ppl radiotelephony manual antonios...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 1: Radio Theory
1.1 Producing a radio wave…………………………………………………1
1.2 Frequency and Wavelength………..…………………………………1
1.3 The frequency spectrum………………………………………………2-3
1.4 Adding information……………………………………………………..3-6
1.5 Cockpit equipment………………………………………………………6-7
1.6 Ground direction finding……………………………………………….8-9
1.7 Distress frequencies…………………………….………………………..9
Chapter 2: Aeronautical Mobile Service
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….12-13 2.1 Category of messages……..………………………………………...14 2.2 Distress calls….……………………………………….……………….14-18 2.3 Urgency messages……………………………………………………..19 2.4 Direction finding…………………………………………………..……20-21 2.5 Flight safety messages………………………………………………..21 2.6 Meteorological messages…………………………………………….22 2.7 Flight regularity messages…………………………………………..22 2.8 Aircraft communications failure…………………………………23-24 Chapter 3: Radio Techniques and Phraseology Introduction………………………………….………………………………………27 3.1 Transmitting………….………………………………………………..27-28 3.2 Transmission of time……………………………………….………….28 3.3 Transmission of letters………………………………….…………….29 3.4 Transmission of numbers……………………………….……………30 3.5 Transmission of frequencies.……….……..……………………….31
3.6 Standard words and phrases……………………………………..32-33 3.7 Call signs…….……………………………………………………………34-36 3.8 Continuation of communications……….……………………....36-37 3.9 Transfer of communications…………………..…………………....38 3.10 Clearance issue and read back requirements………………..38-40 3.11 Test Transmissions……………………………………………………40-41 3.12 Routine position reports……………………………………………..42-43 3.13 Automatic terminal information service (ATIS)…………..…43-44 Chapter 4: Aerodrome Control of Aircraft 4.1 Pre-Start procedures………………………………………………….47-48 4.2 Taxi instructions………………………………………………………..48-49 4.3 Take-off procedures………………………………………………….49-53 4.4 In the cirquit……………………………………………………………..54-56 4.5 Final approach and landing…………………………………………57-58 4.6 Go around………………………………………………………………..58-59 4.7 After landing……………………………………………………………….60
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1.1 Producing a radio wave
To produce a radio wave we need an oscillating electrical current and
an aerial. The electrons moving backwards and forwards in the aerial
produce a changing electrical field which moves away from them at
the speed of light. We call this electrical field a wave.
1.2 Frequency and Wavelength
The number of cycles a wave performs in 1 second is called frequency
( f ) and is measured in Hertz (Hz).
The distance a wave travels during one cycle is called wavelength ( l )
and is measured in meters (m).
The relationship between frequency and wavelength is expressed by
the formula:
c = l x f
Where c = 3 x 10⁸ m/s the speed of light.
High frequencies have low wavelengths and vice versa.
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1.3 The frequency spectrum
Aviation communications use the VHF band from 118MHz to
137MHz. Frequency spacing can be 25KHz or in most recent
transmitters 8.33KHz.
Factors affecting range include:
Transmitter power
Height of transmitter and
receiver
Obstructions
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Maximum theoretical range of a VHF or UHF signal can be calculated
by the formula:
Max Theoretical Range = 1.23 √H1 + 1.23 √H2
Where H1 the height of the transmitter and H2 the height of the
receiver in feet measured AMSL and the range output expressed in
nautical miles.
1.4 Adding information
The frequency of the radio wave on its own is not audible. Even if it
was, it would only be heard as a monotone. Any information to be
transmitted must be laid on top of this wave, which now acts as a
carrier wave, before transmission and decoded by the receiver. This
is known as modulation and de-modulation.
Amplitude Modulation
The simplest form of modulation is to vary the strength or the
amplitude of the carrier wave to transmit information. This is
called amplitude modulation (AM).
AM is cheap and simple to do. It is though venerable to static
noise and interference.
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Frequency Modulation
As an alternative to varying the amplitude the frequency may
be varied. This is known as frequency modulation (FM).
FM is more complex but reduces static and interference.
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1.5 Cockpit equipment
The panel used to select witch transceiver we use and to control
intercom, is called audio box.
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The upper line of buttons allows us to select the source we want to
hear (e.g. COM1 or 2, NAV, ADF). The COM1MIC etc buttons allow us
to select the comm. we want to talk to. Usually by pressing a
COM_MIC button the upper selection is done automatically. There
are two knobs to control volume and sensitivity. The left knob is also
the ON/OFF knob.
We select the frequency we want to use from the transceiver box.
Select frequency.
Swap standby and active frequency.
Volume and ON/OFF control (by pushing inwards you
cancel Squelch).
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1.6 Ground Direction Finding
Some VHF radio stations are equipped with automatic direction
finding (VHF DF). Bearing information can be provided on request
expressed as either true or magnetic direction either to or from the
station. A Q code is used to avoid confusion.
QTE : true bearing from the station
QDR : Magnetic bearing from the station
QDM : Magnetic bearing to the station
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Bearings are classified by their quality. There are four classes
according to the accuracy of the station.
Class A : ±2°
Class B : ±5° (the most common)
Class C : ±10°
Class D : more than 10°
1.7 Distress Frequencies
A number of specific radio frequencies are used as distress
frequencies.
121.500MHz (VHF) Aeronautical Emergency Frequency
243.0MHz (UHF) Military Emergency Frequency
500KHz (MF) International Distress Frequency
2182KHz (MF) International Distress Frequency
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The Aeronautical Mobile Service is the term for air to air or ground to
air communications. The rules for using the aeronautical mobile
network are laid out in ICAO Annex 10 Volume 2. Some general guide
lines are:
In all communications, the highest standard of discipline shall
be observed at all times. In all situations for which standard
radiotelephony phraseology is specified, it shall be used.
The transmission of messages on aeronautical mobile
frequencies, when the aeronautical fixed services are able to
serve the intended purpose, shall be avoided.
The consequences of human performance can affect
understanding of messages and should be taken into
consideration.
Except as otherwise provided, the responsibility of
establishing communication shall rest with the station having
traffic to transmit.
After a call has been made to the aeronautical station, a
period of at least 10 seconds should elapse before a second
call is made. This should eliminate unnecessary transmissions
while the aeronautical station is getting ready to reply to the
initial call.
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When an aeronautical station is called simultaneously by
several aircraft stations, the aeronautical station shall decide
the order in which aircraft shall communicate.
In communications between aircraft stations, the duration of
communication shall be controlled by the aircraft that is
receiving, subject to the intervention of an aeronautical
station. If such communications take place on an ATS
frequency, prior permission of the aeronautical station shall
be obtained. Such request or permission is not required for
brief exchanges.
Intentionally blank
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2.1 Category of Messages
The categories of messages and the order they shall be dealt with are:
2.2 Distress Calls
A state of distress exists when being threatened by serious or
imminent danger and requiring immediate assistance.
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Actions to be taken by an aircraft in distress
The distress message sent by an aircraft in distress should be sent on
the last active frequency and should be preceded by the distress
signal MAYDAY spoken three times. The message should consist of as
many as possible of:
The name of the station addressed.
The identification of the aircraft.
The nature of the distress condition.
The intention of the person in command.
The present position, altitude and heading.
Actions to be taken in reply
The first station acknowledging the message should:
Immediately acknowledge the distress message.
Take control of the communications or specifically and
clearly transfer that responsibility, advising the aircraft
if a transfer is made.
Take immediate action to ensure that all necessary
information is made available, as soon as possible. To
the ATS and the aircraft operating agency.
Warn other stations as appropriate, in order to
prevent the transfer of traffic to the frequency of
distress communications.
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Imposition of silence
The station in distress or the station in control of distress traffic, shall
be permitted to impose silence, either on all stations of the mobile
service in the area or any station that interferes with the distress
traffic. It shall address these instructions ‘’to all stations”, or to one
station only using the message ‘’STOP TRANSMITTING’’ and the
distress signal MAYDAY.
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Actions by all other stations
The distress communications have absolute priority over all other
communications, and a station aware of it shall not transmit on the
frequency concerned unless:
The distress is cancelled or the distress traffic is
terminated
All distress traffic has been transferred to other
frequencies
The station controlling communication gives
permission
It is obliged to render assistance.
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Termination of distress communication and of silence
When an aircraft is no longer in a distress condition it can cancel the
distress.
The distress communication and silence shall be terminated by
transmitting a message using the words ‘’DISTRESS TRAFFIC ENDED’’.
Only the station controlling the communications can originate this
message.
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2.3 Urgency messages
A state of urgency is a condition concerning the safety of an aircraft
or other vehicle, or of some person on board or within sight, but
which does not require immediate assistance.
Action by an aircraft reporting urgency conditions
Urgency messages are preceded by the phrase PAN PAN preferably
spoken three times. The message should consist:
The name of the station addressed
The identification of the aircraft
The position and altitude of the aircraft
The nature of the urgency condition
The intention of the person in command
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2.4 Direction Finding
A bearing may be requested using the Q code or in plain English
speaking ‘’TRUE BEARING’’ twice at the beginning of the message. By
convention the Q codes are used for magnetic bearings to and from
the station and plain English is used to request a true bearing from
the station.The aeronautical stations that offer VDF services are listed
in the AIP AD.VDF bearings will be given when conditions are
satisfactory and radio bearing fall within calibrated limits of the
station
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2.5 Flight Safety Messages
Flight safety messages are the following:
Movement and control messages.
Messages originated by an aircraft operating agency or by an
aircraft of immediate concern to an aircraft in flight.
Meteorological advice of immediate concern to an aircraft in
flight or about to depart.
Other messages concerning aircraft in flight or about to
depart.
Most communications between ATC and aircraft falls into this
category.
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2.6 Meteorological Messages
Are messages to or from aircraft containing meteorological
information other than that listed as a flight safety message.
2.7 Flight Regularity Messages
The class of messages labeled as flight regularity messages contains
the following:
Messages concerning the operation or maintenance of
facilities essential for the safety or regularity of aircraft
operation.
Messages concerning the servicing of aircraft.
Instructions to aircraft operating agency representatives
concerning changes in requirements for passengers and crew,
caused by unavoidable deviations from normal operating
schedules.
Messages concerning non-routine landings to be made by
aircraft.
Messages concerning aircraft parts and materials urgently
required.
Messages concerning changes in aircraft operating schedules.
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2.8 Aircraft Communications Failure
When an aircraft station fails to establish contact with the
aeronautical station on the designated frequency, it shall attempt
to establish contact on another frequency appropriate to the
route. If this attempt fails the aircraft shall attempt to establish
communication with another aircraft or other aeronautical
stations appropriate to the route. In addition, an aircraft
operating within a network shall monitor the appropriate VHF
frequency for calls from nearby aircraft.
If the attempts specified above fail the aircraft station shall
transmit its message twice on the designated frequency,
preceded by the phrase ‘’TRANSMITING BLIND’’. Blind
transmissions should be transmitted twice on both primary and
secondary frequencies. Before changing frequency the aircraft
should announce the frequency to which it is changing.
Receiver Failure
When an aircraft is unable to communicate due to receiver
failure, it shall transmit reports on scheduled times or positions,
on the frequency in use, preceded by the phrase ‘’TRANSMITTING
BLIND DUE TO RECEIVER FAILURE’’.
The aircraft station shall transmit the intended message, following
this by a complete repetition. During this procedure the aircraft
shall also advise the time of its next intended transmission.
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When an aircraft is unable to establish communication due to
airborne equipment failure it shall, when so equipped, select the
appropriate SSR code to indicate radio failure. The transponder
code selected in this situation is 7600.
In addition the aircraft, when forming part of a controlled
aerodrome traffic, shall keep watch for such instructions as may
be issued by visual signs. (The type of these signs are mentioned
in Air Law.)
Other actions during communication failure
When flying VFR in the event of communications failure and, if
the aircraft can maintain VMC, land at the nearest suitable
aerodrome and report arrival as expeditiously as possible.
Approaching an airport the pilot should fly overhead at an altitude
higher than the traffic altitude. Make visual signs to the airport
control by switching lights on and off and by swinging the aircrafts
wings. During this time the direction of wind and the runway in
use could be available to the pilot by monitoring other traffic on
the circuit. Always look out for visual signs by the airport that
notice you it is safe to land.
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Standardized R/T procedures are essential in aviation. Many
accidents have been caused because operators did not follow the
standard procedures and radio messages where misunderstood or
missed.
3.1 Transmitting
Your transmissions are more likely to be understood if you follow
some simple rules:
Before transmitting listen out to the frequency to ensure
there will be no interference with a transmission from
another station.
Be familiar with good microphone operating techniques.
Use a normal conversational tone.
Maintain an even rate of speech. (About 100 words/min.)
When it is known that the recipient will write down the
message, speak a little slower.
A slight pause before and after numbers make them easier
to understand.
Avoid using hesitation sounds.
Press the push to talk button fully before speaking and
don’t release it until the message is complete.
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The stuck microphone
An irritating and potentially dangerous situation in R/T is a stuck
microphone button. If the transmission button is held or stuck down
the frequency becomes unusable by other traffic. For this reason
always ensure that the button is released and the transmission is
stopped. On most radio stations a sign with the letter ‘’T’’ is
appearing when the radio transmits. This is a good way to check you
are not in a stuck microphone situation.
3.2 Transmission of time
When transmitting time only the minutes of the hour are normally
transmitted, unless there is any possibility of confusion. Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) shall be used.
TIME TRANSMITTED AS PRONOUNCED AS
0803 ZERO THREE or ZERO EIGHT ZERO THREE
ZE-RO TREE or ZE-RO AIT ZE-RO TREE
1300 ONE THREE ZERO ZERO
WUN TREE ZE-RO ZE-RO
2057 FIVE SEVEN or TWO ZERO FIVE SEVEN
FIFE SEV-en or TOO ZE-RO FIFE SEV-en
Pilots may check the time with the appropriate ATS unit by
transmitting ‘’TIME CHECK’’.
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3.5 Transmission of frequencies
Frequency Transmitted as Pronounced a 118.125 One One Eight
Decimal One Two Five
WUN WUN AIT DAY SEE MAL
WUN TOO FIFE
119.050
One One Nine Decimal Zero Five
Zero
WUN WUN NINER DAY SEE MAL
ZERO FIFE ZERO
122.500 One Two Two Decimal Five
WUN TOO TOO DAY SEE MAL FIFE
118.000
One One Eight Decimal Zero
WUN WUN AIT DAY SEE MAL
ZERO
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3.7 Call signs
Call signs for aeronautical stations
Service Suffix Area Control CONTROL
Radar (in general) RADAR
Approach Control APPROACH
Aerodrome Control TOWER
Approach Control Radar Arrival/Departure
DIRECTOR/DEPARTURE (RADAR – when tasks combined) ARRIVAL – (when approved)
Ground Movement Control GROUND
Military Traffic Zone (MATZ) Crossing
ZONE
Precision Approach Radar TALKDOWN
Flight Information INFORMATION
Air/Ground Communication Service
RADIO
Clearance Delivery DELIVERY
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Call signs for aircraft
When establishing communication, an aircraft shall use the full
callsigns of both stations.
After satisfactory communication has been established and provided
that no confusion is likely to occur, the ground station may abbreviate
callsigns (see table below). The pilot may only abbreviate the callsign
of his aircraft if it has first been abbreviated by the aeronautical
station.
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Full Callsign Abbreviation
GBFRM G-RM
Speedbird GBGDC Speedbird DC
N31029 N029
N573DA N3DA
Midland 640 (Type C callsign)
No abbreviation
Piper GBSZT Piper ZT
SX-ARD S-RD
3.8 Continuation of communications
The placement of the callsigns of both the aircraft and the ground station within an established RTF exchange should be as follows: Ground to Air: Aircraft callsign – message or reply. Air to Ground: a) Initiation of new information/request etc. – Aircraft callsign then
message;
b) Reply – Repeat of pertinent information/readback/acknowledgement then aircraft callsign.
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When it is considered that reception is likely to be difficult, important elements of the message should be spoken twice. If there is a doubt that a message has been correctly received, a repetition of the message shall be requested either in full or in part using the phrase “SAY AGAIN”.
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3.9 Transfer of communications
To transfer communications with an aircraft to another unit, controllers shall pass instructions giving: a) The identity of the unit to be contacted; b) The frequency to be used for contact. Transfer of communication instructions should be passed in a single message. Items which require a read-back should normally be passed in a separate transmission before transfer. If no further communication is received from the pilot after an acknowledgement, satisfactory transfer of communication may be assumed. An aircraft will normally be advised by the appropriate aeronautical station to change from one radio frequency to another in accordance with agreed procedures. In the absence of such advice, the aircraft shall notify the aeronautical station before such a change takes place. Aircraft flying in controlled airspace must obtain permission from the controlling authority before changing frequency.
3.10 Clearance Issue and Read Back Requirements
Provisions governing clearances are contained in the PANS-ATM (ICAO Doc 4444). A clearance may vary in content from a detailed description of the route and levels to be flown to a brief standard instrument departure (SID) according to local procedures. Controllers will pass a clearance slowly and clearly since the pilot needs to write it down; wasteful repetition will thus be avoided. Whenever possible, a route clearance should be passed to an aircraft before start up and the aircraft’s full callsign will always be used. A route clearance and local departure instructions shall not be passed
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in the same transmission. When a route clearance is passed subsequent to local departure instructions, or to an aircraft that is already airborne, tactical restrictions that remain in place shall be reiterated to ensure that the immediate profile to be flown by the pilot is unambiguous. Generally, controllers will avoid passing a clearance to a pilot engaged in complicated taxiing maneuvers and on no occasion when the pilot is engaged in line up or take-off maneuvers. An ATC route clearance is NOT an instruction to take-off or enter an active runway. The words 'TAKE-OFF' are used only when an aircraft is cleared for take-off. At all other times the word 'DEPARTURE' is used. The stringency of the read back requirement is directly related to the possible seriousness of a misunderstanding in the transmission and receipt of ATC clearance and instructions. ATC route clearances shall always be read back unless otherwise authorized by the appropriate ATS authority in which case they shall be acknowledged in a positive manner. Read backs shall always include the aircraft callsign. The ATS messages listed below are to be read back in full by the pilot/driver. If a readback is not received the pilot/driver will be asked to do so. Similarly, the pilot/driver is expected to request that instructions are repeated or clarified if any are not fully understood.
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1) Taxi/Towing Instructions 2) Level Instructions 3) Heading Instructions 4) Speed Instructions 5) Airways or Route Clearances 6) Approach Clearances 7) Runway-in-Use 8) Clearance to Enter, Land On, Take-Off On, Backtrack, Cross, or
Hold Short of any Active Runway 9) SSR Operating Instructions 10) Altimeter Settings 11) VDF Information 12) Type of ATS Service 13) Frequency Changes 14) Transition Levels
If at any time a pilot receives a clearance or instruction with which he cannot comply, he should advise the controller using the phrase 'UNABLE' (COMPLY) and give the reason(s).
3.11 Test Transmissions
All radio transmissions for test purposes shall be of the minimum duration necessary for the test and shall not continue for more than 10 seconds. The recurrence of such transmissions shall be kept to the minimum necessary for the test. The nature of the test shall be such that it is identifiable as a test transmission and cannot be confused with other communications. To achieve this the following format shall be used: • The callsign of the aeronautical station being called; •The aircraft identification; • The words 'RADIO CHECK'; • The frequency being used;
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The operator of the aeronautical radio station being called will assess the transmission and will advise the aircraft making the test transmission in terms of the readability scale (Table below), together with a comment on the nature of any abnormality noted (i.e. excessive noise) using the following format: • 'the aircraft identification'; • 'the callsign' of the aeronautical station replying; • 'READABILITY x' (where 'x' is a number taken from Table 11); • 'additional information' with respect to any noted abnormality; NOTE: For practical reasons it may be necessary for the operator of an aeronautical station to reply with 'STATION CALLING (frequency or 8.33 channel) UNREADABLE'.
Readability Scale Meaning 1 Unreadable
2 Readable now and then
3 Readable but with difficulty
4 Readable
5 Perfectly Readable
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3.12 Routine Position Reports
Position reports, formally called AIREPs, are required unless either the AIP or the ATS unit permit the pilot to omit them. Position reports contain the following elements of information, except that the last three may be omitted when prescribed on the basis of regional air navigation agreements.
Aircraft identification
Position
Time
Level
Next position and time over
Ensuing significant point
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When transmitting time, only the minutes should normally be required. Each digit should be pronounced separately. The hour should be included when any possibility of confusion is likely to arise.
3.13 Automatic Terminal Information Service
(ATIS)
To keep down the RT traffic at busy aerodromes routine arrival and departure information is broadcast on a dedicated frequency or on an appropriate VOR frequency. Pilots inbound or requesting departure are normally required on first contact to ensure the receipt of these messages by quoting the code letter of the broadcast. ATIS is usually updated every 30 minutes following the weather observations taken at 20 or 50 minutes past the hour.
ATIS will include the following:
Aerodrome name
ATIS identification letter (A to Z with ‘’A’’ being the first broadcast)
Time of weather observation
Type of approach to be expected and RWY in use
Runway condition, if appropriate
Holding delay, if appropriate
Transition level, if applicable
Other essential operational information
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Surface wind in magnetic degrees and knots
Visibility and RVR if applicable in kilometers or meters
Present weather (e.g. Precipitation)
Cloud amount below 5000ft and height of cloud base in feet or CAVOK
Air and Dew Point temperature in degrees Celsius
QNH altimeter settings
Any available information on phenomena in the approach or climb out areas
Trend type forecast if available (e.g. NOSIG, TEMPO)
Specific ATIS instructions
The term CAVOK is used in terms of visibility, weather and cloud provided that:
Visibility is 10 kilometers or more
There is no cloud of operational significance
No significant weather phenomena is present
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4.1 Pre – Start Procedures
Where no ATIS is provided the pilot may ask for current aerodrome information before requesting start up.
It is normal to all but the smallest airports to request a Start-up clearance. Along with this request the location of the aircraft and ATIS information if available should be stated.
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4.2 Taxi Instructions
Taxi instructions issued by a controller will always contain a clearance limit, which is the point at which the aircraft must stop until further permission to proceed is given.
When it is required to cross an active runway the aircraft is not permitted to cross unless it is cleared by the controller. When passing the runway the pilot should transmit ‘’CROSSING’’ and when the aircraft vacates the runway the pilot should transmit ‘’VACATED’’.
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4.3 Take-Off Procedures
Since misunderstandings in the granting and acknowledgement of take-off clearances result in serious consequences, care should be taken to ensure that the phraseology employed during the taxi maneuvers cannot be interpreted as a take-off clearance. An aircraft should never transmit the phrase TAKE-OFF unless the controller issues a clearance for take-off for the particular aircraft. The word DEPARTURE should be used instead.
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If an aircraft is cleared for an immediate take-off it is expected to take-off without delay, a rolling take-off.
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Local departure instructions may also be given as part of the take-off clearance.
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When the aircraft has started the take-off roll, and ATC consider it necessary for the aircraft to abandon take-off, the aircraft should be instructed to STOP IMMEDIATELLY twice. The aircraft should respond STOPPING.
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If the take-off is abandoned by the pilot, the ATC should be informed as soon as practicable by calling REJECTED TAKE-OFF.
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4.4 In the Circuit
Requests for circuit joining procedures should be made in sufficient time to allow for a planned entry into the circuit, taking other traffic into account. When the traffic circuit is a right-hand pattern, it should be specified either in the AIP or by the ATC.
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Depending on the prevailing traffic and the direction from which an aircraft is arriving, it may be requested to execute a straight-in approach.
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The pilot having joined the traffic circuit makes routine reports as required by local procedures.
It may be necessary to issue delaying or expediting instructions in order to co-ordinate traffic in the circuit.
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4.5 Final Approach and Landing
A ‘’FINAL’’ report is made when an aircraft turns onto final within 4 NM from touchdown. If the aircraft is at a greater distance, a ‘’LONG FINAL’’ report is made at about 8 NM from touchdown.
Runway in use should always be read back after the landing clearance. In order to save taxiing time when flying training in the traffic circuit pilots may request to carry out a ‘’TOUCH AND GO’’ during which the aircraft lands, continues rolling and takes off, without stopping.
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4.6 Go Around
When a missed approach is initiated cockpit workload is inevitably high. Any transmissions to aircraft going around should be brief and kept to a minimum. Unless otherwise instructed an aircraft operating VFR will continue in the normal traffic circuit. If the pilot initiates the missed approach the phrase ‘’GOING AROUND’’ is used.
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If ATC require a go around they will use the instruction ‘’GO AROUND’’ twice.