140x220.2x0.2x1000x1000x100x10 = 6.93 t/ha Hulling percentage = Yield of unhusked rice in t/ha x 100 Yield of

husked rice in t/ha = 4.5 x 100 6.93 = 65.0%

Fertility ratio = No. of filled grains/panicle No. of unfilled

grains/pancile = 140 20 = 7

Percentage of unfilled grains = No. of unfilled grains/panicle No. of total

grains/panicle x 100 = 20 x 100 160 = 12.5%

Grain yield - 6.93

t/ha Hulling % -

65.0 Fertility ratio-7 Percentage of unfilled grains-12.5%.

Problems 1. Find out the yield of jute fibre in (q/ha) from the following details (a) Spacing- 25 cm x 10 cm (b)Average wt. of matured plant- 75 g (at green stage) (c) Extractable fibre --- 8% (Ans- 24 q/ha) Solution


2. What would be the yield of jute seed if the following details are given: (i) Spacing- 25 cm x 10 cm (ii) Test wt. of seed- 6 g (iii) Average no. of seed/plant-170 ( Ans-4.08 q/ha) Solution

3. Estimate the yield of groundnut pods, kernels and oil from the following data: (i) Spacing- 45 cm x 20 cm (ii) Average no. of matured pods/plant-24 (iii) No. of kernels/pod-2 (iv) Test weight of kernels-620 g (v) Shelling percentage-70 (vi) Percentage of oil in kernels- 45

(Ans- 30.6 q/ha kernels,42.9 q/ha unshelled pods, 13.77q/ha oil yield ) Solution


4. Estimate the seed yield(q/ha) of mujngbean based on following data: i. Spacing --- 30 cm x 12 cm ii. Average no. of pods/plant - 25 iii. Average no. of seeds/pods - 6 iv. Test wt. -- 32 g

(Ans -13.33q/ha) Solution:


Dated___________

Exercise No.13

Cotton seed treatment Delinting

This is a process by which the fuzz present on the cotton seed is removed by

mechanical or chemical methods. Objectives : It hastens the germination, increases the percentage of seed germination, kills surface parasites, reduces the time

in seed cleaning and grading, improves handling and planting by machines and boosts the yield of cotton. Methods of delinting There are two methods of delinting: (i) Acid delinting (ii) Mechanical delinting (cowdung slurry method) Merits of acid delinting Eliminates all external seed-borne pathogenic organisms. Kills the eggs, larvae and pupae of the pink bollworm.

Removes immature, injured and diseased seeds. Makes seed dressing easy and effective. Facilitates sowing. Demerits of acid delinting If the seeds are not cleaned properly after delinting, the acid is likely to enter the seed and

damage the embryo. The fuzz is completely destroyed and not available for industrial use. Merits of mechanical delinting Hardly any cost is incurred in this treatment. Raw materials required for doing this are readily

available in the locality. Demerits of mechanical delinting The fuzz is not removed completely. Seeds get damaged, which reduces the germination

percentage. More seed per unit area is required. Precautions Handle concentrated sulphuric acid carefully. Follow the duration of delinting (two minutes)

strictly. Wash the seed thoroughly, 3-4 times in fresh water till the last residue of acid is

removed from the seed. Use smaller quantities of seed (5-10 kg) for delinting. Materials Required (i) Plastic bucket (to prevent the corrosive action of the acid) (ii) Ginned cotton seeds (iii) Commercial grade concentrated sulphuric acid (iv) Drying yard for drying the seeds under shade (v) Glass rod or wooden stick


Procedure Acid delinting Put 5 kg of seeds inside a plastic bucket. 1. Pour 500 ml commercial grade concentrated sulphuric acid slowly, while stirring the seeds with a stick. 2. Continue stirring with a stick for about 3 minutes, till the lint is completely burnt and the seed

coat turns coffee coloured.

3. Pour water into the container and wash the seeds 3 or 4 times, each time taking fresh water

till the seeds are free of acid.

4. Remove the damaged seeds which float on the water at the time of washing. 5. Dry the seeds under shade. Cowdung slurry method 1. Make slurry of dung + soil (2 : I) of hard consistency by adding the needed water. 2. Spread the seeds on the floor in a thin layer. 3. Sprinkle the slurry on the seeds uniformly and allow drying for some time. 4. Rub the seeds with the palm against the surface. 5. See that each seed is coated with the slurry/ paste. 6. Keep the seed for sun drying so that seeds can be separated individually. Observations (i) Note the colour and shape of the seeds after mechanical delinting.

(i) Note the colour and shape of the seeds after acid delinting.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 14 Harvesting of major kharif crops

Materials Required

Materials and tools required will vary according to the operation in different crops. The tools required have been indicated in the procedure of harvesting the important crops. Some of these are: (i) Harvester, (ii) Combine, (iii) Mower, (iv) Potato digger(v) Cutting knife, (vi) Sickle, (vii) Pickaxe,

(viii) Spade, (ix) Baskets, (x) Bags, (xi) Ropes, (xii) Carting facility, (xiii) Threshing floor. Procedure: Cereals and small millets Cut the crop with the help of a sickle. Cut the plants as close to the ground as possible. Keep the few handfuls of the crop harvested

in one place. Collect this harvest at various places. Simultaneously, make small, easily lifted

bundles, by tying up with ropes or any other material. Collect these bundles in one place.

Transport these bundles to the clean threshing floor. Keep it for

sun drying. Make thatch of suitable size when the harvest is large. Pulse crops Pluck the dry and mature.Repeat 2-3 times after every 5-7 days. Spread every picking on pucca threshing

floor for sun drying. Harvest the entire crop with a sickle when 80-90 % of the plants are completely dried. Oil seed crops Harvest soybean, sesame and other oilseed crops as indicated in the above mentioned crops. Groundnut Pull up the individual plant by hand, by holding the haulms of the bunch type groundnut in an upright

position. Undertake digging with the help of small pickaxes (kudali), in the spreading types. A deshi

plough can also be used. Collect the pods which are left here and there in the plot. Collect the pulled

plants at one place. Keep the plants in such a way that the pod bearing ends are in one direction. Pluck

the pods by hand. Remove the soil lumps from the pods, if any. Transport the pods to the proper place. Keep the pods for sun drying, till moisture is reduced to 10 to 12%. Maize Pluck the dried and drooping cobs by hand and collect in baskets.

Leave the stalks in the field for 4-5 days. Collect the cobs at one

place. Spread them for drying. Strip off the husks from the cobs. Spread these cobs on the floor for sun drying. Remove the grain from the cobs after three-four

days by beating with sticks or by corn shellers.

Cut the stalks with a sickle/ mower close to the ground. Make small bundles of the stalks.


Keep the bundles in a stalk at one place in an upright position, so that they remain aerated and

are not spoiled due to mould, etc. Sorghum

In the case of dwarf sorghums cut the earheads with sickles first and leave the stalk in the field for 10

to 15 days. In desi varieties, first cut the plant close to the ground with sickles and then cut off the earheads

from this. Make bundles of the plants of the tall sorghum varieties and collect them at one place. Cut the

earheads and collect them in baskets. Transport the harvested earheads to the threshing floor. Cotton

There are a number of methods of picking (harvesting) cotton, such as manual picking, mechanical harvesting, use

of strippers and cotton pickers. Hand picking is generally followed. Tie the hanging bags or baskets on the back. Pick up

the puffy cotton from the fully burst and dried bolls by hand, leaving the bracts intact on the stem. Remove the dried

leaves, etc. from the seed cotton and put it in the hanging bag. Collect the seed cotton (Kapas including lint and seed) in

a clean place. Allow sun drying for 2 days. Collect the matured bolls or cotton that has fallen on the ground and keep it

separately. Go for the second and subsequent pickings in the manner mentioned above. Forage crops (as greens)

Harvest the crop when succulent, enough in quantity to be fed or sold on the same day.

Harvest the crop with the help of a sickle or mower. Harvest the crop close to the ground.

Irrigate the harvested area in the case of a crop where more than one cutting is possible. Forage crops (as hay) Harvest the crop, when almost dried, with the help o f a sickle or mower. Harvest the crop close to the ground. Make bundles and stack them in an upright position.

Observations

Record the following observations in the table given below:

S.No. Name of the crop Area harvested Time required in Weight of Date of

in sq.m. hours produc e in kg harvest

Problem 1: Calculate harvest index from above observations.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 15 Yield estimation of kharif crops

Yield is the ultimate objective of cultivating agricultural plants. Different plant parts constitute

the economic yield in different crops, like grain in cereals, pulses and oil seeds, vegetative parts or fruits

in vegetable crops; bark or out growth in fibre crops (jute, cotton); and the entire plant in fodder crops.

The yield per unit area (per m2 or ha) is the product of yield per plant multiplied by the number of plants

per unit area. It is, therefore, essential to know the yield components per plant as well as per unit area. Precautions Use only a representative crop to estimate yields. Do not select plants of any particular type. Do not damage any plant part. Record yield at the correct maturation stage. Do not allow excessive wilting or drying of the

material. Estimate yield in a sufficiently large sample. Materials Required (i) Polythene bags (ii) Harvesting equipment like sickle, knife, etc. (iii) Balance (iv) Gunny bags or baskets, pans, etc. Procedure Single plant yield Harvest 50 to 100 random single plants separately. Count the number of branches or tillers, if any, for each plant. Thresh the seed or economic produce separately from each branch or tiller or from the entire

plant, as the case may be. Weigh the seed from each branch or tiller in grain crops and

economic produce in vegetables, fodder and fibre crops and record it.

Determine average number of branches/tillers per plant, yield per branch/tiller. Yield per unit area Mark out 10 plots of 1 m

2 randomly in the field.

Count the total number of plants per plot. Harvest each plot separately. Thresh the material at the appropriate stage. Record yield from each plot separately. Observations Single plant yield Number of productive branches or tillers per plant. Average number of branches or tillers per

plant .Weight of seeds per branch or tiller. Average weight of seeds for each branch or tiller in g.

Average weight of seeds per plant in g

Weight of 1000 seeds in small grains and 100 seeds in big grains in g.


Yield per unit area Average number of plants per plot Yield per plot of 1.0 sq. m( g) Average yield per plot of 1 sq. m( g) Calculations Calculate the yield per hectare through the single plant yield method and yield per

unit area method. Yield per ha = Wt. of seeds per plant x No. of plants per ha. or

Yield per plot of 1.0 sq. m x 10,000

Problem 1: Calculate yield/ha of allotted crop adopting the above procedures.


Dated___________

Exercise No. 16 Visit to an agricultural farm

A field trip provides an opportunity to students to acquaint themselves with the important

crops of the locality. They are able to know the climate, soil type, irrigation methods, farm and field

operations, implements, latest varieties under cultivation, improved and indigenous implements, etc.

They also come to know about the various steps involved in seed production in case this is one of

the activities of the farm. Similarly, they can observe other activities going on at the farm. Materials Required

(i) Notebook (ii) Ball point pen or pencil (iii) Lunch box if necessary

Procedure ? Carry all the necessary things and reach the college in time. ? Get briefing on the visit from the teacher and leave the institution at the scheduled time so that

you arrive well within time at the farm. ? After arrival at the site, contact the Farm Manager or Incharge of the farm or the person deputed for the purpose.

? Introduce yourself and discuss the purpose of your visit. ? Note down special facilities available at the farm. ? Seek clarification on any aspects or doubts, if required. Observations (i) Area of the farm _________________ ha (a) Under cultivation _______________ ha (b) Single crop area _________________ha (c) Double crop area _________________ha (d) Under building, roads, channels, threshing floor etc ____________________________________ ha (ii) Characteristics of the soil _______________________________________________________________ (a) Texture ______________________________________________________________________________ (b) pH _______________________________________________________________________________ (c) Colour ______________________________________________________________________________ (d) Bulk density _________________________________________________________________________ (e) N Content __________________________________________________________________________ (f) P205 Content ________________________________________________________________________

(g) K20 Content ________________________________________________________________________


(iii) Source of irrigation ___________________________________

(iv) Area under irrigation ____________________ha (v) Crop rotations followed ________________________________.

(vi) List of equipment/farm machinery (vii) Area under rainfed crop

Crop area(ha) (a) ___________________________________________________ (b) __________________________________________________ (c) __________________________________________________

(viii) Area under fodder production Name of the crop Area ( ha)

(a) _________________________________________________ (b) _________________________________________________ (c) __________________________________________________ (ix) Area under seed production

Name of the crop Variety Area ( ha) (a) ___________________________________________________ (b) __________________________________________________ ( c) __________________________________________________ (x) Crop-wise seed rate used

Name of the crop Seed rate ( kg/ha) (a) (b) (c) (xi). Crop wise fertilizer dose applied Name of crop Fertiliser dose applied (kg/ha)

N P2O5 K2O (a) (b) (c) (xii). Crop wise pesticide application

schedule (xiii) . Stage of crop growth at

the time of visit Name of crop stage

(a) (b) (c)


(xiv). Average yield(kg/ha) Name of the crop Grain Fodder (a) (b) (c) (xv). Meteorological data

(a) Average rainfall _______________ mm (b) Maximum temperature _____________ °C.

(c) Minimum temperature ______________ °C.

(xvi). Farm staff Technical

(a) _______________________________ (b) _______________________________ (c) _______________________________ (d) _______________________________ Non- technical (a) . _______________________________

(b) _______________________________ ( c) _______________________________ (e) _______________________________


Annexure i. List of field crops

S. No. Common name Botanical name Family

Cereals and millets

1. Wheat Triticum aestivum L Gramineae

2 Rice Oryza sativa L. Gramineae

3. Maize Zea mays L. Gramineae

4. Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Pers Gramineae

5. Pearl millet Pennisettum glucum Linn Gramineae

6. Barley Hordium vulgare L. Gramineae

Minor millets

7. Finger millet (Ragi/Mandua) (Eleusine coracana Gramineae

8. Proso millet , cheena Panicum miliaceum Gramineae

9. Barn yard millet or Sanwa Echinochloa colona Gramineae

10. Foxtail millet or Italian millet Setaria italica) Gramineae

11. Kodo millet or kodon millet Paspalum scrobiculatum Gramineae

12. Little millet or Kutki Panicum sumatrense Gramineae

Pulses

13. Gram Cicer arietinum L. Leguminoceae

14 Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan Leguminoceae

15 Mungbean Vigna radiata Linn wilczek Leguminoceae

16 Urdbean Vigna mungo Linn Hepper Leguminoceae

17 Lentil Lens esculanta Leguminoceae

18 Cowpea Vigna unguiculata(L.) walp Leguminoceae

19 Mothbean Vigna aconitifolia Jacq Leguminoceae

20 Peas Pisum sativum L. Leguminoceae

21 Rajmesh Phaseolus vulgaris L. Leguminoceae

22 Lathyrus Lathyrus sativus Leguminoceae

23 Horse bean Vicia faba Leguminoceae

24 Faba bean Vicia faba Leguminoceae

Oilseed crops

25 Groundnut Arachis hypogea L. Leguminoceae

26 Soybean Glycine max L. --do--

27 Rapeseed and Brassica compestris var. Yellow Cruferaceae

Mustard sarson sarson var. brown sarson

Indian mustard Brassica juncea Coss Banarsi rai Brassica nigra

Toria Brassica compestris var toria 28 Taramira Eruca sativa Mill. Cruciferaceae

29 Linseed Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae

30 Sesamum Sesamum indicum L Pedaliaceae

31 Sunflower Helianthus annus L. Compositeae

32 Safflower Carthamus tinctorius L. ------do------

33 Niger Guizotia abyssinica Asteraceae

34 Castor Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae


Commercial crops

35 Potato Solanum tuberosum L. Solanaceae

36 Sugarcane Saccharum officinallis L. Gramineae

37 Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae

38 Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae

Fibre crops

39 Cotton Gossypium arboreum -Indian cotton Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense –Sea island cotton

Gossypium hirsutum – American cotton

Gossypium herbaceum – Desi cotton

40 Jute Corchorus capsular is Tiliaceae

41 Mesta Hibiscus cannabinus

42 Ramie Bochmeria nivea L. Urticaceae

43 Sisal Agave sisalana Perrine

44 Flax Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae

45 Sunhemp Crotolaria juncea L. Leguminoceae

Forage crops

46 Berseem Trifolium alexandrinum Leguminoceae

47 Lucerne Medicago sativa Leguminoceae

48 Oats Avena sativa Graminae

49 Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Leguminoceae

50 Napier Panicum antidotale Gramineae

51. Sewan grass Lasiurus sindicus Gramineae

52. Anjan grass Cenchrus ciliaris Gramineae

53. Blue panic Gramineae

54. Dhaman Cenchrus setigerus Gramineae Spice crops

55. Cumin Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae

56. Coriander Coriendrum sativum L. Apiaceae

57. Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Fabaceae 58. Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Apiaceae

59. Ajowain Trachyspermum ammi L. Apiaceae 60. Black pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae

61. Cardamon Elettaria cardomomum Zingiberaceae

62. Turmeric Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae 63. Onion Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae

64. Garlic Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae


Annexure ii. Manures and fertilizers with nutrient content

Nitrogen fertilizers Content(%)

Nitrate fertilizers

Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) 16 % N

Calcium nitrate 15.5 % N

Potassium nitrate 13.4 % N Ammonical fertilizers

Ammonium chloride 24-26 %

Ammonium sulphate 20.5 %

Nitrate and ammonical fertilizers

Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26 % N

Ammonium nitrate 33.5 %

Calcium ammonium nitrate 26%

Amide fertilizers

Urea 46 % N

Calcium cyanamide 21 % N

Phosphate fertilizers

P fertilizers containing water soluble phosphoric

acid or mono calcium phosphate Ca(H2PO4)2

Single super phosphate 18% P2O5

Double super phosphate 32% P2O5

Tripple super phosphate 48% P2O5

Ammonium phosphate 20 % N & 20 % P2O5 P fertilizers containing citric acid soluble

phosphoric acid Ca2 H2 (PO4)2

Basic stage 14-18 % P2O5

Dicalcium phosphate 34-39 P2O5 P fertilizers containing phosphoric acid (not soluble in acid /water)

Rock phosphate 20-40 % P2O5

Bone meal 20-25 % P2O5

K fertilizers

Muriate of potash (KCl) 60 % K2O

Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) 50 % K2O Biofertilizers

Rhizobium

Azotobacter , Azospirullum, Azolla

Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB)

VAM


Organic manures FYM 0.5%N, 0.25 % P2O5, 0.5%

K2O

Vermicompost

Poultry manure

Green manure

Cakes castor

Neem

Groundnut , Rapeseed and mustard, Sesame

Cotton

Others

Gyspum Ca 16-19%, S- 13%

Pyrite 20 % Fe

Borax 10.6% B

Cu sulphate 24% Cu, 3-13% S

ZnSO4 22-35% Zn, 3-11 % S

Ammonium molybdate 54% Mo

Mn SO4 23% Mn

Annexure iii. Test weight of different field crops Name of crop Test wt(g) Name of crop Test wt (g)

Rice 20-30 Wheat 36-50

Barley 35-40 Maize 200-250

Sorghum 25-30 Pearl millet 5-9

Chickpea(desi) 150-160 Lentil 17-38

Black gram 36-49 Greengram 20-70

Peas 120-220 Soybean 100-105

Groundnut 200-250 Rapeseed and mustard 3-5

Sunflower 40-50 Safflower 50-60

Castor 100-150 Cotton 70-100


Annexure iv. List of common weeds of kharif season Scientific name Vernacular name English name A. Grasses

Andropogan leniger Boor grass - Aristida depressa Lampra grass Three own Avena fatua L. Jangli Jai Wild oat

Cenchrus cilliaris Anjan - C. purea White anjan - C. setigerus Dhaman black - Cenchrus biflorus Bhoorat, baroot Sand bur Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Doob Bermuda grass Cyperus iria L. Dachab Umbrella sedge Cyperus rotundus L. Motha Purple nut sedge Dactyloctenium aegypticum (L.) Makra grass Crow foot grass Beauv.

Digitaria ciliaris Jhernia Crab grass Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link Jangli Dhan Jungle rice Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Sawan /kodon Barnyard grass (water grass) Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Mandla/Balrara Goose grass Eragrostis poacides Chidi grass Lover grass/stink grass Lasirus sindicus L. Sewan grass Desert grass Oryza sativa var. fatua Jangli rice Wild rice Paspalum distichum - Knot grass Phalaris minor Retz. Gullidanda Little canary grass Poa annua L. Sua grass Annual blue grass

Saccharum munja L. Moonj - Saccharum spontaneum L. Kans Thatch or tiger grass Seteria glauca (L.) Beauv. Bandra-bandri Fox tail grass Sorghum halepense (L.) pers. Barru/sudan grass Johnson grass B. Kharif weeds

Achyranthus aspera Latjira/chirchitta Snake’s tail Amaranthus blitum var. oleracea Sabjiwali chandlai Amaranth / pig weed Amaranthus spinosus Kantewali chaulai Prickly amaranth Amaranthus viridis Jangli chandlai

Boerhavia diffusa (syn. B. repens) Sati /Biskhapra Hog weed /Horse purslane Celosia argentia L. Safed murga Cock’s comb Citrulus colocynthis Tumba Bitter apple Commelina benghalensis L. Kankana /Morabati Day flower Cumumis callosus Kachari Small gourd Corchorus acuntaglis Kag roti /Jangli jute Wild jute Digitaria sanguinalis Jhernia ghas Crabgrass Digera muricata (Syn. D. Arvensis) Lesua /Gundra/ Lohru Amaranthus Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Jalkumbhi Water hyacinth Euphorbia hirta L. Bari dudhi /Lal duhi Ashthma weed Euphorbia macrophylla Choti dudhi Carpet weed Euphorbia themaphlia L. Medium dudhi - Heliotropium subulatum Kali bui Helitrop Indigofera deffusa Bekaria Wild indigo

Leucas inifolia Guma Leucas Momordica diocoa Rotb Jangali karela Wild small bitter gourd


Mollugo cerviana Parpat /chiria-ro-khet Pill pod spurge Pedarium murex Bada gokharu - Physalis minima Papotan/Tulatipati Sunberry/ground cherry

Portulaca oleracea and P. asiatica Kulfa /Nunia Pursalane Striga lutea & S. asiatica Runkhadi Witch weed Trianthema portulacastrum Patherchatta/Satha Horse purslane Tribulu s terrestris L. and T. a latus L. Gokhru/Bhalri/Kantri Punctursvine Tridax procumbens Pardeshi bhangra / - Vernonia cinerea & V. baldwine Sahadevi /Phulni Fleabane Vigna trilobata Jangli moth /Ark moth Xanthium strumarium Adhasis / Banokra cocklerbur / Bur weed D. Perennial weeds

Desmostachya bipinnata Dab/Kusha - Psoralea corylifolia Babchi - Blumea lacera Kukranda Spreading hog weed Eclipta prostrata L. Bhangra /Mochkand Hassk Lantana camara Phullakri Lantana

Artemisia scoparia Barna - Tephrosisa purpurea L. pers Dhamasa Tephrosia Pluchea lanceolata Chhajas /Baisuri Arrow weed Alhagi camelorum Jawasa Camelthorn Abutilon indicum & A. poersicum Kanghi Country mallow Crotolaria burhia Sinia Crotolaria Cuscuta reflexa Amarbel Doddeer Gomphrena globossa - Globe amaranth Heliotropium ellipticum Kamera Heliotrop Cannabis sativa Bang Hemp

Datura stramonium Datura Jimson weed Agropyron repens - Quack grass /couch grass Calotropis gigantea /procera Aak /Madar Swallow word Imperata cylindrica Thatch grass Thatch grass/ Congo grass Zizyphus nummularia Jharber Wild ber Aerva pseudotomentosa Safed buie Bui Caparis aphylla Ker - Caligonum polygonoides Phog - Leptodenia pyrotechnica Kheep -


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