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Teaching Strategies:Activity-Based Teaching

StrategiesAimee Caliolio

Jaylyn Gamir

Activity-based Teaching

Points toward the learners active learning role. Involves strategies as:

Cooperative learning Simulations and Games Case studies Problem-based learning Self-learning Modules (elements)

Makes the learner do more than just listening and studying. Learners implicate creating and storing knowledge. Greater knowledge retention and high level performance.

Cooperative Learning (CL)

(Lindauer & Petrie, 1997) based on the principle that learners work with each other and are responsible for not only their own knowledge but as well as their group members.

Types of Cooperative learning

Formal Cooperative learning group Are more useful in academic setting rather than in-service

or patient education situation (e.g., assigning groups of students to develop a proposal for a clinical research study).

Informal Cooperative learning group Can be used in any setting (e.g., teaching about the

childbirth experience to a group of parents-to-be).

Types of Cooperative learning

Base Cooperative learning groupCould be applied

easily to new staff orientation or teacher-ship programs (e.g., new registered nurses being oriented to a new HC facility).

Summary of types of CL groups.

Advantages of Cooperative Learning Group members learn to function as part of a team. Working in a group for any length of time can teach

or enhance social skills. Cooperative learning groups can help to address

individual learning needs and learning styles (Huff, 1997).

Critical thinking is promoted (Zafuto, 1997).* There is really no disadvantage to CL.

Research on Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning produces higher achievement levels than do individualistic or competitive learning approaches.

Outcome measures of achievement are knowledge gain, retention of knowledge, problem-solving, reading, mathematics and procedural tasks, all of which show increases with CL.

Other outcomes found are increased self-esteem, improved attitude toward learning, social competence, and decreased anxiety in learning.

Research on Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning has been found to be a cost-effective strategy.

Effectiveness of cooperative learning has been found in all age groups and levels of education, both sexes, all nationalities studied, and all economic groups.

Effects have been equally good for learners at all ability levels.

CL has a level of validity and generalizability beyond that seen in most educational research.

Why is Cooperative Learning so effective?

Natasi and Clements (1991) suggests 3 reasons: To learn something is to try to teach it to someone

else. As learners listen to each other, they work to

make sense of what each is saying and then they build on these ideas, thus adding to their cognitive schemata.

As learners within a group disagree with each other, they seek to reduce cognitive dissonance and, therefore, end up synthesizing divergent ideas.

Simulations

Are controlled representations of reality.

Are exercises that learners engage in to learn about the real world without the risks of the real world.

Simulations

4 types of simulations:Simulation exercises

A controlled representation of a piece of reality that learners manipulate to better understand the corresponding real situation.

Simulation gameA game that represents real-life situations in which

learners compete according to a set of rules in order to win or achieve an objective.

Simulations

Role playingA form of drama in wsly act out roles on an interaction

involving problems or challenges in human relations.Case studies

An analysis of an incident or situation in which characters and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events transpire, and problems need to be resolved or solved.

Simulation types continued....

Facts about Simulations

Simulations have been a teaching strategy for centuries.

War games were used in ancient China and India and more recently in eighteenth-century Germany.

Chess, a simulation game, is thought to have been developed around 800 B.C.

Simulations more recent use in education began in the 1960s, when business, law, educational administration and medicine all began to use various simulation formats.

Purpose and Uses of Simulations

Simulation techniques can be used to achieve learning objectives.

Simulation is also an avenue for attitude change.

Decision-making can be fostered by simulation.

Simulation strategies can be applied to the teaching of psychomotor skills.

Simulations can be used to evaluate learning and competence.

Role of the Educator3 facets:

PlanningChoosing or developing an appropriate simulation that will meet learning objectives.

Role of the EducatorFacilitatingDebriefing

Should occur immediately following the simulation when everything’s still fresh.

Steps to debriefing:Briefly summarize

what has taken place.Have the learners

explain what they did and why.

Point out how principles and concepts have been applied and how the experience ties into the learning objectives.

Four Types of Simulation

1. Simulation Exercise2. Simulation Games3. Role-playing4. Case studies

Four Types of SimulationSimulation Exercise (SE)

Focuses on process learning. Partakers of the simulation exercise learns how to make decisions or solve

problem or apply theory. Examples of SE:

Babic and Crangle (1987)Undergraduate students simulated the aging process in themselves by

choosing a decrement associated with aging and simulating the resulting lifestyle for 24 hrs.

Helmuth (1994)developed “mock convention”, a simulation which is very involved and

lengthy one in which students simulate a portion of a professional nursing organization convention, to aid NS to apply leadership skills.


Examples of SE: Lev (1998)

Conducted an exercise in which nursing students, acting as if they were from a variety of community agencies, competed for community grant monies designed to assist chronically ill people across their lifespan (learned resource allocation).

Wildman and Reeves (1997)Used a simulation technique to teach nursing students how to

apply management theory to organizing the work of a hospital clinical unit.


Examples of SE designed to help learners apply and master psychomotor and clinical skills: Aronson and colleagues (1997)

Arranged a lab simulation in dressing, IV lines, and the like that simulated emergencies, complications and urgent scenarios that the students had to assess and to which they had to respond.

Johnson and colleagues (1999)Described the use of live simulated patients as an

adjunct to clinical teaching.


Examples of SE designed to help learners apply and master psychomotor and clinical skills: Eaves and Flagg (2001)

U.S. Air Force members who developed an entire simulated hospital unit in which new graduates spent 4 hours providing care to 9 mannequins and 2 live actor patients (learning about delegation, decision making, and 15 psychomotor skills).

Four Types of SimulationSimulation Games (SG)

Focuses on either content or process learning.Content games

focus on teaching or reinforcing factual information (e.g., crossword puzzles that aim to teach terminology or bingo games that reinforce previously learned facts).

Process games are those that emphasize problem solving or application

of information (e.g., SimCity).

Four Types of SimulationSimulation Games (SG)

Frame gamesGames that follow the format of

established board games, television games, and word games (Bloom and Trice, 1994) because they provide a frame on which you can build new game applications.

Advantages of Simulation Games

It is fun!

Disadvantages of Simulation GamesGames considered by others not to be

simulations are things like word games; thus, some educators feel those games are a waste of time.

Games are unprofessionalDisliking competition that games promoteTime consuming to playVery labour intensive to develop

Factors to Consider in making a Simulation Games

Validity of the games (Peter and colleagues, 1998)

Careful planning (Greunding, Fenty & Hogan, 1991)

Four Types of SimulationRole-Playing (RP)

A form of drama in which learners spontaneously act out roles in an interaction involving problems or challenges in human relations.

Helpful to gain skill in interpersonal therapeutic relationships.

Develop the quality of empathy.

Four Types of SimulationRole-Playing (RP)

Examples of RP:“Land of Suria”

By Dahl (1984) simulation designed to give learners experience in communicating with people from culture previously unknown to them.

Halloran and Dean (1994)Developed a role-playing simulation

combined with a game format.Johnson (1997)

Used role-playing to teach home care nurses to assess patients, communicate with families and professionals, and to fill out paperwork accurately.

Four Types of SimulationCase Studies (CS)

An analysis of an incident or situation in which characters and relationships are described, factual or hypothetical events, transpire, and problems need to be resolved or solved.

Harvard Law School in the 1870’s (Wade, 1999).

100 years before enjoyment.

Four Types of SimulationCase Studies (CS)

Steps to make a Case Study for a group of learners:Develop objectives.Select a situation.Develop the characters.Develop the discussion questions.Lead the group discussion.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

An approach to learning that involves confronting students with real-life problems that provide a stimulus for critical thinking and self-taught content.

Based on a principle that students, working together in small groups, will analyze a case, identify their own needs for information, and then solve problems like those that occur in everyday life.

Differences between PBL and Case Method: PBL, conducted with small groups /case studies may be used by

individuals or groups. Students using PBL have little background of what they’re going to

do/ students doing CM have every detail they need. PBL cases are usually brief and the presenting problems are ill

structures/CM cases are often long and detailed, and their problems are fairly well defined.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Began over 30 yrs ago at McMaster University School of Medicine in CA – spread to medical schools in US-the world.

Medical schools – other disciplines, 1st nursing application started in AU (Heliker, 1994).

Cause for a new approach to medical education: Emphasis on memorization of more & more content. Lack of correlation between the basic sciences and

clinical content. Identification of the need to prepare professionals with

skills for lifelong learning (Bloud & Feletti, 1997).

Why use PBL in Nursing?

Glen & Wilkie (2000, p.13) suggests 2 rationale: It helps students to see the relevance of subjects they learn. It “sets the learning in a context in which it will be used”Heliker (1994) claims that learning in context enables learners to structure their

long-term memory for easy retrieval of the information.

Advantages of PBL

Help students to think critically. Sharing of new information.

Disadvantages of PBL

Takes a lot of time (Mathews-smith, Oberski, GrayCrater & Smith, 2001).

Students may feel unhappy and that of the teacher. Teachers have difficulty adjusting to their role. Students feel frustrated as they learn to direct their own learning

(Lunky-Child et al., 2001).

Problem-Based Learning

Is PBL worth using? Does it have very large effects on student learning? Does the students enjoy learning using PBL?

Self-Learning Modules (SLM)

Also called self-directed learning elements, self-paced modules, self learning packets, and individualized learning activity packages.

Defined as a self-contained unit or package of study materials for use by an individual.

1960s in academic setting – moved to staff development – surpassed used in school of nursing.

Self-Learning Modules

Are based on some principle of adult learning such as: Adults are self-motivated to learn material for which they see relevance Adults’ prior experience is a resource for further learning. Adults are problem focused and readily learn material they can use to

solve problems (Herrick, Jenkins, & Calrson, 1998; Mast & VanAtta, 1986).

Self-Learning Modules

There are few topics or settings in which self-learning modules would not be appropriate: Used to teach entire courses or sections of courses in academic settings

at both undergraduate and graduate levels (Fullerton & Graveley, 1998; Holtzman, 1999; Spickerman, Lee & Eason, 1988).

Used for bridging courses for LPNs or RNs returning to school for a higher degree.

Applied to staff development for purposes of orientation, mandatory in-service topics and just about every specialty area imaginable and for every level of nursing staff.

Components of Self-Learning Modules Introduction and instructions

Topic for a module is single concept Behavioural objectives

Are no different from those you have already learned about and written.

Expresses what the learner will be able to do on completion of the module.

Pre-test Usually not included in a module. Include a pre-test for staff development and academic setting.

Components of Self-Learning Modules Learning activities

Make the most creative portion of the self-learning module. Will help the learner achieve the objectives. Activities might include:

Reading textbook chapters, articles or pamphlets Reviewing handouts, charts, pictures or diagrams Attending short lectures, speeches or demonstrations Answering study questions and getting feedback Watching a video or slide presentation Using a computer program Practicing a psychomotor skill in a lab Participating in a discussion group

Components of Self-Learning Modules Self-evaluations

To see whether they are achieving the objectives that were listed at the beginning of the unit.

Some form of quiz, either multiple choice questions or short-answer questions.

Post-test Used to determine whether learners have mastered module objectives. Maybe an objective-item test, a case study, a written assignment such as

care plan, or a demonstration of a psychomotor skill.

Developing a Module

Do plan in making a module months or weeks ahead since making a module is a time-consuming process.

(O’very, 1999)10-15 hrs of development for every hour spent by learners in completing the self-learning module.

Behavioural Objectives

1st step in the development process is writing the objective for the module.

Example (basing on self-learning module on intestinal elimination) Perform an assessment of intestinal elimination on alive

simulated patient (video-taped or performed during a scheduled appointment with the instructor) correctly, including all critical elements.

Explain the effect of infection and inflammation on the GI tract.

Differentiate between any 4 infectious or inflammatory GI disorder min terms of pathology, patient problems and nursing intervention.

Behavioural Objectives

View a computer simulation of a patient with inflammatory bowel disease and list the patient’s problems, your proposed interventions, and the rationale for those interventions.

Analyze why a given list of nursing intervention would be used for a patient with an obstructed small bowel.

Write and implement (on video-tap or during a schedules appointment with the instructor) a teaching plan for a patient (a friend or colleague with a selected inflammatory disorder.

Pre-test

Decide what knowledge the learner would to have bring to the learning experience in order to progress through the module.

(basing on the example “intestinal elimination”) part of the pre-test should include questions about normal anatomy and physiology of intestinal elimination.

Learning Activities

Plan content and learning activities Choose some learning activities that are visual, some auditory and

some tactile. Choose activities that stress abstractions and some that focus on

concrete information. Keep in mind about time. (basing on the example “intestinal elimination”)

Unit I Read pages 216 to 222 in the accompanying textbook in light of the study

questions on Handout I.

Learning Activities

Select one of the following activities: View the videotape, Assessment of Intestinal Function

Listen to the audiotape, Step-by-step History Taking and Physical Assessment, Part 5.

Practice doing an assessment of intestinal elimination.

Self-Evaluation

Guides should be developed to accompany each unit in a form of short quizzes, based on the objectives, that enable learners to check their progress.

Post-test

Is usually, at least in part, a written examination. Consists of multiple-choice and matching items, essay questions, or

case studies with questions.

Introduction and Instruction

Tells the learner how to work through the module, how to use the pre-test and self-evaluation guides, where to locate resources, what procedures to use for handing in assignments or scheduling skill tests, and what the roles of the educator and learner.

Pilot Testing

Have 1 or 2 people work through the module. Experience will tell if there are flaws in the module.

Advantages of Self-Learning Modules The ability to learn independently and at one’s own pace and in one’s

own time. Faculty who are frustrated by not having the time to help students

who are struggling with course material in a traditional learning system have that opportunity in the individualized approach.

Can reduce travel time for conferences and reduce the amount of time that staff nurses have to be away from their units.

Reduce the cost of in-service education.

Disadvantages of Self-Learning Modules Some learners may miss learning with other people and miss the

interactions that take place in a classroom. Individualized learning may lead to further procrastination due to lack

of structure and deadlines. Learners may be less than honest about their results and thus forgo

needed learning (Suggs et al., 1998).

Research on Effectiveness of SLM:

Comparison on the amount of knowledge gained by nurses using SLM to those taught by lecture and found no significant differences (Coleman et al., 1991; Scholmer, Anderson & Shaw, 1997; Suggs et al., 1998).

Nikolajski (1992) compared module use to classes with lecture/slide presentations and found that both groups had significant learning gains, but the gains were greater for the lecture group.

Research on Effectiveness of SLM:

Lamb and Henderson (1993) found that in comparing groups given lectures versus those using modules, the module group had significantly higher post-test scores.

Grant (1993) found that nurses preferred to use module rather than attend lecture classes

Lipe and colleagues (1994) reported 95 to 100 percent favorable evalutaions among nurses who learned from modules.

Wong and Wong (1985) measured patient satisfaction, compliance behaviour and postoperative complications in two groups of patients undergoing hip surgery.

Conclusion

Questions?

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