Brown TN, Williams DR, Jackson JS, et al. Being black and feeling blue: the mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Race Soc.2000;2:117–131. Casey S, O’Connell M. Pain and prejudice: assessing the experience of racism in Ireland. In: MacLachlan M, O’Connell M, eds. Cultivating Pluralism: Psychological, Social and Cultural Perspectives on a Changing Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: Oak Tree Press; 2000:19–48. Finch BK, Kolody B, Vega WA. Perceived discrimination and depression among Mexican-origin adults in California. J Health Soc Behav.2000;41:295–313. Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Bachen, E. A., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2008). Perceived discrimination, perceived stress, and mental and physical health among Mexican-origin adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30(4), 401-424. Gee GC. A multilevel analysis of the relationship between institutional and individual racial discrimination and health status. Am J Public Health.2002;92:615–623. Liebkind K, Jasinskaja-Lahti I. The influence of experiences of discrimination on psychological stress: a comparison of seven immigrant groups. J Community Appl Soc Psychol.2000;10:1–16.30. Lee, D. L., & Ahn, S. (2013). The relation of racial identity, ethnic identity, and racial socialization to discrimination–distress: A meta-analysis of Black Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 1-14. doi:10.1037/a0031275 Ong, A. D., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., & Burrow, A. L. (2009). Racial discrimination and the stress process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1259-1271. Pieterse, A. L., & Carter, R. T. (2007). An examination of the relationship between general life stress, racism-related stress, and psychological health among black men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(1), 101. Seaton, E. K., Yip, T., & Sellers, R. M. (2009). A longitudinal examination of racial identity and racial discrimination among African American adolescents. Child Development, 80(2), 406-417. Sellers, R., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079-1092.

Increased ethnic identity appears to be a source of generalized stress. Our findings suggest that as individuals recognize their cultural difference, their perceptiveness to unfair treatment events increases. This heightened awareness appears to alter self-consciousness, creating a sense of generalized stress and a feeling of uneasiness. This uneasiness results from increased individual ethnic identity and discomfort experienced from the recognition of social injustice. These individuals may become more attentive to prejudice and discrimination.

Through our study we found that individuals exhibiting both generalized stress combined with heightened ethnic identity, perceived more instances of racial discrimination.

Being exposed to increased racial discrimination results in increased perceived personal stress expressed by individuals. This personal stress potentially leads to negative health outcomes.

We recommend and support continued ethnic diversity education and the fostering of a healthy ethnic identity, but we must also equip the individual with the stress management mechanisms to deal with the new view of world they will face.

In our present study, we investigated the relationship between ethnic identities, perceived discrimination and the prevalence of stress. We found that highly ethnically identified individuals are at an increased risk of perceiving racial discrimination, leading them to experience higher levels of stress compared to their counterparts. Our analysis of perceived racial discrimination and ethnic identity echoed similar results to Seaton, Yip, and Sellers’ (2009), suggesting that individuals with a stronger ethnic identity may interpret interactions as racially charged that would otherwise be unremarkable. Researchers tested their hypothesis, that ethnically identified individuals demonstrate a higher sense of pride, creating a buffer against the effects of racial discrimination (Sellers & Shelton, 2003). However, evidence suggested this group was more sensitive to prejudice and therefore, more susceptible to racial discrimination (Sellers & Shelton, 2003). Moreover, studies determined that minorities who identify strongly with their ethnicity displayed increased sensitivity to even the most ambiguous of racial discrimination occurrences (Sellers & Shelton, 2003).

Our evidence agreed with many scholars, demonstrating that self-reported (perceived) racial discrimination increased with stress and is associated with psychological distress (Pieterse & Carter, 2007; Seaton et al., 2009). We found that subjection to racial discrimination leads to higher perception of stress. Studies conducted, with African-American participants, discovered an association between racial discrimination and ailments, such as depression, anxiety and hypertension (Flores et al., 2008; Brown et al., 2000; Liebkind & Jasinskaja-Lahti, 2000; Finch et al., 2000; Gee, 2002; Casey & O’Connell, 2000). According to Ong, Fuller-Rowell and Burrow (2009), those experiencing chronic racial discrimination reported higher occurrences of stressful life situations. One study proposed that the unpredictability of racial discrimination makes it a further taxing experience compared to other stressors (Flores et al., 2008). Additionally, researchers have determined that racial discrimination affects mental health, is correlated with feelings of anger, reduces well-being, and increases negative coping behaviors, such as excessive drinking and smoking (Seaton et al., 2009; Flores et al., 2008).

The Sellers and Shelton (2003) suggested that future research be conducted to answer why these individuals perceive discrimination as threats. Findings, therefore, highlighted a need for targeted interventions to reduce stress proliferation on highly identified individuals, who convey an increased sensitivity to discrimination.

The Role of Perceived Racial Discrimination and Stress in Highly Ethnically Identified Individuals Latisha Gonzalez & Michael Hall, PhD, CHES

Florida Atlantic University

Introduction

References

Methods

Results Discussion

Conclusion

Table 2. Age and Level Table 1. Gender, Race, Skin Completion, Number of sexual partners

Table 3. ANOVA MEIM and Perceived Discrimination

Table 4. Multiple Regression of Perceived Discrimination on Steady Variables

Table 5. ANOVA Perceived Discrimination and Perceived Stress

*Significant difference between Poor and Moderate, Poor and High

*Significant difference between “Rarely” and “Often”

Racial discrimination is defined as unfair and differential treatment on the basis of race (Ong, Fuller-Rowell & Burrow, 2009). Ethnicity refers to people that share ancestry, history, and/or culture (Lee & Ahn, 2013). Whereas, race is the characteristic of sharing the same phenotypic characteristics, such as skin color (Lee & Ahn, 2013). While the majority of research on perceived racial discrimination and stress has been conducted on African Americans, it has been shown that the stress model of perceived racial discrimination relates to other racial and ethnic populations (Flores et al., 2008). Ong, Fuller-Rowell and Burrow (2009) proposed that some individuals might perceive racial discrimination as a threat instead of a challenge causing individuals to engage in negative coping behaviors. We chose to use race and ethnicity as a single concept representing a factor that separates, by grouping individuals based on those characteristics. The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between perceived racial discrimination, the prevalence of stress, and ethnic identities.

Total sample size was N = 175 (86 male, 87 female, 2 non-report). After dummy-coding the racial discrimination scale into rarely, sometimes, and often; the more instances of perceived racial discrimination was significantly (p<.05) associated with higher perceived stress scores (Table 5). ANOVA also determined the higher ethnic identity was significantly (p<.05) associated with higher perceived racial discrimination (Table 3). Multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the predictors of perceived racial discrimination. The significant (p<.05) predictor variables for higher perceived racial discrimination were: ethnic identity, perceived stress, and self-reported skin color (Table 4).

After obtaining Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, data were collected employing a cross-sectional design from a convenience sample of students attending a southeastern university. Participants completed an online, anonymous survey, which collected demographic information along with responses to subscales, which assessed perceived racial discrimination, perceived stress, and multi-ethnic identity. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if differences exist among the scale scores. Multiple Regression analysis was used to explore the predictive ability of a set of variables on racial discrimination stress scale scores.

November  22,  2013  SAC  Unheard  Voices:  Hidden  Dimensions  of  Health