ppl aircraft general knowledge en for ppng member

AERO-SPORT - LFTA LUXEMBOURG / Reinhard Krommes / 12/10/2011 Slide: 1

PPL GROUND SCHOOL

Aircraft General Knowledge

Ground School Textbook Pages 95 - 192


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The Airframe – Major Components

Fuselage

Semi-Monocoque

Wings

Spars – Struts - Ribs

Tail Assembly

Flying Controls

Ailerons – Elevator – Rudder – Flaps – Spoilers

Landing Gear

Engine and Propeller


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Wings – Empennage

Wings provide lift and control by the ailerons

In general, wing flaps are attached

Tanks

Wing spars carry the major load

Ribs with stringers shape the airfoil

External struts may strengthen the wing structure

Empennage

o Vertical stabilizer with rudder

o Horizontal stabilizer with elevator and trim-tabs


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Wing Flaps

Wing shapes cannot be optimized for all phases of flight

o Cruise flight: Low drag – higher speed – higher stall speed

o Takeoff and landing: High lift – slower speed – lower stall speed

Flaps control lift and drag by changing the shape of the wing


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Landing Gear and Tyres


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Landing Gear Retraction Systems

Retraction systems are hydraulical or electrical

Squat switches prevent retraction on the ground

Maximum speed for gear extension and gear extended must be observed

Landing gear status (retracted – transition - down & locked) by panel lights

Emergency extension by gravity or hand-pump


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The Hydraulic Braking System


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Parking and Tie-Down

Park into the Wind

Set Parking Brake

Chock the Wheels

Lock Control Surfaces

Tie Down


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Airframe Limitations

Weight

o MTOW - Maximum Takeoff Weight

o MLW - Maximum Landing Weight

o Maximum Ramp Weight

Speed

o VS1, VS0 - stalling speeds clean, landing configuration

o VNE - never exceed speed

o VNO - normal operating speed

o VA - manoeuvring speed (turbulent air)

o VFE - maximum flaps extended speed

o VLO - maximum landing gear operation speed

o VLE - maximum gear extended speed

Load factor → manoeuvring


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Velocity - Load Diagram

Maximum load factors e.g. for C172

o Normal +3.8, -1.52 (flaps down 3.0)

o Utility +4.4, --1.76 (flaps down 3.0)


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Load Factor in a Turn

In straight and level flight where lift = weight → load factor =1

With increasing bank in a turn, lift must increase by equal weight → load factor increases

Load factor in a turn1) = lift / weight or wing loadturn / wing loads&l

At 60° bank angle, twice the lift has to be produced as in straight and level.

This means, at a load factor of 2, → the wing supports twice the weight → g-force 2g

1) Load factor = 1/cos θ, e.g. 1/cos 45° = sqrt(2) = 1,4144 1/cos 60° = 2


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Stress Loads on the Ground

Landing stress loads not only on landing gear but also airfoils and fuselage

Nosewheel cannot take high load → touchdown on main landing gear

Landing gear is susceptible to side load during landing and during taxi

Control surfaces must kept from moving abruptly by wind gusts or slipstream from other airplanes (control locks when parking)


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Checks Following Excessive Airframe Stress

Refer to maintenance service and note in maintenance book

Inspection by qualified personnel prior to next flight

Items to be checked among others:

o Distortion of the structure

o Cracks

o Missing or sheared rivets

o Wrinkles in the skin

o Landing gear and attachments

o Firewall with nose gear


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Electrical System (1)


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Alternator & Battery

o Battery provides Ground- and Starter Power

o Alternator Charges Battery and Provides Electric Power While engine is Running

o Alternator A/C transformed to D/C (Generally 28V)

o Regulator maintains constant Voltage

Master Switch

o Battery Switch

o Alternator Switch

Ammeter

o Left-Zero Ammeter (Loadmeter) The loadmeter has a scale beginning with zero and shows the total load being placed on the alternator/generator

o Center-Zero Ammeter When the pointer of the ammeter is on the plus side, it shows the charging rate of the battery. A minus indication means more current is being drawn from the battery than is being replaced.


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Electrical malfunctions

o Circuit Breaker Trips Reset once only, if no other signs like smoke or smell

o Low Voltage Lamp or no Charge (Discharge) on Ammeter Recycle Master Switch Reduce electrical load – land as soon as practicable

o High Voltage Lamp or Excessive Charge on Ammeter Turn off Alternator Switch – land as soon as practicable


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The Vacuum System


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The Aeroplane Engine (1)


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Four Stroke Engine Cycle

o Intake (Induction) Stroke

o Compression Stroke

o Power Stroke

o Exhaust stroke

Valve Timing

o Via Camshaft, Push Rods and Rocker Arm

o Valve Lead – Intake Open Before TDC

o Valve Lag – Intake Close after BDC

o Valve Overlap – Exhaust Valve still Open

when Intake Valve Opens

o At 2400 rpm – 20 Valve Movements per

Second


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Ignition

Dual Independent Ignition

System

o Magnetos Independent from

Electrical System

o Two Magnetos Firing

Independently One Sparkplugs

each per Cylinder


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The Engine Starter


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The Carburettor (1)


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The Carburettor (2)

Deliver Fuel / Air Mixture to the Cylinders

o Fuel to Air Weight Ratio Ideally 1:12 (Varies between 1:8 and 1:20)

o Airflow through Venturi Reduces Pressure and Leads in Fuel Through

metering Jet

o Throttle Lever Controls Throttle Valve

Components

o Float Chamber with Needle Valve and Accelerator Pump

o Metering Jet with Idling Metering Jet

o Venturi with Throttle Valve

o Mixture Valve and Idle Cut-Off Valve


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The Carburettor (3)

Mixture Control

o Adapt Mixture to Altitude and Flight Conditions

o Leaner Mixture Required at High Altitude

o During Take-Off and Landing, Mixture is Full Rich (Unless at High Altitude

Airports)

o During Climb Rich Mixture for Additional Cooling (Unless engine Runs

Rough)

o During Descent Mixture Gradually Richer

Abnormal Combustion

o Detonation

Instantaneous, explosive combustion of the unburnt charge in the cylinder

after normal spark ignition

o Preignition

Uncontrolled firing of the fuel / air charge before the spark ignition


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Carburettor – Icing (1)


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Carburettor – Icing (2)

Impact Ice

o Forms Through Freezing Water Droplets

o Air inlet, Air Filter, Air Intake

o Use Carburetor Heat / Alternate Air

Fuel / Throttle Ice

o Forms Through Temperature Drop of Fuel Air Mixture in The Carburettor

o When Throttle is almost Closed at Low Power Settings -> Throttle Icing

Formation of Carburettor Ice

o At Temperatures up to 30°C when Humidity is High

o Symptoms are Power Loss (MP Drop) and Rough Engine Running

o Apply Carburettor Heat Immediately

o Apply Carburettor Heat during Approach and Landing according to POH


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Fuel Injection (1)


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Fuel Injection (2)

Fuel Control Unit

o Directs Air directly to Cylinders

o Pressurized, Metered Fuel via Fuel Distributor to Cylinders

o Surplus Fuel back to one of the Tanks (Fuel Mgt.!)

Benefits of Fuel Injection

o No Icing

o Better Mixture Control

o Better Engine Control and Efficiency

Possible Problems

o Vapor Lock when Starting Hot Engine

o Contamination of Fuel Lines


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The Fuel System (1)

Example: PA28


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The Fuel System (2)

The F.-S. Stores and Delivers Fuel to the Engine in a Continuous

Flow

o Fuel Vents

o Fuel Filters

o Fuel Drains

o Fuel Pump

o Boost (Auxiliary) Pump

o Priming Pump

o Fuel Selector

o Fuel Quantity & Fuel Pressure gauges

Fuel Grades

o Only AVGAS 100LL (AViation GASoline Low Led)

o Fuel Colour is blue. Marking is White Letters on Red Background

o Auto Fuel (MOGAS) forbidden, Unless Certified through an STC


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The Fuel System (3)

Fueling

o No-Smoking

o Fire Fighting Equipment in Reach

o Connect Ground cable

o Check Fuel Type and grade

o Verify Quantities Actually Loaded

Preflight Fuel Checking

o Use Fuel Tester

o Check Grade (AVGAS 100LL – Blue Colour)

o Check for Water and Contaminants

o Visually Check Fuel Quantity as Required for Flight

o Fuel Caps Placed and Closed Properly

Fuel Management

o Apply Recommended Procedures of POH


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The Oil system (1)


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The Oil system (2)

Engine Oil

o Reduce Friction

o Cool the Engine

o Remove contaminants

o Seal between Cylinder Wall and Piston

Only Use Recommended Oil Grades

Regular Oil Changes according to Maintenance Schedule

Malfunctions

o Incorrect Oil Quantity

o Low Oil Pressure

o High Oil Temperature

o Loss of Oil

o Faulty Oil Pressure Gauge

o High Oil Pressure


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Cooling – Cowl Flaps (1)


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Cooling – Cowl Flaps (2)

Cooling is Provided by

o Engine Oil

o Exhaust Gases

o Air Cooling System

Movable Cowl Flaps Allow to Adapt Air Cooling

Check Oil Temperature (and CHT if Available)

Excessive Engine Temperatures

o High Power

o Low Airspeed

o Incorrect Fuel

o Too Lean Mixture

o Low Oil Level

o OAT

o Dirty and Clogged Oil Cooler


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Engine Operation (1)

Engine Start

o Safety Precautions before Startup

o Startup according to POH

Flooded or Over-Primed Engine

o Mixture Idle-Cutoff, Throttle Full Open

o When Engine Fires, Mixture Full Rich, Throttle 1000 rpm

Hot Engine start (Fuel Injection)

Throttle Full open, Mixture Idle-Cutoff, Boost Pump High

Startup according to POH

Constant Speed Prop Operations

o Increase Power – ^rpm then ^MP

o Decrease power – ^MP then ^rpm

Engine Shutdown

o Avionics, Electrical Equipment Off

o Throttle Idle, Mixture Idle-Cutoff, Ignition Off

o Master Switch Off


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Engine Operation (2)

POH must always be Followed

Monitor Engine Instruments – Cross Check

Adjust Mixture according to Flight Condition

Open and Close Cowl Flaps According to Flight Condition

Apply Power Changes Smoothly

Avoid Shock Cooling on Descent

When Engine Runs Rough, Check for:

o Fuel Supply

o Carburetor Ice

o Mixture

o Magnetos and Ignition


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Propeller

Power output of the engine is converted into thrust by the propeller

The propeller being a rotating airfoil, creates a horizontal lift force

A fixed pitch propeller can only be of maximum efficiency at a given RPM and airspeed

Propeller pre-flight check:

o Check blades for nicks and dents

o Propeller and spinner must show no looseness


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Constant Speed Propeller (1)

Variable pitch and even more: constant speed propellers overcome the compromise

C-S Propeller takes any blade angle between low pitch and high pitch → most efficient AOA at all RPM / airspeed combinations

Maintains RPM selected by the pilot, e.g.

o Low pitch – high RPM at takeoff and climb

o High pitch and lower RPM during cruise

At engine run-up before each flight, the prop-control should be cycled at least twice for checking the function and to circulate the engine oil


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Constant Speed Propeller (2)

The constant speed propeller is controlled by a “governor”,

which automatically adjusts blade angle irrespective of airspeed

and power to keep a given RPM


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Instruments by category

Pressure Instruments

o Altimeter

o Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

o Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

Magnetic Instruments

o Magnetic Compass

Gyroscopic Instruments

o Turn Coordinator

o Directional Indicator (DI)

o Attitude indicator (AI)

Engine Instruments

Radio and Electrical Instruments


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Pressure Instruments

Static and total pressure are measured by “pressure ports”

o The port for the static pressures is connected to the altimeter, the vertical speed indicator and the airspeed indicator

o The port for the total pressure (pitot tube) airspeed indicator


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Air Speed Indicator (1)

Operation

o The aerodynamic speed (indicated airspeed) corresponds to the total of static and dynamic pressure. A barometric capsule is set inside an airtight casing. The pressure in the casing equals the static pressure, The pressure within the capsule equals the total pressure, The pressure difference expands the barometric capsule and this movement is transmitted to the needle of the airspeed indicator, It shows the indicated airspeed, IAS.

Errors

o The IAS needs to be corrected to take into account the position error of the pitot tube. Result: Calibrated Airspeed (CAS).


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Air Speed Indicator (2) Airspeed Indicator Malfunctions

o The Static Port is Blocked (Ice or Foreign Objects)

• Above an altitude where the static port is blocked, the indicated

airspeed shown is less.

• Below an altitude where the static port is blocked, the indicated

airspeed shown is more.

• Action: Alternate static pressure or break the glass of the vertical

seed indicator

o The Pitot Tube is Blocked (Ice or Foreign Objects)

• The airspeed indicator becomes an altimeter. As the aircraft

descends the static pressure will increase. Thus, the indicated

airspeed will decrease as the aircraft descends regardless of the

actual airspeed. The opposite would happen if the aircraft climbed.

• Action: If the pitot heat does not reopen the tube, take precautions to

avoid stall or overspeed

Checks

o Check the pitot heat

o Before taxiing check no airspeed indication

o At the beginning of the takeoff roll check airspeed indication


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Vertical Speed Indicator (1)

Operations

o The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) shows the change of altitude per time unit. A barometric capsule is placed within an airtight casing. When a pressure change occurs, a thin tube permits the pressure to align inside and outside the capsule after some seconds. During climb and descent, where the static pressure changes, the capsule will expand or contract and the indicator linked to it shows the vertical speed.

Errors

o The VSI is calibrated for standard temperature. Its principle of operation causes a few seconds delay in its indication. Never “chase” the VSI! Sudden altitude changes cause wrong indications too.


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Vertical Speed Indicator (2)

Blocking of the Static port

o Once inside and outside the capsule there is the same pressure, the VSI indication is zero.

o Action: Alternate static pressure or break the glass of the vertical seed indicator. In the latter case, static pressure applies outside the capsule the VSI indication is reversed.

Check

o Zero indication on the ground and during straight and level flight.

o An alternate static source can be checked by opening it briefly. The VSI needle dips slightly.


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Altimeter

Operations o The altimeter is a barometer. The

barometric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. A barometric capsule expands or contracts with altitude changes; the connected needles indicate the altitude. In general feet are indicated. A window calibrated in Hectopascal or inch/Hg shows the altimeter setting according to the QNH, QFE or pressure altitude. (one Hectopascal corresponds to 28 feet of altitude in standard atmosphere).

Errors o With a non standard temperature,

altitude indication changes. Temperatures below standard temperature cause a higher altitude indication (see altimetry).


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Gyroscopic Instruments (1)

The gyroscope is a rotating wheel (mass) mounted so that its axis can turn freely in one or more directions.

Freedom to Move Around Three Axis

o The axis can take any position around its centre of gravity

Freedom to Move Around Two Axis

o The axis can take any position while remaining in a level through the spin axis (one pivot is fix)

Freedom to Move Around One Axis

o The axis is fix can only rotate around this axis (two pivots are fix)


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Inertia

o The resistance of a body to any change of its position in space is called inertia. The greater its mass and its speed, the higher is the masses' inertia. For a gyroscope, this mean rotational speed, mass, and distance from the rotational. because of inertia, a rotating gyroscope has the properties of rigidity and precession.

Rigidity

o A rotating mass is capable to maintain the same absolute direction in space despite of any other factors. We call this property rigidity in space.

Precession

o Precession means, that if a force is applied to the gyroscope, the change in direction caused by this force is displaced 90 degrees further on in the direction of rotation.


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Gyro Stabilization System

o Mechanical Device to automatically correct a deviation of the gyroscope's

vertical axis and to erect the gyroscope.

Errors o Mechanical Errors (Manufacturing, Quality, Age, 1° - 20°/H)

o Movement errors (aircraft movement - earth rotation, 12°/H at our latitude;

0°/H at the equator; 15°/H at the poles)

Power Sources

o Constant high rotational speed needs to be maintained in order to provide

the desired properties of the gyroscope: • Electrical Power

The gyroscope's rotor is at the same time the rotor of an electric motor running at

20000 – 24000 rpm. Frequently the turn and bank indicator is electrically driven.

• Vacuum (Suction) Power

An engine driven vacuum pump maintains low pressure inside the housing of the

gyro's rotor. The ensuing air stream drives the rotor.


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Vacuum System


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Turn indicator (1)

The turn indicator has a rotating mass

with freedom to move around two of its

three axis and shows movement

around the third axis, i.e. a turning

movement.

The gyro's precession property

indicates the rate of turn. In straight

and level flight, the axis of the rotor is

horizontal and the needle is vertical. If

the aircraft turns (movement around the

vertical axis of the aircraft), the rotor

makes a precession movement into the

opposite direction. The needle by a

reversal mechanism indicates the

correct direction of the turn.


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Turn indicator (2)

Calibration and precision

o The turn indicator is a gauge showing direction of

the turn and approximate rate of turn. On the

traditional turn indicator, a:

• 4 minute turn corresponds to one width of the needle

• 2 minute turn (standard rate) corresponds to two widths of the needle

Check

o During Taxi: needle: towards the turn ball: skid

o Before Takeoff: needle and ball centered

o During flight: check turn rate with clock and DG


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Turn indicator (3)

Turn Coordinator (Turn & Bank Indicator)

o The more familiar Turn Coordinator shows

"rate of turn" and "rate of bank" because the

gyro's rotor axis is tilted. The ball indicates

eventual lateral forces caused by skidding,

slipping or ground movements.

o On the turn coordinator, a 2 minute turn

(standard rate) shows the airplane model tilted

towards the instrument marking

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Turn_indicator_skid.png

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Turn_indicator_slip.png


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Attitude Indicator

Operation

o Gyro with 3 degrees of liberty and an erection mechanism to keep the axis of the gyro in a vertical position. The plane's attitude is shown through the relative position of a small aircraft symbol and the horizon line.

Errors

o Prolonged accelerations may produce errors (takeoff, turns). The axis of the gyro tends to align with the vertical axis resulting from acceleration (-> erection system).

Limits

o Normal attitude indicators limit the indication to about +/-30° around the lateral axis (pitch) and to about +/- 85° around the longitudinal axis (bank).

Checks

o The horizon line must be level and stable on the ground and during flight straight and level, as well as in turns.


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Directional Indicator (1)

Operation o Gyroscope with 3 degrees of freedom. One of the

axes is continuously maintained in a horizontal plane.

o The interior frame (horizontal) maintains horizontal stability. The external frame (vertical) swivels around an axis parallel with the vertical axis of the aircraft. By a transmission wheel, the rotation of the frame is transmitted to the vertical compass card.

o A levelling system maintains the rotation perpendicular to the axis of the external frame.

Calibration o The DI indication can be aligned with the magnetic

compass by a turning knob.

Limits o For high bank angles (> 55°), the interior frame

comes to its stop and causes a precession force with a wrong indication on the compass card.


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Directional Indicator (2)

Errors

o The movement error makes a decreasing indication at about 12°/H at our latitudes.

Limits

o A strong bank angle of more than 55° the gyro's interior frame comes to its stop and create a precession force rotating the compass rose to a wrong indication.

Check

o Before taxi: Gyro - compass

o During taxi: Correct indication straight and in turns

o Before takeoff: Gyro - QFU - Compass

o During flight: Every 15 min. and after maneuvers


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Magnetic Compass (1)

Operation

o Floating in a liquid, a compass rose is built around a pivoted bar magnet.

Deviation

o Errors resulting from environmental factors (electrical equipment, magnetic equipment).

Variation

o Error resulting from the difference between the geographic and magnetic poles.


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Magnetic Compass (2)

Errors (Northern hemisphere)

o Turning Errors

Delayed indication (undershoot) during turns from or to the north.

Advanced indication (overshoot) during turns from or to the south [UNOS].

o Acceleration Errors

On easterly and westerly headings, acceleration gives an apparent turn north - deceleration gives an apparent turn south [ANDS].


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Engine Instruments

Constant Speed Propeller

o A constant-speed propeller converts a high percentage of

brake horsepower (BHP) into thrust horsepower (THP) over

a wide range of r.p.m. and airspeed combinations.

o the propeller control regulates propeller r.p.m. which is

registered on the tachometer. Once a specific r.p.m. is

selected, a governor automatically adjusts the propeller

blade angle.

o The throttle controls power output, registered on the

manifold pressure gauge. The gauge measures the

absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture inside the intake

manifold. When the engine is not running, the manifold

pressure gauge indicates ambient air pressure (i.e., 29.92

in. Hg).

Other Engine Instruments

o Oil pressure gauge

o Oil temperature gauge

o Cylinder head temperature gauge

o Exhaust gas temperature gauge


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Electrical Instruments

Electrical System

o An ammeter is used to monitor the performance of the airplane electrical system. When the pointer of the ammeter is on the plus side, it shows the charging rate of the battery. A minus indication means more current is being drawn from the battery than is being replaced. A full-scale minus deflection indicates a malfunction of the alternator/generator. A full-scale positive deflection indicates a malfunction of the regulator.

o The loadmeter has a scale beginning with zero and shows the load being placed on the alternator/generator. The loadmeter reflects the total percentage of the load placed on the generating capacity of the electrical system by the electrical accessories and battery. When all electrical components are turned off, it reflects only the amount of charging current demanded by the battery.


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The Glass Cockpit

Garmin G1000

o Integrated monitoring of Flight Data, Engine, Flight Planning, Navigation, Communication, Traffic and Weather

o Developed on experience with Airliner and Military Equipment, adapted to GA Aircraft

o Redundancy in light aircraft by mechanical backup Instruments (ASI, AI, Altimeter)

o Aéro-Sport has two G1000 equipped C172SP: LX-AIE / LX-AIO

o Special Briefing and Training Required -> i.e. checkout for C172SP


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The Glass Cockpit


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Primary Flight Display (PFD)

Garmin G1000 PFD

o Attitude and Heading Reference System with 3-axis solid state gyro, accelerometer and magnetometer

o ASI

o Altimeter

o VSI

o Trend Indicators

o EHSI

o GPS

o Auto Pilot Coupling

o COM / NAV Settings

o Transponder


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Multifunction Display (MFD)

Garmin G1000 MFD

o Backup PFD

o Moving Map

o Stormscope Display

o Altitude alert

o Engine/Fuel Instruments

o Flight Plan Display


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Airworthiness (1)

Aircraft Documents

1. Certificate of Airworthiness

2. Radio station Licence

3. Weight and Balance Sheet

4. Registration Certificate

5. Journey Log

6. Approved Pilot Operating Handbook (POH)

7. Noise Certificate (If Applicable)

All these 7 documents must be carried along on each flight


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Airworthiness (2)

Other Documents

o Certificate of Insurance

o Maintenance Release (attached in the Journey Log)

o Supplements to the POH (additional equipment like GPS)

Other mandatory documents to be kept by maintenance and not on board of the aircraft:

o Engine Logbook

o Airframe Logbook

o Propeller Logbook