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Practical strategies for schoolcounsellor leadership: the leadershipchallenge modelMargaret ShillingfordPublished online: 20 Nov 2012.

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COMMENTARY

Practical strategies for school counsellor leadership:

the leadership challenge model

MARGARET SHILLINGFORD

It is crucial to the progression of the school counselling profession that counsellors-in-training receive the training, knowledge, and practice in leadership that they need to coun-ter systemic challenges that they may face. Effective leadership practices have been shownin research to be instrumental in promoting program delivery success in the school coun-selling profession. However, the preparation and eventual practice for leadership engage-ment of these professionals have been questioned in the literature and further suggests theneed for counsellor educators to provide more structural leadership approaches with theirstudents. This article explores the Leadership Challenge Model (Kouzes & Posner, 1995)as a framework for bridging leadership theory and practice through practical strategiesapplicable to Counselor Education programs. The strategies introduced may be useful inpreparing school counsellors for more effective leadership practices.

Traditionally, school leadership has been viewed as a solitary function spe-cific to the school administrator (Amatea, Bringham, & Daniels, 2004).Professional school counsellors have not been viewed as administrativeleaders either in local school life or in broader educational reform (House& Hayes, 2002). As a matter of fact, over time, role of the school counsel-lor has often been seen as insignificant and unnecessary. This has beenevident by the number of first line positions that have been eliminated inschools due to budgetary constraints. More recently though, with theincrease in educational and social demands of students as well as other fac-tors, awareness of the need for these professionals have become more evi-dent. Along with student demands, the increased scrutiny on schoolaccountability (No Child Left Behind [NCLB], 2001) and a consequentincrease in teacher anxiety and stress, some school administrators havebegun to consider the leadership role that school counsellors can have infacilitating a positive school climate (Fitch & Marshall, 2004). With theseconsiderations in mind, a closer look at the preparation of school counsel-lors for becoming agents of change is essential. The leadership challengemodel (LCM) (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) acts as an empowerment tool thatcounsellor educators may utilize in order to bring to life practicalleadership for school counselling students. The tenets of the LCM may befunctional in providing school counselling students with theoretically based

M. Ann Shillingford-Butler, PhD, is an assistant professor of Counselor Education at the College of

William & Mary, School Psychology & Counselor Education, 301 Monticello Avenue, Williamsburg,

VA 23185, USA. Email: mashillingford@wm.edu. She has several years of experience as a profes-

sional school counsellor prior to completing her doctorate at the University of Central Florida. She

has a keen interest in the role of the professional school counsellor as agents of change.

INT. J. LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION, 2013

VOL. 16, NO. 4, 497–515, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2012.741266

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strategies for overcoming internal and external barriers that have tradi-tionally been found to restrict effective leadership practices. In fact, byproviding school counselling students with the leadership perspectives andskills they need, they may be at a more advantageous position to becomingcollaborative professionals which affect student outcomes.

Role history of professional school counsellors

Professional school counsellors are individuals with a Master’s degree orhigher who are licensed and/or certified in school counselling and areemployed in a school setting. The school counsellor role has evolved sig-nificantly over the past few decades. In fact, the progress stems from theearly 1900’s where the term used was vocational guidance, which focusedprimarily on the career development of students. The movement thenshifted to the development of the American School Counselor Associa-tion’s (ASCA, 2005) national model, which focuses on a comprehensiveapproach to supporting students academic, social/personal and careerdevelopment (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). With this progressive shift inthe roles and functions of school counsellors has arisen the need for schoolcounsellors to take up roles parallel to today’s social concerns. Forinstance, demands made by the NCLB (2001) for more accountability inschools, increase in student populations and increase in student social andacademic needs propels the need for school counsellors to be more visibleand vocal in their school setting (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). Studenteducational concerns include, but are not limited to (a) absenteeism(Kearney & Bensaheb, 2006), (b) lower academic performance (Bemak,Chung, & Siroskey, 2005), (c) school drop-out (Stanard, 2003), (d) lowgraduation rates (Neild, Stoner-Eby, & Furstenberg, 2008), (e) school vio-lence (Greene, 2008), (f) substance abuse and (g) low career aspirations ofminority students (Constantine, Kindaichi, & Miville, 2007). As such, thefunction of the school counsellor has been compounded over the year, thusincreasing their responsibilities as professions. However, the literaturesuggests that in spite of the evolution of the profession, role ambiguitycontinues to plague the profession resulting in school counsellors not beingrecognized for their full potential as trained counsellors capable of beingleading agents of change (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010).

Furthermore, Gysber (2001) determined that with the progressiveshift in school counsellors roles are still often considered as clerical andnon-counselling related, thus allowing school administrators to task theseprofessionals with duties unrelated to their appropriate roles and training.For instance, school counsellors are trained to support students by utiliz-ing the counselling training that they acquire but may be assigned insteadto spend most of their time doing student schedules, lunch duties anddisciplinary functions, all roles considered by ASCA (2005) to be unre-lated to their function. Bemak and Chung (2008) referred to the ‘nicecounselor syndrome (NCS)’——that school counsellors often pos-sess——that prevents them from advocating for more appropriate roleswhereby they are able to support students holistically by suitably usingthe comprehensive school counselling programme.

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With the training that school counsellors receive and the increase instudent problems in today’s educational system, more practical leadershiprole for school counsellors is imperative to the effectiveness of schools inhelping students achieve (Lieberman, 2004). That is, school counsellorsneed to come out of the shadows of the nice counsellor and be morevisible and vocal in their schools. It is in doing so that they may moresystemically support and advocate for their counselling related roles inreaching a broader spectrum of students within their schools. Liebermannoted that school counsellors should be leaders in promoting school effec-tiveness and systemic change. Dollarhide, Gibson, and Saginak (2008)suggested that in order to be leaders, school counsellors must have a clearsense of their leadership responsibilities, be able to set clear, focused goalsin meeting the diverse needs of students and have positive self- efficacy.Other counselling researchers have added that school counsellor leader-ship involves the specific tasks of: (a) ensuring that their time is appropri-ately allotted to direct services to students (Walsh, Barrett, & DePaul,2007), (b) clarifying their appropriate role within the school (Leech &Fulton, 2008) and (c) increasing their engagement in activities that areappropriate to that role (Scarborough, 2005). Lieberman added that roleclarity and consistency, in particular, are necessary prerequisites to schoolcounsellors being able to assume these leadership functions. It seems thenthat for school counsellor to be most effective in meeting the needs oftheir students they need to be more like their educational counterparts;that is, leading for change.

The Education Trust (2007), the ASCA (2005) National Model� andthe Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Pro-grams (CACREP, 2009) have all cited engagement in leadership practicesas paramount to the effectiveness of school counsellors in supporting stu-dents through a myriad of academic and social challenges facing themtoday. Those challenges include (but are not limited to), exposure toschool crises (Allen et al., 2002); educational and emotional disabilities(Edwards & Daire, 2006); cultural and racial inequalities (Bemak &Chung, 2008); and coping with family dysfunction (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007). Linn, Sherman, and Gill (2007) concluded that effectiveleadership on the part of school counsellors is needed to maintain a safelearning environment for all students. One might wonder though, whatexactly does school counsellor leadership look like? What does it mean forschool counsellors?

Defining school counsellor leadership

According to Northouse (2007), leadership ‘is a process whereby an indi-vidual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal’ (p. 3).Leadership has been categorized as (a) establishing direction (e.g. create avision), (b) align people (e.g. build teams) and (c) motivate and inspire(e.g. inspire and energize) (Kotter, 1990). Kouzes and Posner (1995)suggested that those who are leaders do not always seek the challengesthey face but ‘embrace opportunities to introduce change’ (p. 53).

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Bennis (2003) once said,

It seems the concept of leadership eludes us or turns up in another form to taunt us with its

slipperiness and complexity. So we have invented an endless proliferation of terms to deal with

it. (p. 259)

What these individuals are basically indicating is that there is no one con-crete definition of leadership and, as such, the eventual action of leadingmay be viewed subjectively. However, one consistent theme is that leader-ship involves inclusion of others in achieving a vision. Furthermore, lead-ership once considered to be associated with great men, whose historyreports have the conquered nations and the political arena, has lately beenfound to be transforming to include a wider population of individuals. Infact, Montuoir (2010) suggested that leaders are ordinary men andwomen who have proven that they can do extraordinary things when thecircumstances warrant. Montuoir further indicated that the ‘who’ of lead-ership could now be considered as those who are capable of creatingthemselves as leaders as opposed to the traditional notion that one eitherhas leadership qualities or one does not. Therefore, school counsellorswho have been traditionally viewed as behind-the-scene guidance counsel-lors can potentially become agents of systemic change. That is, the sub-jectivity of leadership practice opens up the door for school counsellors toembrace a higher standard of service to students.

ASCA (2005) National Model explains school counselling leaders asprofessionals who are engaged in systemic change to ensure student suc-cess … ‘who promotes student success by closing the achievement partic-ularly among students of color, poor students or underachieving studentsand their more disadvantaged peers … they collaborate with other profes-sionals in the school to implement school reform … ’ (p. 24). The Educa-tion Trust’s Transforming School Counseling Initiative (1999) presenteda pragmatic view of what leadership should look like for the school coun-sellor and includes:

• Promoting, planning, implementing prevention programmes, careeractivities, placement activities and social/personal management anddecision-making activities.

• Providing data snapshots of student outcomes, showing implications,achievement gaps and providing leadership for school to viewthrough equity lens.

• Arranging one-on-one relationships for students with adults in schoolsetting for additional support and assistance in reaching academicsuccess.

• Playing a leading role in defining and carrying out the comprehen-sive school counselling function.

In essence, the new vision of a leadership role for school counsellorscreates advancement from the historic vocational/guidance counsellor roleto that of current professional school counsellor. This new vision repre-sents a practical leadership approach that school counsellors can embracein order to support students by aligning their comprehensive schoolcounselling programme with the mission of their school. However, the

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counselling literature has noted internal and external barriers that haveoften prevented some counsellors from embracing this new vision.

Barriers to school counsellor leadership

Internal barriers

Internal barriers refer to boundaries and limitations intrinsic to the schoolcounsellors themselves that may impede leadership action and, thus, placesignificant limitations on school counsellors’ leadership effectiveness.Internal barriers may also be characterized as lack of confidence or lowmotivation (Creed, Patton, & Bartrum, 2004). A review of the literaturerevealed that the primary internal barriers to effective school counsellorleadership are personal fears and self-doubt (Dollarhide et al., 2008).

Personal fears. Bemak and Chung (2008) described a NCS that schoolcounsellors often exhibit, due in part to their personal fears of not beingliked by their colleagues or of professional rejection. They describedschool counsellors demonstrating NCS as ones who: (a) comply with theiradministrators to perform tasks unrelated to the school counsellor role,(b) deflect conflict and confrontations regarding their engagement inunrelated roles and (c) maintain the perception of a harmonious attitudeeven when concerned about misuse of their role. Bemak and Chung sug-gested that the NCS is likely due to school counsellors’ personal fears ofbeing labelled as troublemakers within their schools. NCS may also serveas a coping mechanism to avoid controversy or disputes that could endan-ger their already uncertain status within the school.

Self-doubt. Another internal barrier that has impacted school counsellorsis personal self-doubt. Dollarhide and colleagues (2008) examined schoolcounsellors’ perceptions of their leadership qualities and practices, andfound that some school counsellors reported feelings of inadequacy withregard to being leaders in their schools. It seems that they doubted theirown ability to assert themselves among other school personnel, and theyquestioned their decision-making abilities. As a result of this self-doubt,school counsellors have often been unsuccessful in collaborating withteachers and administrators to enhance student outcomes (Amatea &West-Olatunji, 2007). Dollarhide and colleagues concluded thatself-doubt in school counsellors may occur due to low self-efficacy andindetermination, as well as the perception by some counsellors of leader-ship as being too daunting or overwhelming. Alternatively, counsellors’self-doubt may also be due to lack of support from administrators, leadingto feelings of alienation and disempowerment in leadership efforts.

External barriers

External barriers refer to systemic conditions that may hinder schoolcounsellors’ ability to initiate and maintain effective leadership efforts;

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which may include (a) the ambiguous nature of the school counsellor’sprofessional role, (b) resistance to school counsellor leadership from otherschool personnel and (c) a lack of training and experience in leadershippractices for school counsellors (Berry, 2006; Janson, 2007).

Role ambiguity. First and foremost among external barriers is schoolcounsellors’ role ambiguity; that is, the lack of clear definitions andparameters for the school counselling role. In spite of the call for schoolcounsellors to assume leadership functions, there still appear to be manyschool administrators who do not understand the role that school counsel-lors play within their schools (Chata & Loesch, 2007). For example, someadministrators assume that administrative tasks, such as scheduling andrecord keeping, are appropriate to the school counsellor’s role (Perusse,Goodnough, Donegan, & Jones, 2004) in contrast to the role outlined bythe ASCA National Model (Chata & Loesch, 2007). Lambie andWilliamson (2004) noted that the assignment of school counsellors tomultiple, compounding roles has led to difficulty in identifying theirappropriate roles, and that school counsellors themselves are often unclearas to what their appropriate roles and activities should be. When schoolcounsellors are unclear about their roles, school administrators can beexpected to create roles according to their own, possibly inaccurate per-ceptions of what the school counsellor’s role should be (House & Hayes,2002).

Resistance. School counsellors often face resistance from other educa-tional stakeholders in making systemic changes (Berry 2006). Almost twodecades ago, Doherty and Doherty (1991) expressed alarm over the resis-tance from administrators and teachers in supporting school counsellors’efforts to affect change. Although strides have been made to strengthenthe communicative relationships between counsellors and administrators(Clemens, Milsom, & Cashwell, 2009), this resistance still appears toexist. When important school decisions have had to be made, schooladministrators have often limited school counsellor input to levels that areinconsequential and inconsiderate of their graduate training (Kirchner &Setchfield, 2005). Adding to this problem is the aforementioned fact thatschool counsellors themselves may lack the confidence to successfullycombat resistance to their role as leaders due to personal insecuritiesaround being leaders and agents of change (Berry, 2006).

Lack of professional training and experience. Another external factor thathas been determined to impede school counsellors’ leadership effective-ness is the lack of leadership experience and training (Janson, 2007).Mason and McMahon (2009) proposed that school counsellor prepara-tion programmes may not be doing enough to prepare and support theleadership skills of their students. In a study of 305 practising schoolcounsellors, they found that novice school counsellors were less likely toreport engagement in leadership practices than their more experiencedcolleagues. Similarly, McMahon, Mason, and Paisley (2009) describedthe nature of leadership preparation that counsellor educators impart to

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their students in terms of vision on school counselling transformation.McMahon and colleagues expressed that school counsellor educatorsthemselves have not fully embraced the new vision of transformation,which consequently may influence their ability to model successful leader-ship to their students. They concluded that counsellor educators must domore to exemplify the new vision of systemic change through transforma-tional leadership and also encourage students to embrace the new vision;that is, to teach students to not only do different things but also to dothings differently in order to systemically support their K-12 students.

Overcoming the barriers

The internal and external barriers confronting school counsellors’ effectiveengagement in leadership practices suggest the desire for further interven-tions. Numerous researchers support the need for counsellor educationprogrammes to take a primary role by revising their curricula to providemore emphasis on leadership preparation. For example, Janson, Stone,and Clark (2009) have added that counsellor educators must focus less soon students’ attributes and characteristics of leadership and more on theircommitment to the mission and vision of the school counselling profes-sion through leadership practice. Sink (2009) highlighted the need forcounsellor educators to focus on students’ leadership skills in developingmore proactive accountability measures, while Dollarhide and colleagues(2008) stressed that leadership training in counsellor education is essentialif students are to be able to overcome organizational resistance and pro-vide effective school counselling service delivery.

However, the question remains: are counsellor educators themselvesprepared to train school counselling students to be leaders? According toMcMahon et al. (2009), it has been school counsellor educators who havebeen key contributors to the transformation of the school counselling pro-grammes towards the new vision of leadership. Therefore, it appears thatthe preparation of students for leading roles have been adapted based onthe vision of leadership of their counsellor education professionals. Fur-thermore, due to the significant contributions of these leading counselloreducators (e.g. curricula changes, development of new skills and collabo-ration with leaders in the community), the concept of school counsellorleadership as described earlier by the Education Trust and ASCA reflectsthe specific language of leadership that practising school counsellorsshould embrace. However, even with the guidance offered by these orga-nizations on how to be leaders, some counsellor educators may still beresistant to engage or promote these practices with their students. Changetakes time and so the school counselling profession continues to struggleto advance towards a more unified front in preparing students for the newvision.

In the meantime though, those school counsellor educators who aremore intentional about supporting their students towards leading transfor-mation can model leadership through their skills, action and professionalidentity of their students (McMahon et al., 2009). The preparation of

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school counselling students to be leading agents of change requires leader-ship training models that provide students with not only the theories ofleadership, but also with exposure to contextual applications of leadership.The counselling literature supports the effectiveness of the LCM inobserving school counsellor leadership, therefore, this manuscript portraysthis model as a satisfactory framework connecting the theory of leadershipto practical applications of leadership development in schools.

The leadership challenge model

The LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) was developed to assist individualswho were interested in making a positive difference within their organiza-tion by taking more proactive leadership roles. It focuses on five individ-ual leadership practices needed in order to turn systemic obstacles intoextraordinary successes. The leadership practices include: (a) challengingthe process, (b) inspiring a shared vision, (c) enabling others to act, (d)modelling the way and (e) encouraging the heart. The researchers alsodeveloped the leadership practices inventory (LPI)(Kouzes & Posner,1995) which has been used by numerous researchers over varied profes-sions including education and counselling. The LPI was originally devel-oped with two versions: the LPI-Self, which is used as a self-scoring toolto measure one’s leadership engagement and the LPI-Observer, which isused to measure observers’ perceptions of an identified individual’s lead-ership practices.

The LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is ideal for school counsellors asits five practices were found to be beneficial in identifying leadershipengagements that are most often and least often utilized by school coun-sellors. For example, following the LCM and the LPI (Kouzes & Posner,1995), Mason (2008) reported school counsellors’ significant engagementin modelling the way and enabling others and limited engagement in chal-lenging the process of change or sharing their programmatic vision. Simi-larly, Sebera (2005) found that school counsellors were least engaged insharing their vision and challenging the unrelated practices within theirschools. Shillingford and Lambie (2010) used the LPI to investigate therelationship between school counsellors’ leadership practices and theirengagement in counselling service delivery (e.g. counselling, consultingand coordinating services). These researchers found significant relation-ship between the two variables in that school counsellors who engaged inmore active practices, such as sharing their counselling vision through acomprehensive school counselling plan, challenging inappropriate pro-cesses within their schools and collaborating with other stakeholderswithin the school community to support students, were more successfulin delivering a comprehensive school counselling plan. That is, thesecounsellors were more visible and vocal and did not resolve to work inthe shadows within their schools. Although other leadership models existthat may very well be useful to school counsellors, the LCM has beenshown in the counselling profession to be a successful model forobserving, supporting and enhancing leadership practices among these

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professionals. To date, there is no leadership model specific to schoolcounselling, therefore, this approach serves as a stepping stone in provid-ing school counsellor educators with a concrete process for cultivatingleadership with their students. If integrated into counsellor education pro-grammes, the five fundamental practices of the LCM would seem to pro-vide a useful conceptual framework for effectively addressing leadershipdevelopment needs of novice school counsellor, thus enabling them to bebetter prepared to be significant assets to their school’s leadership team.

Challenging the process

The first aspect of the LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is being able tochallenge a process to promote change. Leaders who face challenging situ-ations take risks and seek out new adventures (Kouzes & Posner, 2006).Leaders are individuals who are willing to guide their followers intoexploring new and innovative opportunities for systematic change(Sudbrack & Trombley, 2007). The leader recognizes the dysfunctionalroutines (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) and develops more functional routinesthat are ‘definable, consistent, measurable, and efficient’ (p. 44). Effectiveleadership does not purport that leaders are exclusively the inventors orcreators of new ideas, but rather that they are instrumental in embracingchange (Barker, 2007). Inherently, the leader recognizes a discrepancy inthe system, explores the risks and challenges associated and searches foropportunities for change (Shoemaker, 1999). The effective leader issensitive to the needs of others (Davidovitz, Mikulincer, Shaver, Izsak, &Popper, 2007), yet is also vigilant in encouraging others to be enthusiasticabout progressive change (Kouzes & Posner, 2006).

Counsellor educators can prepare school counsellors-in-training toovercome both internal barriers (e.g. self-doubt) and external barriers(e.g. role ambiguity) by introducing them to the leadership practice ofchallenging systemic processes. The introductory process may beaccomplished by showing students, through modelling and practice, thatthey may indeed have the potential to be effective leaders. For example,students may be empowered to challenge the role ambiguity that has con-sistently plagued the school counselling profession by engaging them inadvocacy skill-building activities (Clemens et al., 2009). Bemak andChung (2008) have identified specific strategies for promoting schoolcounsellor advocacy development, which included: (a) encouraging coun-selling students to use data-driven strategies to support their work (e.g.using current research to support their work); (b) allowing students tospeak up in class about inappropriate practices they may have becomeaware of through their readings, practicum or internship experiences (e.g.discussing differences in roles and activities among high school interns);(c) teaching students about institutional conflict and resistance fromschool stakeholders (e.g. administrators and teachers) and (d) engagingstudents in risk-taking activities (e.g. assigning them to present at a con-ference or to a group of invited administrators on their role perceptions).The integration of these strategies into school counselling course curricula

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can promote student awareness of the importance of leadership as well ashelp students understand and develop more definitive leadership skills.Furthermore, these activities may support students in developing self-empowerment; thus decreasing self-doubt and fear as they recognize theirpotential through practice in a safe classroom environment.

Inspiring a shared vision

The second aspect of the LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) that may be use-ful in preparing students for leadership roles is inspiring a shared vision.Leaders recognize the need for change and develop a vision as to whatpotential organizational change would look like (Kouzes & Posner, 1995).The extraordinary leader does not mandate the commitment of the follow-ers; instead, this leader articulates the vision to others so that they feelmotivated to assist in promoting organizational change (Shoemaker,1999). The leader motivates others in order to enlist them in a collabora-tive effort in promoting a progressive, organized future (Adams & Keim,2000). Dess and Picken (2000) have added that the shared vision must beclearly communicated so that others may be inspired to share in a sense oforganizational purpose and direction. In essence, inspiring a shared visionsuggests that the leader recognizes the contributions of others in changingthe status quo in the organizational transformation (Kouzes & Posner,2006). True leadership signifies visionary thinking based on motivation,commitment, and collaborative transformation.

Recognizing the importance of having a vision, counsellor educatorscan support students’ by having them develop their own vision and mis-sion statements and identify clear goals that they can set for their futureschool counselling programmes (Dollarhide et al., 2008). By allowing stu-dents to develop their own professional statements, counsellor educatorsare in essence supporting students in challenging their internal barriers byputting words into their own, unique perspectives. Therefore, their mis-sion and vision statements may be directly based on individual percep-tions, expectations and professional identification as school counsellors;hence, potentially decreasing internalized anxieties. One example forcounsellor educators in supporting students in formulating a vision wasdeveloped by West, Bubenzer, Osborn, Paez, and Desmond (2006)through their suggested three-phase model. Phase one involves having stu-dents develop their own individualized vision statement (e.g. ‘when I ama practicing school counselor, all students will …’). Phase two involvesdeveloping a plan for implementation of the vision (e.g. presentations,writings and class discussions); thus allowing students to share their visionand plan with others. Phase three involves reflection of the vision state-ment and plan implementation. At this phase, students may evaluate theirplans and recognize any potential challenges and success. By engagingstudents in developing, sharing and evaluating their individual visions fortheir professional role, counsellor educators may be empowering studentswith confidence to embark upon their profession as unique visionaryagents of change.

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Enabling others to act

The third aspect of the LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) involves enablingothers to act. Enabling others to act indicates the building of a relation-ship between the leader and other stakeholders through trust and positivecommunication (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). The leader confidentlystrengthens others by recognizing their potential and allowing them to feelcommitted to making changes (Adams & Keim, 2000; Kouzes & Posner,1995). Additionally, the leader focuses on building positive relationshipsby understanding the needs of others through empathy and open commu-nication (Kouzes & Posner, 2006). Consequently, a collaborative associa-tion founded on trust and empowerment is established in order topromote systemic change. In order to meet the academic, social/personaland career needs of students, school counsellors should develop a collabo-rative model with educational stakeholders (van Velsor, 2009). Collabora-tion necessitates building relationships with administrators, teachers,parents, students, the school community and the community at large.

Training school counsellors in the practice of enabling stakeholders isalso an ideal method of addressing the externalized barriers previouslymentioned. Collaborating, building alliances with school personnel andsharing their school counselling mission, may decrease resistance as stake-holders begin to feel a connection with the counselling programme. Con-sequently, the negotiation of appropriate school counselling roles throughthe alliance; thus increasing school counsellors’ positive student engage-ment and potentially decreasing internalized anxieties about their leader-ship abilities. Counsellor educators can prepare their students forcollaboration by developing partnerships with K-12 schools, whereby stu-dents can work with practising school counsellors and, perhaps teacherson action-research projects (Camizzi, Clark, Goodman, & Yacco, 2009).Action research involves systematic gathering, analysing, and interpretingof day-to-day school activity data to determine how teaching and learningenvironments are and should be impacting student performance (Dahir &Stone, 2009). Camizzi and colleagues suggested that collaborationthrough action research may assist school counselling students in utilizingdata from student outcomes to further evaluate their needs and developappropriate responses. Thus, it may be said that involving school counsel-ling students in developing the ability to enable stakeholders to act andeven successfully sharing their school counselling vision and mission maydefinitely address and possibly alleviate both internal and externalbarriers.

Modelling the way

The fourth strategy of the LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is being ableto model the way for others; that is, being able to lead by example. Inorder to model the way, the leader needs to have clearly stated goals andunambiguous operational plans (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Modelling theway also includes setting standards of excellence and exemplifying how

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these standards may lead to success. Furthermore, leaders who are model-ling the way ensure that others within the organization are able to collabo-ratively follow the set standards, are able to solicit feedback as to how thestandards are impacting the organization, and certainly are clear abouttheir ability to be an effective leader.

Preparation in counsellor education with regard to modelling the waymay involve assigning practicum and internship students to supervisorswho will model best school counselling practices and professional behav-iours as delineated by the ASCA (2005) National Model (Wood & Rayle,2006). Mason (2008) suggested that counsellor educators place studentswith veteran school counsellors, as veterans tend to practise leadershipmore effectively in schools. Observing the actions of seasoned veteransensures that students understand what their roles are in schools and whatactivities may be considered to be appropriately or inappropriately relatedto school counselling (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). Another aspect ofmodelling the way entails training students in clear standards for successthrough the development and implementation of a Comprehensive SchoolCounseling Program (CSCP) (ASCA, 2005). The scope of the CSCP isoutlined in the ASCA (2005) National Model and focuses on collaborative,programmatic efforts in supporting student outcomes. Internship portfo-lios, for example, should include students personal CSCP based on theirpracticum and internship experiences. Students should be encouraged bysupervisors and counsellor educators to implement aspects of theirprogrammes through active collaboration with classroom teachers (e.g.delivery of classroom guidance lessons based on the needs of a particularclass). Training students to model the way will support them in: (a) iden-tifying their appropriate roles, (b) developing standards of excellencethrough the CSCP and (c) understanding how to effectively implementtheir plans for student as well as organization success. Most importantly,however, preparing school counsellors for modelling their programmeshold the prospect of reducing role ambiguity and resistance from stake-holders; thus reducing potential external barriers to leadership success.

Encouraging the heart

The fifth and final strategy in the LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) isencouraging the heart. Encouraging the heart refers to the celebration oflarge and small successes with the hopes of motivating others to continuetheir commitment to promoting organizational change (Leech & Fulton,2008). It involves evaluating the outcomes of collaborative partnerships,recognizing the contributions of stakeholders in the educational processand celebrating positive outcomes (Shillingford, 2009). Effective leaderscreate the desire for positive change as well as the skills to achieve it.

In spite of the internalized fears and self-doubt that school counsellorshave been known to experience, celebrating positive behaviours and aca-demic engagement has been found to be one of their strong points (Kay,2005). Counsellor educators who may promote this practice may verywell be supporting their students in decreasing internalized anxieties

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about their abilities to be leaders. By drawing on students counsellingskills (e.g. encouraging, listening, questioning and goal setting), they maydevelop more self-awareness of their potential to support and celebratewith students and other stakeholders. In order to lead students tounderstand the practice of encouraging the heart, counsellor educatorscan employ experiential activities centred on understanding the need forcelebrating collaborative student outcomes. For example, they canincorporate classroom activities aimed at teaching student counsellorshow to effectively apply reward incentives to decrease classroomdisruption in K-12. So, further explanation of rewarding children for rais-ing the hands in class through stickers can be clarified by developing areward system in the graduate classroom for school counselling studentswho have made a significant blackboard discussion posting on a particulartopic. Students may be rewarded with a counselling book or other reward.Through the application of a reward system, the positive results of behav-ioural change may be visibly illustrated to all parties; thus, graduate stu-dents in the class who were not making an effort to contribute to thepostings may feel motivated to do so as they recognize the importance ofthe resource being offered. The celebration of successes can effectively beincorporated into students’ internship experiences. By having studentsshare internship success stories, they may, in turn, be motivated to worktogether to achieve further successes. Furthermore, recognizing andappreciating the importance of celebrating the success of others in theschool community may give school counsellors the advantage of definingtheir professional roles and decreasing systemic resistance.

Towards encouraging the heart, counsellor educators can also intro-duce students to school-wide positive behaviour support programmes(Kay, 2005), such as ‘Bee Your Best’ (Gatewood & Senn, 2001) and‘The ABC’s of Bullying Preventions’ (Shore, 2006). School counsellinginterns can take up leadership roles on K-12 school teams focusing onstudy and homework completion or attendance to name a few. Results ofthese activities can be discussed in the internship classes with highlightson the contributions of each intern on their teams. These programmes areuniquely suited to this objective, in that they reinforce positive behav-ioural change by having all stakeholders (e.g. counsellors, teachers, par-ents/caregivers and students) join forces to increase positive andsuccessful student behaviours. By learning to apply programmes such asthese, school counselling students gain practical understanding of variedmethods of evaluating outcomes in order to recognize and celebrateschool-wide successes.

It may, thus, be said that the successful engagement of school coun-selling students in these five leadership practices will allow them to gainthe professional training that they need in order to be successful leaders.The five practices appear to be practical in addressing both internal andexternal barriers that school counsellors may face. Indeed, by involvingstudents in these practices, counsellor educators are preparing them toovercome their personal fears and self-doubt through practice in a safe,learning environment. They are also supporting students in preparing forexternal barriers, such as resistance from stakeholders and role ambiguity,

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by bolstering their leadership skills in collaborating, programmatic model-ling and cooperative celebrations.

Looking ahead

Leadership practices have been a significant part of the education profes-sion. However, the notion of school counsellors as leaders has not been aspopular. Nonetheless, current trends in school counselling promote a newvision for school counsellors whereby these professionals may join in theeducational movement of improving student outcomes. Indeed, the schoolcounselling literature suggests that in order to do so, school counsellingprofession needs to transform from the traditional guidance counsellingrole to a more systemic comprehensive school counselling programme. Todo so would mean, a broader collaboration of professionals (educatorsand counsellors) working together to support students.

However, research suggests that school counsellor education pro-grammes may not adequately prepare students in the area of leadership(Mason & McMahon, 2009) and stresses the need for revised curriculumfocusing on these skills (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Janson et al., 2009; Sink,2009). The five fundamental strategies highlighted by the LCM (Kouzes& Posner, 1995): challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision,enabling others to act, modelling the way and encouraging the heart, pro-vide an effective conceptual framework for addressing leadership develop-ment deficits in counsellor education programmes. When actualizedthrough classroom and internship experiences in counsellor education,these strategies can equip school counselling students with the conceptualand pragmatic tools they will need as professional school counsellors toinfluence student outcomes, through programmatic leadership engage-ment. Recommendations to help bolster leadership training in the curricu-lum and training of school counsellor education include, but are notlimited to: a personal vision and mission for the profession of schoolcounselling (Janson et al., 2009), exposure to theories of leadership andcontextual applications of leadership, professional school counsellor advo-cacy development activities and collaboration through action researchwith K-12 schools (Camizzi et al., 2009). The development, practice andenhancement of leadership can provide a firm foundation for students tobegin their practice as leaders in professional school counselling. Contin-ued research is needed to inform counsellor educators of pedagogical andprogrammatic applications of a model that best incorporates its conceptsinto optimal support of students in becoming future leaders in schools.Counsellor educators also need to develop more intentionality in model-ling leadership for their students.

In spite of the potential programmatic benefits of the LCM (Kouzes& Posner, 1995) to counsellors’ leadership development, counsellors edu-cators need to appreciate that some students themselves may be resistantto being labelled as leaders, uneasy about the expectations of leadershipin their professional roles, or may lack the internalized motivation to beleaders. Therefore, when introducing and facilitating the development of

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school counselling students’ leadership practices, counsellor educatorsshould engage students in open discussions about their personal positionof school counsellors as leaders and their level of comfort and confidencein being in a leadership role. For students who may be resistant or lackconfidence, it is detrimental that counsellor educators help them tounderstand that developing these leadership skills is an ongoing processand that the benefits to their students (K-12) will be encouraging to allstakeholders. Furthermore, for these students who may be deficient incore leadership competencies, introduction of the leadership model at theearliest phase of the counsellor education programme is highly recom-mended. Wingfield, Reese, and West-Olatunji (2010) expressed that lead-ership means advocating for school counsellors most importantstakeholder——the student. Therefore, empowering and encouragingschool counselling students to develop at least an awareness of the impor-tance of leadership would be the first step to overcoming their own anxi-eties about their professional roles. Wingfield and colleagues suggestedthat attending professional conferences, on-site in-service training, andeven collaborative projects, might enhance students’ implantation andrefinement of leadership. Nonetheless, the truth may be that not allschool counsellors or school counselling students are willing to be consid-ered as leaders and that counsellor educators can only empower as muchas students are willing to be empowered. It is also important to recognizethat the position of this author is not to advocate implementation ofschool counselling programmes as administratively led programmes. Incontrast, it is the author’s position that leadership practices may be usefulin supporting students in delivering appropriate counselling services toK-12 students through the comprehensive school counselling programmeas recommended by the ASCA (2005) National Model. It is also importantto note that the LCM is being introduced as a guiding framework forbridging leadership theory to leadership practice as presented in thismanuscript.

Longitudinal research with school counselling students from theirintroductory course to graduation and the years after graduation may beuseful in determining the effects of leadership development initiatives incounsellor education on students’ future performance. Additional researchmay also be useful in strengthening the validity of the LCM when usedwith school counsellors. Furthermore, process and outcome researchinvolving school personnel and consumers of school counselling services(e.g. parents and students) are needed to determine the leadership behav-iours of school counsellors that are most applicable and effective witheach group. Additionally, qualitative research on school counsellors’ viewson the application of the model may be beneficial in supporting counsel-lor educators in embracing the model. This knowledge may be valuablefor preparing school counselling students for meeting the varied needs ofa diverse population of students as well as for more clearly highlightingthe utility of their role as leaders within the infrastructure of a school.Finally, in looking ahead, exploration of school counselling students’supervision experience may be useful in determining other external factorsthat may be favourable as well as unfavourable to successful leadership

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practices. The questions may be asked, as school counselling studentsreceiving adequate on-site leadership training from supervisors? Are super-visors practising as leaders in their school communities? What are schoolcounselling supervisors’ views on the role of counsellors as leaders?Answers to these questions would be important in supporting interns asfuture agents of change.

Summary

Kouzes and Posner (1995) advocated that:

People who become leaders don’t always seek the challenges they face. Challenges also seek

them. Opportunities to challenge the status quo and introduce change, opens the door to doing

one’s best and also, challenging opportunities often bring forth skills and abilities that people

don’t know they have. (p. 53)

It is crucial to the progression of the school counselling professionthat counsellors-in-training receive the training, knowledge and practice inleadership that they need to counter systemic challenges that they mayface. Effective leadership practices have been shown in research to beinstrumental in promoting programme success in the school counsellingprofession. Therefore, counsellor educators have a responsibility to equiptheir students with the tools that they need to be leading agents ofchange. The LCM (Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is one approach that may beuseful in bridging the gap between students’ theory and practice of leader-ship. By endowing them with the leadership perspectives and skills theyneed, school counselling students may be at a more advantageous positionto disambiguate their roles, anticipate and counter resistance, overcomepersonal fears and doubt and hopefully, become effective change agents.

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