Pool Operators Handbook

Public Health Division

DisclaimerThe information in this Handbook is advisory innature. The Pool Operators Handbook is intended toprovide information and guidelines for theoperation of swimming pools used by the public.It is not intended to replace or overridelegislation.

Pool operators are required to adhere to andconsult all relevant acts, regulations, codes ofpractice, standards and guidelines, as well asindustry publications, for additional information.It is the pool operators responsibility to keepabreast of, follow and have copies of relevantlegislation and regulations. Many of these arelisted in the Bibliography, but operators should beaware that these may be under review at the timeof printing this Handbook. This Handbookshould not be used in place of the appropriatelegislation, but alongside those statutes. Failure tomeet reasonable standards in the provision of asafe environment for the public may carry heavypenalties, regardless of pool operators followingthe guidelines in this Handbook.

Department of Human Services Victoria 2000

This work is copyright and if reproducedreference must be cited as follows: PoolOperators Handbook. Victorian GovernmentPublishing Service 2000.

ISBN 073 1160 703

This document has been published by theDepartment of Human Services Victoria,August 2000.www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/0010085/index/htm

All rights reserved. Except for the purposes ofeducation, fair dealing and use within theintended environment, no portion of thisdocument should be reproduced or copied forany purposes, including general exhibition,lending, resale and hire.

(0851000)

ii

The Pool Operators Handbook has been developedfrom the generous contributions of a number ofexperts in the Victorian aquatic industry througha committee chaired by the Victorian AquaticIndustry Council. The contributors are:

Geoff Bell Leisure Management andMarketing

Joe Calello Roejen Services

Nicky Crawshaw Australian PhysiotherapyAssociation

Kerry Crossley Aqua Science Consultants

Laurence Duggan MRW Australia

Norman Farmer RLSSAV

Derek Lightbody Department of HumanServices, EnvironmentalHealth Division

Greg Leayr Roejen Services

Colin Long Local GovernmentProfessional Association

Darryn McKenzie Aqua Science Consultants

Jenni Maclean Victorian Aquatic IndustryCouncil (VICSWIM)

James Nightingale Leisure Management andMarketing

Warwick Waters RLSSAV

The Pool Operators Handbook is based on the PoolWater Treatment Advisory Group (PWTAG) 1995Pool Water Guide. Where appropriate, text hasbeen extracted from this publication and theDevelopment Committee acknowledges thepermission granted by the PWTAG for this use.

iii

Acknowledgments

What is a healthy swimming pool? A healthyswimming pool is obviously one that containswater free from disease-causing organisms andbacteria, has clear and sparkling water, with well-maintained surrounds. It should be pleasant tothe senses. Well-managed swimming pools arehealthy environments there is negligible risk ofinfection or illness. But healthy pools are morethan just that. Swimming pools are deeplyconnected with our culture, our dreams of havinga backyard pool, a poolside holiday, achievingpersonal fitness or being an Olympic champion.

For many communities, particularly in ruralareas, the public pool is in essence the home pool,the place of meeting friends or of making a hotsummers day bearable. Pool users can receivemany health and social benefits from recreationalor therapeutic bathing, as well as competitiveswimming.

Holiday makers often choose a particular caravanpark or a hotel because it has a swimming pool ora spa pool. They expect to be able to use them attheir leisure, and that they will be in pristinecondition. The operations of tourismaccommodation businesses are often judged bythe way that their pools are managed.

In order to maintain healthy water and aninviting environment, maintaining the poolstructure, and ensuring there is reliable andefficient plant and equipment, is essential. Pooloperation and pool management is a challengingprofession. The personnel are entrusted with animportant responsibility. Investment in staffdevelopment through training is essential, andunderpins sound plant and equipment.

Newer technologies are being demanded by poolusers to improve the chemical quality of poolwater, particularly in the indoor environment.There are many new water treatments beingmarketed, some of which may have a usefulapplication and others which are eitherinappropriate or not effective.

The Department of Human Services approachedthe Victorian Aquatic Industry Council in 1998with a view to producing a document that wouldnot only support the achievement of watertreatment standards required to comply with theHealth Regulations, but would be more holistic inits outlook. A diverse committee of professionalswith pool operations, pool management, publichealth, pool user and pool service backgroundswas formed to collaborate and produce thisHandbook. We believe it will serve the industrywell.

I hope that this Pool Operators Handbook willprovide guidance on pool water treatment andassociated pool management issues to operators,owners, proprietors, body corporate managers,local government authorities and the various poolindustry service providers.

Finally, I thank the contributing authors and theirrespective organisations, together with the Chairand administrative support of the VictorianAquatic Industry Council, for bringing thisHandbook together.

Professor John CatfordDirector, Public Health DivisionDepartment of Human Services

iv

Preface

Disclaimer iiAcknowledgments iiiPreface iv

Part 1 Introduction 1Background to the Handbook 2

Aims and Objectives 3Who Should Use this Handbook? 3What Types of Pools are Covered by

this Handbook? 3

Staff and Responsibilities 4Management Structure 4Operating the Pool Environment 5The Pool Operator 5

Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practiceand Guidelines 6

A Brief List of Relevant Acts, Regulationsand Codes of Practice 6

Safe Working Practices 6Health (Infectious Diseases)

Regulations 1990 7Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985 7Dangerous Goods Act 1985 8SafetyMAP 12Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 13Codes of Practice 14Australian Standards 14Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO) 14Audits 15Environment Protection Authority 15

Part 2 Infrastructure 17Swimming Pool Design 18

Design Brief 18Specialist Help 19Choosing Water Treatment Specialists 21

Types of Pools 22

Part 3 Hygiene and Contamination 25Pool Water Contamination 26

Sources of Contamination 26Transmission of Infection 26Infections and Conditions Associated

with Pool Use 27Summary 29Emergency Procedures 29

Pool Hygiene and Cleaning 31Public Education 31Pool Users Personal Hygiene 31Toilets 31Hot Water Systems 31Cleaning in and Around the Pool and

Changing Rooms 32Bottom of Pool 32Emptying the Pool 32

Part 4 Water Treatment 33Choosing a Disinfectant 34

Choosing a Suitable Disinfectant 34Chloramine Removal 37Cyanuric Acid 39Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP)

as a Disinfection Parameter 40Control of Algae 40Unsuitable Disinfectants 40

Water Treatment Using Ozone andUltraviolet Radiation 44

Ozone 44Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) 46

Water Balance 48pH 48Total Alkalinity 48Calcium Hardness 48Temperature 48Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 49Adjusting Water Balance Parameters 49Calculating Water Balance 50

Dosage and Control Systems 52Design of Dosage Systems 52Points of Dosing 52Control Systems 53Safety 53Sensors 53

Part 5 Monitoring Systems 57Chemical Testing 58

Test Kits 58Test Methods 59Dilution of Samples 59Chemical Limits 59Keeping Records 59

v

Contents

Example Log Sheets 61Chemical Limits Worksheet 61Sample Pool Operator Log Book 62

Microbiological Monitoring 63Appropriate Microbiological Testing 64Assessing Microbiological Quality 64Sampling Procedure 65Documentation 66

Part 6 Physical Management of Water 67Water Circulation 68

Surface Water Draw-Off 68Inlets and Outlets 69Circulation Design 70

Filtration 72Filtration Principles 72Types of Filters 73Specifications 73The Sand Bed 73The Limits of Filtration 74Coagulation and Flocculation 74Backwashing 75Maintenance 76

Heating and Air Circulation 77Pool Water Heating 77Temperature 78Pool Hall Ventilation and Air Circulation 78Separate Areas 79Sources of Ventilation 79Energy Management 79

Part 7 Maintenance 81Maintenance Systems 82

Winterisation 82Unattended Pools 83Winter/Seasonal Maintenance Program 83

Problem Sorter 84

Part 8 References 91Glossary 92

Bibliography 95

Index 97

TablesTable 1 Example Hazchem Codes 10

Table 2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities 11

Table 3 Classes of Common DangerousGoods Kept at Pools 11

Table 4 Proximity of Chlorine Cylindersto Other Areas 12

Table 5 Proximity of Sodium Hypochloriteto Other Areas 12

Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS 13

Table 7 Australian Standards 14

Table 8 Summary of the Characteristics of a Range of Pool Water Disinfectant 41

Table 9 SI Index of Factors 51

FiguresFigure 1 Location of Safety Showers and Eye Wash Facilities 7

Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem Signage for Packaged Dangerous Goods 9

Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem Signage Bulk Dangerous Goods 9

Figure 4 Backwash Tank

Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water Systems 15

Figure 6 Chlorine Gas, Weight Scalesand Regulator 35

Figure 7 Bulk Sodium Hypochlorite Container in Bund 35

Figure 8 Pool Water Treatment withChlorine Disinfectant 36

Figure 9 Pool Water Treatment with Ozoneand Hypochlorite 45

Figure 10 ORP Probes 45

Figure 11 Ozone Leak Detector 46

Figure 12 Ozone Off-Gas Destructor 46

vi

Figure 13 Carbon Dioxide Tank 49

Figure 14 The Hazards of Poor Labelling 50

Figure 15 Metering Pump 52

Figure 16 Carbon Dioxide Controller 52

Figure 17 Erosion Canister (Erosion Feeder) 52

Figure 18 Pool Control Panel and ChemicalMeasuring Station 53

Figure 19 Chemical Sensors Installed in a Side-Stream Loop 55

Figure 20 Photometer 58

Figure 21 Comparator 58

Figure 22 Dry Reagents 58

Figure 23 Test Strips 59

Figure 24 Microbiological Sampling Technique 65

Figure 25 Wet Deck on a Modern Indoor Pool 68

Figure 26 Overflow Channel on an Older Outdoor Pool 69

Figure 27 Skimmer Box and Lint Trap 69

Figure 28 Three Circulation Options for a 25 m Pool 70

Figure 29 Medium Rate Pressure Filter for Larger Pool 72

Figure 30 Plant Room with Multiple Filters 72

Figure 31 High Rate Sand Filter For Spa or Small Pool 73

Figure 32 Old Style Gravity Sand Filter Beds and Backwash Channel 73

Figure 33 Filter Off-Gas Bleed and Collectors 73

Figure 34 Medium Rate Pressure Sand Filters Pressure Differential Gauges 74

Figure 35 Dosing Tanks with Mixers for Adding Coagulant 75

Figure 36 Pressure Differential Gauges 75

Figure 37 Multiport Valve on a Large, Open Gravity Filter 76

Figure 38 Closed Loop Heat Exchanger 77

Figure 39 Gas Fired Direct Pool Water Heater 77

Figure 40 Heavy Duty Gas or Electric Boilers 77

Figure 41 Pool Covers 79

vii

Introduction

1

Swimming in pool water or relaxing in a spashould be a healthy and pleasant exercise. A clear,safe, sparkling swimming pool, withoutunpleasant smell or taste, and free from harmfulmicroorganisms is the right of all users andshould be the objective of every manager.However, in practice, achieving this can bedifficult. A multitude of physical, chemical andmicrobiological states change in a busy pool some in seconds, others in hours or days. Only atrained pool operator can identify and managethese changes.

This is the first edition of the Pool OperatorsHandbook published for use within Victoria. ThisHandbook was originally modelled on the UnitedKingdom Pool Water Guide produced by the PoolWater Treatment Advisory Group (PWTAG) in1995. Where appropriate, some text from thatGuide has been retained where it is currentlyapplicable to the Australian environment. Othersections have been substantially reworked to meetthe needs of Victorian operators.

This Handbook recognises the unique needs ofVictorian pool operators, and has been written inconsideration of the types of equipment andtreatment used, the local regulatory environmentand the experience and expertise of the VictorianAquatic Industry Council (VAIC) committee.

This Handbook has been prepared in associationwith the VAIC by a committee of industryprofessionals. These professionals havebackgrounds in pool management, watertreatment, pool maintenance and service,hydrotherapy, pool user groups and public health.

2

Background to the Handbook

The purpose of the Handbook is to provideadvice on the issues of pool operation and watertreatment, so that pool operators will beencouraged to:

Follow safe working procedures

Maintain plant and equipment so that itachieves its desired service life

Achieve regulatory compliance

and

Provide the best swimming or bathingexperience possible for the pool user.

Who Should Use this Handbook?This Handbook is intended to provide advice andguidance on pool operation and water treatmentfor a range of managers and staff. These include:

Pool operators

Pool owners

Pool managers

Committees of management

Pool designers and consultants

Pool service companies

Contract managers

Environmental health officers.

What Types of Pools are Coveredby this Handbook?

This Handbook is intended for use andapplication to all pools where public areadmitted to a pool as a primary oradditional service.

The Handbook is also intended to give guidanceto body corporates, retirement village operatorsand private clubs whose pools have similaroperational demands and water treatmentrequirements as a public pool.

Much of this Handbook is based on the workingsof a medium-sized community pool. However,the principles and practices of monitoring andcontrol apply equally to all pools. The onlydifference may be that the size of the plant isscaled according to the size of the pool andtreatment needs.

Location of the PoolThe following sites are examples of situationswhere the information in this Guide should beapplied to the pool:

Resorts hotels and motels

Caravan and camping parks

Backpackers hostels

Apartments

Retirement villages

Hospitals and hydrotherapy centres

Gymnasiums, health and fitness studios

Private clubs

Schools and universities

Workplaces

Prisons

Swim schools

Sports and leisure centres

Community and municipal pools.

This Handbook is not aimed at domesticbackyard pools of single dwelling propertiesused by the occupying family.

3

Aims and Objectives

OverviewThere are many factors critical to pool waterquality and these are studied in more detail later.They fall into three groups: humancontamination, environment and design,construction and operation.

Given these factors any of which can affectbathing conditions and become a hazard tohealth a pool or spa requires proactive waterquality management.

Human Contamination

Skin, throat and faecal bacteria, body oils,cosmetics, ammonia and nitrogenous matter fromsweat, urine, dirt, food, saliva and openinfections.

Environment

Physical and chemical composition of pool water,algae and fungi, gases formed from chemicalreactions, air and water quality and pollution,humidity, sunlight, evaporation.

Design, Construction and Operation

Pool bathing load, turnover, dilution, hydraulics,construction materials, chemical conditioning,disinfectants, dosing control, flocculants,filtration, testing and interpretation.

Management StructureStaff Needs Vary with Pool Size

The actual management structure will varyaccording to the type of facility. For example, asmall hydrotherapy, community or hotel pool willrequire a small number of multi-skilled staff. Alarge community swimming pool complex willrequire a team of specialised staff.

Training is Required for all Staff

Whether large or small, the maintenance of thepool requires that all staff be trained tounderstand and interpret pool operations andwater conditions. Personnel should be trained inplant operation and water treatment required tomaintain water quality. Where possible, a

manager or other person responsible for waterquality should be professionally qualified.

As the size and complexity of the pool increases,specialist staff are required. In a large multi-facility site, the services of qualified staff for day-to-day plant operations are indispensable. Theiractions should be guided by documented plantoperation manuals, and maintenance inspectionsschedules.

Peripheral Staff are Also Important

Understanding the pool water treatment processshould not stop with the appointment ofmanagement staff. The actions of lifeguards andsupervisors also have an effect on the pool water.Relevant staff should have an appropriateunderstanding of basic water chemistry to testing,water treatment, plant operation and the generalprocedures required to maintain good qualitywater.

Lifeguards may be required to conduct regularand accurate water tests, provide an hygienic poolarea, ensure pre-swim hygiene and respond to asoiling incident. The supervisor should besufficiently familiar with water quality to be ableto correct a condition that could lead to waterquality deterioration. If the pool water begins tolose clarity or fall below the relevant standards setout in the Regulations, the on-site supervisorshould be able to decide if bathing should cease.

Management Responsibility

Managers responsible for large, multi-purposefacilities may delegate some of the day-to-daypool operation to team members with appropriateskills. Nevertheless, the manager still carries theultimate responsibility. Whether or not themanagers have hands-on skills, they must have agood understanding of the pool operations and beable to spot problems and institute remedies. Forinstance:

Water can be a vehicle for transmission ofdisease see the chapter on Pool WaterContamination. Many microorganisms prefera warm, moist environment with an adequatefood source. A swimming pool with poorlymaintained water is a perfect breeding ground.

4

Staff and Responsibilities

Careless management of flocculants, filtration,disinfection and chemical balances canproduce a degree of turbidity (cloudiness) thatobscures swimmers and lifeguards vision ofthe pool floor, even in shallow water.

Operating the Pool EnvironmentCost Pressures

With increasing demands on public and privateexpenditure, the competitive tendering of publicservices and increased awareness of conservationissues, there is pressure to find more cost-effectiveways of operating swimming pools. The costs ofwater, energy, water treatment and disposal ofwaste water are very real concerns for managers;but where the consequences of alterations andadaptations to limit these costs are not fullyunderstood, disaster can follow.

Poor Training and Techniques Can Increase Costs

In terms of capital expenditure, energy,maintenance and day-to-day operation, aswimming pool is an expensive item. Managersand staff should be trained to obtain maximumlife from their facilities and to operate them cost-effectively.

Lack of training and knowledge about energyconservation and water treatment systems canactually increase the cost of operationsdramatically. Poor use of chemicals and methodsmay mean that major items of plant, equipmentand buildings require early replacement. This caneven lead to the closure of the facility.

Poor maintenance and operation can often beattributed to a lack of professional expertise orknowledge (or possibly resources). Either way, itrepresents a failure of management, and mayrequire the owners of pools, local authorities,schools or private operators to spend largeamounts of money on pool refurbishment,sometimes within less than ten years of operation.This may include new filters, plumbing, pumps,tiling, grouting, calorifiers, steelwork in the poolhall, heating and ventilation plant, lighting andelectrical work.

The Pool OperatorResponsibilities

A pool operator should be appointed at eachfacility. This person should take responsibility forthe overall operation of the pool plant andequipment and ensure that appropriateoperational and maintenance activities areundertaken. The pool operator should have acomprehensive knowledge of relevant statutes,regulations, codes and other standards.

In some pools that are open for long hours eachweek, responsibility for the daily operation of theplant may be shared. The pool operator shouldensure that those left in charge have a workingknowledge of the Regulations and can ensure thatthe treatment plant continues to provide poolwater that meets these requirements. They shouldalso be able to identify problems and know howto obtain corrective advice. Additional trainingmay be required to ensure adequateunderstanding of the statutory requirements.

Pool managers and owners should ensurethat appropriate staff involved in waterquality and plant operation all have relevanttraining and are competent to carry out therequired responsibilities.

5

OverviewInformation in this Handbook is advisory, notmandatory. However, there may be, in the future,a statutory requirement that pool operatorsadhere to all relevant guidelines and standards.In this case, the Handbook would qualify asrelevant. Failure to meet reasonable standards inthe provision of a safe environment for the publicitself may carry heavy penalties. Therefore, it issound practice to follow closely the guidelinescontained in this Handbook.

Much of the guidance is intended to assist thoseresponsible to meet the requirements of theHealth (Infectious Diseases) Regulations, theOccupational Health and Safety Act and theDangerous Goods Act. In the event of an accident,the extent to which pool operators have adheredto accepted guidelines will determine the level ofvulnerability to legal action for negligence orpublic liability.

Pool operators are advised to consult allappropriate acts, regulations, codes ofpractice, standards and guidelines, as well asindustry publications for additionalinformation. Many of these are listed in theBibliography, but operators should be awarethat these may be under review at the timeof printing this Handbook. It is the pooloperators responsibility to keep abreast ofchanges to legislation and regulations.

A Brief List of Relevant Acts,Regulations and Codes ofPracticePlease note that some of these statutes andregulations are under review. They may in facthave their names or titles changed. It is theresponsibility of the pool manager/owner to keepup to date with the relevant Acts.

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001

Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985

SafetyMAP

Dangerous Goods Act 1985

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Codes of Practice

Australian Standards.

These are discussed in detail below.

Safe Working PracticesApart from adherence to relevant Acts andregulations, employers should establish their ownsafety policy. This should include written safework practices, in consultation with employees.The written safety policy should include anassessment of hazards associated with all aspectsof operation of the plant, and precautions tocontrol the risks.

Some hazards associated with pool operationinclude:

Risks to employees or pool users fromchemicals used in disinfection systems. Theseinclude: irritation of skin or eyes; enhancedflammability of materials due to disinfectantsbeing strong oxidising agents; and leaks oftoxic gases. The most serious risk is of anuncontrolled escape of chlorine gas followingthe incorrect fitting of chlorine gas lines or theinadvertent mixing of chlorine-baseddisinfectant with acid.

Risks from murky water. As well as indicatingthat water treatment and quality is inadequate,murky water is a safety hazard because it mayharbour microbiological contaminants thatcause disease an obscure observance of poolusers in difficulty.

Miscellaneous risks to employees, includingfrom work in confined spaces or the use ofelectrical equipment.

6

Acts, Regulations, Codes of Practice and Guidelines

Figure 1 Location of Safety Showers and Eye Wash FacilitiesSafety showers and eye wash facilities should be locatedimmediately adjacent to the hazardous area, but not withinthe hazard.

Training EmployeesAdequate training should be provided toemployees about all safety measures and hazards.Records should be kept of content and attendanceat courses or in-services. Training should:

Be related specifically to the operation of theparticular plant, hazards associated with it andsubstances used. Employees attention shouldbe drawn to any manufacturers instructions,and copies made conveniently available (forexample, they may be affixed to the plantitself).

Be provided for enough employees to ensurethat plant need never be operated byuntrained staff.

Include the use, care and maintenance ofpersonal protective equipment (PPE).

Require those who have been traineddemonstrate that they can operate andmaintain the plant safely.

Health (Infectious Diseases)Regulations 2001The Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations 2001sets out the parameters within which pools andspas where the public are admitted must bemaintained to ensure safe water conditions forpool users. This includes chemical andmicrobiological levels, as well as testing andrecording requirements. The Regulations alsoprescribe minimum levels of water clarity.

Pool managers should ensure that all staffinvolved in water quality and plantoperation have an appropriate knowledge ofand access to the current Health Regulations.A copy should be kept on-site.

Occupational Health and SafetyAct 1985The objectives of the Occupational Health and SafetyAct are:

To secure the health, safety and welfare ofpersons at work.

To protect persons at work against risks tohealth and safety.

To assist in securing safe and healthy workenvironments.

To eliminate, at the source, risks to the health,safety and welfare of persons at work.

To provide for the involvement of employeesand employers and associations representingemployees and employers in the formationand implementation of health and safetystandards.

Adhering to the Occupational Health and SafetyAct includes protecting staff and the public whowork at or use a pool. The manager should havethe necessary authority to implement reasonablemeasures to ensure the premises are safe, and allplant and substances are operated, stored andused safely without risks to health.

Identifying the hazards and by taking precautionsto control the risks helps managers to reduce their

7

liability. Training, certification and record keepingare fundamental in providing a safe, healthyenvironment and they are the managers key tosafeguarding legal requirements and producing asuccessful operation.

Obligations and Duties

Employers

The Occupational Health and Safety Act sets out anumber of specific duties for employers. Theseinclude:

Providing and maintaining safe plant andsystems of work (for example, regulating thepace and frequency of work).

Arranging safe systems of work in connectionwith the plant and substances (for example,toxic chemicals).

Providing a safe working environment (forexample, by controlling noise levels).

Providing adequate welfare facilities (forexample, washrooms, lockers, dining areas).

Providing adequate information on hazards, aswell as instruction, training and supervision toemployees, to enable them to work safely.

Pool managers should ensure that all staff,including those involved in water qualityand plant operation, have an appropriateknowledge of the requirements of theOccupational Health and Safety Act.

Employees

Employees are required to:

Take reasonable care of their own healthand safety.

Take reasonable care for the health and safetyof anyone else who may be affected by theiracts or omissions at the workplace.

Cooperate with their employer with respect toany action taken by the employer to complywith any requirements imposed by or underthe Act.

Dangerous Goods Act 1985

The Dangerous Goods Act, and in particularthe Dangerous Goods (Storage andHandling) Regulations 1989, apply toemployers whose business involvessubstances hazardous to health.

Substances which are hazardous to health includemicroorganisms, by-products and any substanceswhich create the sort of hazard that might comefrom a classified chemical. Pool operators shouldtherefore include specific consideration of bacteriaand viruses, other pollutants and disinfection by-products in planning storage and use ofdangerous goods. This includes manydisinfectants and other chemicals used in andaround a pool.

Employers and employees should have easyaccess to copies of the relevant legislation on thepremises, as well as Material Safety Data Sheets(MSDS). A formal assessment of the dangerousgoods held at the workplace should be conducted,and the health risks to employees and anybodyusing the premises assessed. This assessmentmust be regularly reviewed and updated ifcircumstances change for example, a change inthe type of disinfectant used, or method of itsapplication.

Pool and contract managers should ensurethat all staff, including those involved inwater quality and plant operation, have anappropriate knowledge of the requirementsof the Dangerous Goods Act 1985 and theDangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)Regulations.

SignageThe Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)Regulations replaces the Dangerous Substances(Placarding of Workplaces) Regulations 1985 andthe Hazchem legislation made under theOccupational Health and Safety Act 1985. Thesetypes of acts and regulations are under constantreview, and at the time of printing this Handbookmay have changed, or had their names changed.

8

The purpose of the Hazchem part of theRegulations is to ensure that in the event of a fireor spillage involving dangerous goods, theemergency services will be better prepared andequipped to combat any such incident.

The Regulations require that notices be displayedat all workplaces if the quantity of various classesof dangerous goods that are kept exceed aprescribed aggregate amount. This includesschools, shops, factories, warehouses,laboratories, hospitals and swimming pools.

Managers should ensure that an assessment oftheir signage has been conducted, so that they areconfident it meets current requirements. This willdepend on the quantity and type of chemicalsstored on the site.

Notices Required

Entrance Notices

If the prescribed aggregate quantity of ANYone class of dangerous goods at a workplaceis exceeded, then the workplace must beprovided with an outer warning notice(HAZCHEM) at every road and rail entranceto the workplace. (See listing below.)

The are a number of exceptions. These are:

1. In the case of a farm, or primary or secondaryschool, the notice is required only at the mainroad entrance.

2. If the only dangerous goods which exceedthe prescribed aggregate quantity is LiquefiedPetroleum Gas (LP Gas), in cylinders andkept outside a building and connected toconsuming appliances within the building.

3. If the only dangerous goods which exceed theprescribed aggregate quantities are substancesstored in or within the vicinity of a dwelling atthe workplace and are for use in or on thedwelling.

Composite Warning Notices

If a workplace requires notices under the abovedefinition, then a Composite Warning Notice isrequired for all storage of dangerous goods. TheNotice must be one of the following:

1. In the case of a storage of packaged dangerousgoods, a notice of the form shown in Figure 2must be displayed:

a) At the entrance to any building or room inwhich dangerous goods are keptand

b) Adjacent to any storage of dangerousgoods kept in the open.

2. In the case of bulk dangerous goods, that is, astorage tank or bulk container, a notice of theform shown in Figure 3 must be displayed onor adjacent to the tank or bulk container.

Figure 2 An Example of Hazchem Signage forPackaged Dangerous GoodsHazchem codes must be displayed at the entrance to anybuilding or room in which dangerous goods are kept andadjacent to any storage of dangerous goods kept in the open.

Figure 3 An Example of Hazchem Signage BulkDangerous GoodsHazchem codes must be displayed on or adjacent to the tankor bulk container.

9

Exemptions

The following storages are exempted from therequirement for a composite warning notice:

1. Individual storages, where the quantity ofevery class is less than ten per cent of theprescribed aggregate quantities given in Table2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities.

2. A storage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) incylinders kept outside a building andconnected to consuming appliances within thebuilding.

3. If the only dangerous goods which exceed theprescribed aggregate quantities are substancesstored in or within the vicinity of a dwelling atthe workplace and are for use in or on thedwelling.

Hazchem Codes

1. The Hazchem Code provides advisoryinformation to the emergency servicespersonnel to enable them to take theappropriate action to combat the incident.

For example, the Hazchem Code for chlorinegas is 2XE.

Table 1 Example Hazchem Codes

HazchemCode Meaning

2XE Chlorine gas

2 Indicates that the emergency servicesshould use Fog to combat the spill.

X Indicates that emergency servicesshould use full protective equipment,including breathing apparatus. Theyshould contain the dangerous goodson-site, and seek to avoid spillage intodrains and waterways.

E Indicates that the officer in charge ofthe emergency should considerevacuation of the site.

2. The Dangerous Goods Class Labels are aninternational system of identifying the primaryhazard of various substances. That is, whetherthe substance is a gas, a flammable liquid, apoison or corrosive substance, etc. The classlabels are shown in the diamond on the righthand side of any composite labels. (SeeFigure 3 for an example.)

Prescribed Aggregate QuantitiesThe Classes of Dangerous Goods and theprescribed aggregate quantities specified inSchedule 8 of the Regulations, together with someexamples of substances of each class, are detailedbelow.

10

Table 3 Classes of Common Dangerous Goods Kept at Pools

Common Chemical Class

Carbon dioxide gas Class 2.2

Chlorine gas Class 2.3

Petrol Class 3

Calcium hypochlorite Class 5.1

Trichloroisocyanuric acid Class 5.1

Hydrochloric acid Class 8

Sodium hypochlorite Class 8

How Close Together Should Chemicalsbe Stored?

Separation Distances

Many chemicals can be dangerous if stored tooclose to other dangerous goods, or near publicplaces. There may be interactions and hazardsinvolved.

Under the Dangerous Goods (Storage andHandling) Regulations, dangerous goods shouldbe stored at certain distances from other buildingsand public places. These separation distances aregiven in the table below for the most commonlyused disinfectants within the swimming poolindustry.

11

Class Description Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

Class 2.1 Flammable gases 250 kg or 50 cubic metres, for example, LP Gas, acetylene.

Class 2.2 Compressed gases 250 kg or 50 cubic metres, for example, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide.

Class 2.3 Poison gases 25 kg or 5 cubic metres, for example, chlorine, ammonia.

Class 3 Flammable liquids 500 litres (excluding storage in underground tanks at service stations), for example, petrol, kerosene, solvent-based paints.

Class 4.1 Flammable solids 100 kg, for example, metaldehyde, red phosphorus.

Class 4.2 Substances liable to 50 litres or 50 kg, for example, activated carbon, spontaneous combustion white phosphorus.

Class 4.3 Substances emitting flammable 50 litres or 50 kg, for example, calcium carbide, sodium.gases when wet

Class 5.1 Oxidising agents 100 litres or 100 kg, for example, ammonium nitrate, potassium permanganate, calcium hypochlorite (pool chlorine).

Class 5.2 Organic peroxides 50 litres or 50 kg, for example, mek peroxide.

Class 6.1 Toxic and harmful substances 50 litres or 50 kg, for example, pesticides, perchlorethylene.(a) and (b)

Class 8 Corrosives 250 litres or 250 kg, for example, acids, alkalis, hypochlorite solution.

Table 2 Prescribed Aggregate Quantities

Pool managers and operators should ensurethat all appropriate dangerous goodssignage is displayed. It is recommended thatsignage be inspected by a qualified OH&SAuditor to determine its compliance.

SafetyMAPThe Victorian WorkCover Authority hasdeveloped SafetyMAP as an audit tool designedto assist organisations of all sizes and functionsimprove their management of health and safety.

The audit criteria within SafetyMAP enable anorganisation to:

Measure the performance of its health andsafety program

Implement a cycle of continuous improvement

Benchmark its health and safety performance

Gain recognition for the standards achieved byits health and safety management system.

Pool managers are encouraged to developand monitor systems of operation whichprovide quality management involvingwater quality and plant operation.

Material Safety Data Sheets(MSDS)Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are a key toworking safely with chemicals. MSDS areprepared by manufacturers and importers for thechemicals they produce or supply and are the keyto protecting the health and safety of employeesworking with hazardous chemicals.

An MSDS describes the chemical, and any healthhazards and precautions for safe handling anduse. The purpose of the data sheet is to provideinformation needed to safely use the substance inthe workplace. If the chemical is also a dangerousgood, an MSDS also provides information aboutits classification, United Nations numbers,packaging group, chemical and physicalproperties, storage, incompatible substances andprocedures for handling leaks or spills.

12

Table 4 Proximity of Chlorine Cylinders to Other Areas

Container Quantity stored Protected works Flammable storages Public place

Cylinders < 5 kg 5 m 5 m 3 m

Cylinders < 250 kg 8 m 8 m 3 m

Cylinders > 250 kg 25 m 15 m 15 m

Other containers < 2 tonne 25 m 15 m 15 m

Table 5 Proximity of Sodium Hypochlorite to Other Areas

Item to be separated from Less than 10,000 kg 10,00050,000 kg 50,000 kg or more

Protected works, property boundary 5 m 5 m 10 m

Place of public assembly 10 m 15 m 15 m

Public street 3 m 8 m 8 m

Storage of other dangerous goods 8 m 8 m 8 m

Worksafe Australias National Code of Practicefor the Preparation of Material Safety Data Sheetsprovides guidance on the format and content ofan MSDS.

Are MSDS Compulsory?Occupational Health and Safety (HazardousSubstances) Regulations require manufacturersand importers of hazardous substances to ensurethat an MSDS is prepared for the substance beforeit is first supplied for use at a workplace. Asupplier and manufacture is also required tosupply an MSDS on request.

Employers must obtain an MSDS for eachhazardous substance they use. The MSDS can beused to develop ways of minimising exposurewhen using the substance in workplace.

What if More Information is Needed?If employers require additional data or adviceabout a substance to help protect employees, itmay be useful to contact:

The manufacturer or importer

Those experienced with handling thesubstance safely

WorkCover offices

Health and safety professionals in industry totrade organisations

Occupational hygienists or occupational healthand safety specialists.

The Four Main Sections of the MSDSGenerally, an MSDS has four main sections. Theseare described in Table 6.

13

Table 6 Four Main Sections of the MSDS

Section Description Example

Identification This section describes the product, Flashpointits ingredients and its physical The lowest temperature at which there is enough and chemical properties. vapour to ignite. Petrol has a flashpoint of about

minus 40C. Therefore, in all normal situations there will be enough vapour released from liquid petrol to ignite.

Health Hazard This section describes known health Acute ExposureInformation effects from acute (immediate) and Inhalation of mists may produce respiratory irritation

chronic (long-term) exposures to the and coughing. Inhalation of high concentrationssubstance. First aid information may cause death due to respiratory collapse.is also given for acute exposures.

Precautions Any exposure standards, engineering Personal Protective Equipmentfor Use controls, such as mechanical ventilation PVC gloves should be used when handling

or isolation, and suitable protective this substance.equipment for use with a substance is Engineering and Other Controlsgiven here. Capture the substance at the source for safe disposal

using local exhaust ventilation.

Safe Handling This section details how the substance Response to a FireInformation should be stored and transported, how Some substances release toxic vapours when they burn,

to clean up spills and what may happen others may explode. In these cases, staff and others to the substance in a fire or when mixed should know how to evacuate the area and not attempt with incompatible substances. to put out a fire involving the substance without

assistance from authorities.

Codes of PracticeA range of other Codes of Practice exist withwhich pool managers should be familiar. Theseinclude a number of Codes published by Healthand Safety Victoria and include:

First Aid in the Workplace

Manual Handling

Noise

Plant.

Information contained in these Codes may affectpools, and management and owners of facilitiesshould be familiar with them and follow them ifthey apply.

Australian StandardsPool operators may find further valuableinformation relating to the aquatic industry in anumber of key publications from the StandardsAssociation of Australia. Table 7 AustralianStandards lists some which may be of value.

Guidelines for Safe PoolOperation (GSPO)The Royal Life Saving Society AustraliaGuidelines for Safe Pool Operation (GSPO) werefirst released in 1991 and a second edition wasreleased in 1996. As guidelines the GSPO aresecondary to any Act, Regulation or Code ofPractice. However, they provide invaluableinformation on many aspects of public swimmingpool operation. Topics include:

Technical operations

First aid

Facility design

Supervision

Learn to swim

General operations.

The GSPO provides advice on bather loads forpublic swimming pools, wave pools and aquaticcompetitions. They should be used as theindustry guide to the supervision of aquatic

14

Table 7 Australian Standards

AS1470 1986 Health and safety at work principles and practices.

AS1668.2 1991 The use of mechanical ventilation and air-conditioning in buildings: Part 2 mechanicalventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

AS1885.1 1990 Code of practice for recording and measuring work injury experience.

AS2610.1 1993 Spa pools.

AS2865 1995 Safe working in a confined space.

AS2927 1987 Storage and handling of liquefied chlorine gas.

AS3663 1989 Private swimming pools water quality.

AS3780 1994 The storage and handling of corrosive substances.

AS3780.8 1990 The storage and handling of hazardous chemical materials Class 8 substances.

AS3979 1991 Hydrotherapy pools.

AS4360 1999 Risk management.

facilities. Other areas which may affect batherload and supervision are special design featuresand activities undertaken in the pool type, forexample, hydrotherapy pools, water flumes(slides), inflatables and other water playequipment.

AuditsAudits of aquatic facilities can be carried out toassess and report on compliance with:

Guidelines for Safe Pool Operation

Compliance with the Occupational Health andSafety Act

Dangerous Goods (Storage and Handling)Regulations

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations.

Owners and operators of aquatic facilities shouldensure that the audit covers all appropriateaspects of their situation.

Environment Protection AuthorityThe Environment Protection Authority (EPA) isresponsible for protecting Victorias environmentfrom pollution by minimising and controllingwaste and noise. It does this through a range ofstatutory and non-statutory processes andprograms.

SEPPsThe Environment Protection Act 1970 provides forthe formulation of State Environmental ProtectionPolicies (SEPPs). By the end of the 1980s SEPPshad been declared for air, water and noise. Ofmost interest to pool operators is the SEPP Waterways of Victoria, 1988.

This policy applies to all governmentorganisations, private and individuals in Victoria.It identifies beneficial uses of Victorian surfacewaters to be protected, specifies indicators tomeasure and define environmental quality, setsenvironmental quality objectives and details aprogram to attain and maintain these objectives.

Discharge of Waste from PoolsIn the Attainment Program (Schedule D3) of theSEPP Waters of Victoria, minimumrequirements for discharge from municipal andcommercial swimming pools are given. Thedischarge of wastes from municipal andcommercial swimming pools are required toconform to several requirements relating to filterbackwash and pool content.

Filter Backwash

According to the SEPPs, the filter backwash maybe discharged to land, sewer, treated via a solidssettling tank, with the supernatant recycled backinto the pool or treated and discharged to surfacewaters. When filter backwash or pool contents aredischarged to surface waters, the water must havetotal residual chlorine less than 0.1 ppm (parts permillion) and suspended solids less than 10 ppm.When re-used in the pool, TDS and combinedchlorine levels will rapidly accumulate in poolwater.

Figure 4 Backwash TankThe backwash tank should be appropriately sized to retainthe entire contents of the backwash.

Discharge Water

Discharge water should be analysed by anaccredited laboratory to ensure conformance withthe SEPP Waterways of Victoria, 1988. Theresults of the analysis must be submitted to theEPA within 28 days of the samples being takenand the volume of the discharge must also berecorded.

15

Infrastructure

2

OverviewPools are complicated structures and makeserious demands on design, construction,operation and maintenance. The Pool OperatorsHandbook is principally concerned withoperation; however, design and construction arecritical to successful operation. Design is the firstissue to be considered for new and existingstructures and should be addressed incollaboration with all parties responsible fordesign, construction and operation.

Water treatment systems are an integral part ofthe architectural, structural and mechanicaldesign, and should be addressed from the verystart of the project. Water treatment plant designmust, initially and crucially, take into accountpotential bathing load, circulation rate, turnoverand dilution, choice of treatment system,filtration, circulation hydraulics, plant room andoperation. Overall, the design must conform tothe appropriate standards or guidelines formaintaining safety and the chemical andmicrobiological quality of the water.

Although this chapter cannot give advice on thedetails of design, it does indicate the areas thatneed to be covered in a design brief. Finally, thereis advice about obtaining specialist design andcontracting help.

Design BriefWater treatment is just one factor within thedesign of what may be a multi-use leisurecomplex. The starting point for design is a fullassessment of community needs and potentialdemands, which also takes into account existingfacilities. Depending on the particular project,there may have been a strategy prepared, a multi-discipline project team appointed, a feasibilitystudy commissioned, and decisions made onlocation and finance. The end of this stage shouldresult in the appointment of a pool manager andan architect qualified in pool design retained. Thepool manager and architect should work togetherto produce a design brief that will consider the

type of facility proposed. The design brief shouldconsider:

The type and amount of use envisaged, forexample: swimming, therapy, education orleisure.

Structural features, such as moveable floors orbooms to convert competition or diving poolsinto teaching or leisure pools.

Joint-use arrangements.

Possible shared treatment plant for differentpools.

Changing rooms and their accessibility.

Street access to the facility.

Fire and emergency evacuation.

It is uncommon for one person consultant,architect, manager, pool operator or other staff to be familiar with or have expertise in all thesetechnical issues. However, persons responsible fora new building or alteration do need to be awareof the following important areas, and take theminto account when working on the design of apool complex.

Bathing Load, Circulation Rate and TurnoverBathing load dictates the rate of circulation orturnover period required. Bathing load and poolvolume should be considered together todetermine the size of filtration plant and thechoice of water treatment system, which makesthese issues central to good water quality.

Water TreatmentFrom a design perspective on water treatment, thefollowing factors should be considered:

Pool type (recreation, hydrotherapy, toddlers,spa and so on)

Pool temperature

Method of removal of suspended andcolloidal matter

Oxidising agents

Disinfection system

Coagulants

pH adjustment

Water balance

18

Swimming Pool Design

Fresh water dilution

Effects on air quality

Plant size and operation

Plant personnel; training

Water testing and recording

Plant monitoring and control

Energy and operation costs

Chemical storage and handling.

HydraulicsThe design of water movement demandsattention to:

Pool size and shape (including profile).

Size, number and location (including safetyconsiderations) of pool water inlets andoutlets.

Design and correct sizing of the filtrationplant, including filters and filtration rates(see the chapter on Chemical Testing).

Size and routing of circulatory pipework.

Size and location of balance tank.

Water circulation within the balance tank.

Transfer channels.

Pumping and location of sump pump.

Integration of water features.

Moving floors and booms.

Effect of evaporation (normal and induced bywater features) on relative humidity in thepool complex.

Effect of water movement on noise levels.

Pool location.

Plant roomMany issues need to be considered at the designstage:

Size and location of plant room, taking intoaccount filter specifications, the scale of otherwater treatment plant, flooded pumpconditions and short suction pipework lines.

Location of other plant items and ductwork.

Plant layout for ease of operation andmaintenance.

Interfaces and coordination with otherbuilding elements including ventilationintakes (well away from plant room andchemical stores).

Access for plant replacement/refurbishment.

Access for chemical deliveries.

Special bunded storage areas for chemicals.

Waste water and drainage requirements.

Health and safety requirements.

Plant room environment relating totemperature, humidity, ventilation and noise.

Builders work requirements.

Electrical requirements.

Specialist HelpSuccessfully building or substantiallyrefurbishing a swimming pool demands a fullunderstanding of the distinction between designand installation. It is also important that theresponsibility for issues of design and installationis clearly identified.

Who Designs the Pool?Water treatment design requires specialistengineering knowledge, which needs to berecruited together with the architect andstructural and environmental service engineers.This knowledge, which is critical to producing asatisfactory design, is available from two sources:

Consultants who can provide independentspecialist advice and who are appointed as fullmembers of the design team.

Contractors who can work to theconsultants brief and specifications, to theirown schedule or a clients.

Bathing Load and Circulation RateBathing load is a difficult issue in pool watermanagement. There may be pressure to maximiseincome by overloading the pool. For a new pool,at least, there is no excuse for not planning andmaintaining a realistic relationship betweenbathing numbers and pool and treatment plantcapacity.

19

The pool capacity should be determined at thedesign stage. Unlike some other countries,Australia does not have set formulas relating towater turnover or square metres per pool area toregulate bather loads. However, the HealthRegulations require a half-hour turnover for spas.Australian Standards (AS3979) recommend a two-hour turnover for hydrotherapy pools.

Choice of Treatment SystemWhen choosing a water treatment system, theseareas should be considered:

The nature of the water supply

The type of pool

Likely bathing loads

Desired water quality

The pool hall atmosphere

The skills required to operate the system.

Those responsible for deciding on a treatmentsystem should call on the experience of othermanagers and operators of similar facilities.

When a system is chosen, an assessment shouldbe made of the types and amounts of chemicalsrequired and how they are stored, to adhere toregulations and guidelines on storage. The testingchemicals may also need to be assessed.

FiltrationFilters should operate for 24 hours a day to dealwith the pollution arising from pool users. Ifwater quality can be maintained, it may bepossible to reduce the flow rate overnight. If thefilters are not effective, turbidity (generallymeaning suspended solids) will not beadequately reduced whatever the turnoverperiod. In some circumstances an inefficient filteryielding an effluent containing suspended mattermay in fact increase turbidity, rather than improvethe clarity of the water. Effective filtration, well-maintained filter media and a short turnoverperiod will ensure that suspended solids areremoved. (More information about filtrationoperation is provided in the chapter Filtration.)

Circulation HydraulicsA well-designed circulation system within thepool will ensure that treated water reaches allparts of the pool and contaminated water isremoved from areas most used by bathers. Ifeffective circulation is not achieved, watertreatment may not necessarily provide goodwater quality. Conversely, first-rate circulationhydraulics may allow an over-stretched watertreatment system to produce decent pool water.

Inlets, outlets and surface water withdrawal arecrucial. A wet deck system (where pool waterlevel is with the surrounds) with a balance tankand pool surround collecting channels, isparticularly efficient. In this way, 50100 per centof the total circulation volume can be removedfrom the surface, where pollution is greatest.Leisure pools, particularly if they are to have afreeboard area for water features such as waves,may allow only a partial wet deck system. (Formore information on circulation, see the chapteron Microbiological Monitoring.)

Plant RoomPlant room design should take into considerationfour key issues: location, size, access andsegregation.

Location

The location of the filtration and water treatmentsystem, in relation to the pool, critically affectshydraulic design. Circulation pumps should,ideally, operate under flooded suction conditionsand be situated near the balance tank and nearextraction points from the pool. If the pumps haveto be some distance from the balance tank,increasing the suction pipe size may improvepump performance. If the plant room has to be atpool surround level, the pump can be installed ina well to provide flooded suction conditions. Ifthere is no balance tank, the connection betweenpool water and pumps must be designed to keepair out of the circulation.

Size and Access

The size of the plant room (water treatment plantonly) will typically be between 15 and 30 per cent

20

of the pool water area. It should be sized toensure good access, both to the plant room itselfand for plant room equipment operation,maintenance and replacement. When designing aplant room, maintenance and replacement ofmajor plant components should be considered.Filter media will need to be replaced periodically.

Segregation

Certain equipment needs to be segregated. Forexample, chemical storage and dosing unitsshould ideally be housed in separate, securestorage rooms. (See also the section on HowClose Together Should Chemicals be Stored? andSeparation Distances.)

Electrical control panels, chemical control unitsand ozone generators should be in clean, dryareas away from chemical stores.

OperationThe water treatment contractor should providetraining for the plant operator both duringcommissioning of the plant and once it isoperating. The management and operator shouldbe present for the critical process ofcommissioning. Commissioning shouldincorporate system checking for health and safetyrequirements, including plant room and the safetyof any water features.

The water treatment design brief should requirethe provision of operation and maintenancemanuals (including plant and pipe layoutdrawings and electrical circuits). It should alsodetail how the system is to be operated. Thesebriefs should list the necessary daily, weekly,monthly and annual checks.

Choosing Water TreatmentSpecialistsThe ConsultantA water treatment consultant should develop thebrief, produce a competent design, detaileddrawings and specification, and monitor theinstallation work on-site. When competitivetenders are needed, the consultant will be

particularly valuable in ensuring that they arebased on an equivalent level of specification andscope of work.

It is important that the consultant has appropriatequalifications and experience for the project beingundertaken and does not limit specifications toany one particular manufacturers equipment.Purchasers of the consultants services andowners of the facility should pursue references,and verify the consultants skills and experienceby interview.

The ContractorA water treatment contractor can be appointed todesign as well as install the plant if the client has agood design brief/specification. The choice ofcontractor then becomes particularly important.

In any case, the contractor should be responsiblefor the supply, installation and commissioning ofthe system, and for installing equipment fromreputable manufacturers. There is no singlemethod for finding the right contractor; however,the following guidelines may be useful forselecting contractors and manufacturers:

Consider members of trade and professionalassociations first.

Contractors may offer some form of qualityassurance see ISO9000. Where contractorsprovide a design warranty, they should bequalified to Part 1 of this standard. This shouldimply a quality system, though not necessarilya quality product.

Check previous work by visiting installationsand by utilising references from clients,architects and engineers. References shouldcomment on: design ability; performanceduring contract; reliability of equipmentrecommended and used; commissioning andstaff training record; standard of operating andmaintenance manuals; and after-sales service.

A long and successful record of quality work isa positive indication.

Good contractors, like good consultants andgood suppliers, will be familiar with thisHandbook.

21

OverviewThe Pool Operators Handbook has been compiledto provide advice to all non-domestic pooloperators. The majority of pools are rectangularswimming pools that have no extra water featuresand are used by people of all ages. The followinglist describes a range of conventional pools inspecific applications as well as a number of non-conventional pools.

Competition PoolsFor short-courses (championships) the poolshould be 25 m long, ideally with eight lanes atleast 2.0 m wide, with two spaces of at least 0.2 moutside the first and last lanes. The minimumrequired depth is 1.0 m.

Olympic and World Championship pools shouldbe 50 m long by 25 m wide, with a minimumdepth of 2.0 m, with at least eight lanes 2.5 mwide, with two spaces 2.5 m outside lanes oneand eight.

Diving PoolsFor steep-entry dives from springboards andfixed platforms, a specially designed pool isneeded. The depth and area of water for a divingpool or pit is determined by FINA regulations. Aone metre springboard requires water 3.5 m deepand a ten-metre platform requires a depth of 5 m.

Further information regarding specifications forcompetition pools are described in the FINA(International Swimming Federation) Handbook.

Adjustable (Flexible) PoolsThese pools incorporate a moveable floor and/orbulkhead (boom). The moveable floor givesinfinitely variable depth. The semi-submergedbulkhead divides the pool into two, in anyproportion. Perforated panels allow water flowbetween pools. It is important that the turnoverperiod should cope with the largest bathing loadpossible.

Dual Use Pools/School PoolsTwo or more different types of customer use thesepools at different times. The term is usually

applied to a school pool that is also opened to thepublic for some sessions. If a new pool is plannedfor dual use, the design (circulation, filtration,disinfection and so on) should accommodate thedemands of a higher bather load.

If an existing school pool is to be opened to thepublic, care should be taken to ascertain itsdesign, particularly bathing load, and not exceedit. In either case, serious consideration should begiven to the training and qualifications of thoseresponsible for the operation and management.

Adequately trained non-specialist staff usingsimple disinfection and filtration systems maymanage school pools that are only ever used bypupils in controlled swimming sessions quitesuccessfully. But if the public uses them, or ifthere is a real possibility that this will happen inthe future, then the guidance above for dual usepools should be followed. In any case it is better,if practicable, to follow the guidelines given inthis Handbook for conventional pools.

Hydrotherapy PoolsThese are generally smaller pools specificallydesigned for physiotherapy and gentle exercise.Operating temperatures of over 32C arerecommend. Specific design and constructionrequirements are outlined in AS3979 1991. Poolusers and staff use these types of pools for longperiods. As a result, they are more demanding tomanage than conventional pools or at least theconsequences of basic mistakes can be moreimmediate and dramatic.

Lazy and Rapid RiversLazy and rapid rivers are sometimes referred to asmoving water. In rapid rivers, pumps and jetsunder the water surface create a rapid water flow.Because the water flow is rapid, circulationhydraulics is not a problem. However, lazy riverswith large volumes of water that are notcontinually flowing may cause some watercontamination problems. Pool operators will needto monitor the water quality carefully in this typeof application or ensure that a constant flow iscreated.

22

Types of Pools

Splash PoolsThese are specially designed areas of water inwhich a rider safely completes the descent of awater slide or water flume. If the splash poolshares its water circulation with that of a mainpool, the turnover must be able to cope with thehighest bathing load possible. Bather pollutionwill tend to be high for the amount of waterinvolved, so hydraulics is important.

Salt Water PoolsTreatment of saline pools should be the same asfor fresh water pools, except that the materials offilters, pipe and pumps should be resistant to saltwater corrosion.

Spa PoolsThere are many types of spa pools, but they allhave in common their use: they are for sitting in,rather than swimming, and contain water usuallybetween 32C and 40C, which is filtered andchemically treated. A pool with untreated waterthat is replaced after each user, and wateragitation of some sort, is spa bath.

Bathing loads may be high in spas. Combinedwith the high temperatures, this can make itdifficult to maintain satisfactory disinfectantresiduals, pH values and microbiological quality.In general, good water quality can be maintainedby control of bathing loads and intervals betweensessions (both of which can be specified in thedesign), turnover periods of less than 20 minutes,adequate filtration, and emptying at least once aweek, or daily when loading is high. Refer toAustralian Standard for Public Spas AS 2610.1 1993.

Spas may have particular difficulties over thesafety requirements for inlets and outlets. Themain criterion for designers, manufacturers andoperators is to take all reasonable precautions toprevent a bather, or part of a bathers body,becoming trapped. This should be based on theprinciples and methods given for swimmingpools.

Teaching PoolsThese are separate pools with a depth of less than1.0 m, that is, they have a large surface-area-to-volume ratio. Pollution is likely to be high whenyoung children use them, so bathing load controlis particularly important. Turnover periodsshould be short and filtration standards aseffective for conventional pools.

Particular attention should be paid to designwhere a teaching pool is to share filtration plantwith other pools: there should be separatedisinfectant monitoring, controls and heating.

Leisure PoolsThere are many different types of leisure pools,and many conventional pools are becomingleisurised. They tend to have in common anirregular shape and more shallow areas than aconventional pool. This makes for less predictablehydraulics and disinfectant dynamics. Therefore,circulation patterns and inlet/outlet positionsshould be carefully designed. Bather loads andturnover periods need to be taken into accountduring the design phase. In general, turnoverperiods will have to be less than 90 minutes.

The unusual water volumes involved, and atendency to high-localised concentrations ofbathers, can also result in contaminationproblems.

Water features will tend to distort the dynamics ofwater treatment. Disinfection systems should beas sophisticated (in terms of automatic dosing andmonitoring) as the pools are in terms of features.It is recommended that water features use waterdirectly from the treatment plant.

Access to the pool from areas such as artificialbeaches and lawn areas, and varied use of thepool, can all introduce novel forms of pollution.

At the very least, it is wise to have a realisticregime of pre-swim hygiene. Good showers andtoilets, well signposted, with encouragement touse them, will assist with water qualitymaintenance.

23

Outdoor PoolsOutdoor pools inherit special problems due tochanges in the weather.

In summer sudden sunshine may bring a largeincrease in bathers and a degradation of thechlorine disinfectant by ultraviolet light. Chlorinecan be stabilised by adding cyanuric acid. Theoften large volumes of water in outdoor poolsshould help the pool cope with increases inbathing load, but if the turnover of the largevolume is slow, it may be difficult to maintainthe appropriate disinfectant residual throughoutthe pool.

Appropriate management and testing willaccommodate pools that are sensitive tofluctuating demands.

Toddler PoolsToddler pools are likely to need the same sort ofattention described above for outdoor pools. Theymay be highly polluted relative to their volume,because children will tend to urinate in them andintroduce other forms of pollution.

Disinfectant residuals should be maintained as forconventional pools. This may be more difficult ifthe pool is outdoors due to pollution for othersources, for example, birds and other foreignmatter blown in. In this case the water may needto be changed regularly daily if practicable but this depends on filtration efficiency and build-up of chloramine and total dissolved solids.

If for any reason circumstances make properhygiene standards impossible to maintain, poolmanagers should consider closing the toddlerpool altogether.

Plunge PoolsThese are used in association with a saunas andspas, to cool bathers by immersion in unheatedwater. They may be big enough for just oneperson, or large enough to swim in. The watershould be disinfected and filtered like aconventional pool. Special consideration shouldbe given to the introduction of body fats andother contaminants. Good surface water draw-offand regular water replacement are keyconsiderations.

Wave PoolsThese are usually incorporated in a free-formleisure pool. Waves are generated at one end,which requires a high free board. The waves crossthe pool to dissipate on a beach area. Surfacewater draw-off needs attention, as does waterquality in the wave generation chambers.

24

Hygiene and Contamination

3

OverviewSwimming pools present no special infection risk,provided they are properly managed anddisinfected.

Pool users are the primary cause ofcontamination. Therefore, management of theirnumbers, according to maintenance capabilities, isnecessary. Overcrowding in the pool, in changerooms and at the poolside is to be avoided.Sensible hygiene rules, such as nappy changing inchange rooms rather than at poolside, should beencouraged.

Contamination is defined as any addition to thewater that makes it dirty or impure. If pollution ispresent there is a risk of bather contamination.This has legal, ethical and health implications.Effective maintenance of water chemistry, balanceand quality associated with adequate hygienestandards will counteract most pollutants.

The following principles need to be fullyunderstood by pool maintenance staff.

Sources of ContaminationContamination is introduced predominantly viapool users, but also via the environment,including source water.

EnvironmentEnvironmental contamination is especiallyrelevant to outdoor pools where there is dust, soil,sand, leaves and grass constantly around and inthe pool.

Pool UsersPool users contaminate the pool in three differentways:

From bodily fluids, solids and wastes urine,mucus from the nose and chest, saliva, sweat,hair, scales from skin and faecal matter. Theseare pollutants in themselves, but may alsocontain harmful microorganisms which couldcause illness in other pool users.

From dirt collected on the body beforebathing, for example, on the feet from the poolconcourse, on skin from clothes.

From cosmetics perfumes, oils, hairspray,lotions, sunscreen and creams.

Transmission of InfectionMany microorganisms are harmless and normallypresent in healthy people. However, if they areswallowed in large numbers by a bather who isunwell or has altered immunity (which may bethe case during pregnancy or illness), theninfection and sickness can result. For this reasonthe entire pool environment that is, the changerooms, toilets, concourse, as well as pool water should be adequately cleaned and managed atall times.

Hygiene StandardsMinimum hygiene standards should be met for allchange rooms, toilets and showers. The poolconcourse should be cleaned at least daily. Poolusers should be encouraged to shower prior toentering the pool to rinse off dust and body oils.

DisinfectantsSome infections can be transmitted through thepool water from one bather to another if there isinadequate disinfectant. Other potential infectionsare through contamination with spilt blood, vomitor faecal matter. In these cases immediate action isnecessary and all pools should have emergencyresponse procedures documented.

Refer to the Department of Human Serviceswebsite, which is updated every threemonths. The website address is:http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/poolfacts/index.htm

26

Pool Water Contamination

Infections and ConditionsAssociated with Pool UseGastro-Intestinal Infections, IncludingCryptosporidiumGenerally speaking, most microorganismsresponsible for gastrointestinal infections will beinactivated by the disinfectant residual andremoved by the filtration system. Therefore,correct maintenance levels of disinfectant andfiltration are necessary. However, two problemorganisms Cryptosporidium and Giardia remain. These cause watery diarrhoea andabdominal cramping, associated with symptomsof fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, nausea andvomiting. In the healthy individual thesesymptoms are usually mild, but they can causesevere, chronic, debilitating illness if the recipientis unwell or has a reduced immune system.

Cryptosporidium is resistant to the usualmaintenance levels of disinfectant and can remainin the pool system for several months. Normalfiltration processes may be ineffective inremoving Cryptosporidium parasites due to theirtiny size. Because normal disinfectant residualsand filtering processes are not effective ineliminating Cryptosporidium, special care isneeded in cases of suspected contamination.Disinfection levels need to be raised to 14 ppmand kept at that level for 12 hours. The addition ofcoagulant and frequent backwashing of filters isalso advisable.

The Department of Human Services isevaluating the use of other chemicals, suchas chlorine dioxide and ozone for thetreatment of Cryptosporidium. Check theDepartment of Human Services website forup-to-date information at http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/phd/poolfacts/index.htm

Infected Users

Pool users suspected of being infected with eitherCryptosporidium or Giardia are advised to avoidattending a pool for one month after symptomscease. As the recommended maintenance level for

disinfectant is less than 8 ppm, the pool mustremain closed until water samples prove noevidence of the microorganism. If a pool is closeddue to suspected contamination byCryptosporidium, signage is advisable to warninfected persons not to visit or potentiallycontaminate other pools.

Patrons who have suffered a gastrointestinalillness or diarrhoea should be advised not to usethe pool until at least one week after symptomscease.

Foot InfectionsUsual maintenance levels of disinfection in thepool water will kill fungi or bacteria associatedwith foot infections. However, two commonconditions can be caught from the dampenvironment of pool surrounds, change rooms orshowers.

Tinea Pedis (Athletes Foot)

Tinea pedis is a fungal infection causing anitchy scaling between the toes. This is hard todistinguish from soggy skin caused by inadequatedrying between the toes. Tinea is spread bycontact on damp floor surfaces, such as showersor poolside, where there are infected fragments ofskin. Adequate floor cleaning reduces the numberof infective particles. Wearing pool shoes orthongs in showers and at the poolside reducesskin contact with a potentially contaminated floor.Exclusion from the pool is not necessary.

Plantar Warts (Verrucae)

Plantar warts are caused by a virus, and may bepicked up from contact with contaminatedfragments of skin on the surrounds of the pool. Aswith tinea, adequate cleaning of pool surrounds isnecessary and users should wear pool shoes orthongs around the pool. Carriers are advised tocover warts to prevent contamination of poolsurround surfaces but exclusion from the pool isnot necessary.

VirusesViruses are not spread in the pool if adequatesanitiser levels are present.

27

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) andhepatitis are viruses carried in the blood andother body fluids. They are inactivated by thedisinfectant residual at normal maintenancelevels. Blood, vomit or faecal spills fromswimmers with these viruses are treated as above.

Ear and Sinus ProblemsWetting, de-waxing and degreasing of the outerear may cause swimmers ear (otitis externa). Thismay result in skin drying and damage, with orwithout infection caused by the usual bacteriafound on normal, healthy skin. It is most commonin endurance and competitive swimmers. Highnumbers of Pseudomonas aeruginosa present in thewater may cause an unusually high incidence ofthis condition (as well as skin infections). Normalsanitation levels should eliminate the presence ofPseudomonas.

Infection of the middle ear (otitis media) andsinusitis following swimming are usually causedby infected mucus forced into the nose and throatwhile swimming. People are encouraged not toswim if they have an upper respiratory tractinfection, but need not be excluded.

MeningitisMeningitis associated with swimming isextremely rare in Australia and has not beendetected in Victorian pools that are properlytreated and maintained. The free-living amoebanaegleria fowleri causes it. In each case associatedwith swimming, the pool has been found to bereceiving polluted, warm spring water and to beinadequately disinfected. Normal disinfectionlevels are necessary. Pool make-up water must beclean and come from secure sources. Circulationsystems, including balance tanks, should bedesigned to avoid prolonged periods ofstagnation. Any debris should be removedregularly.

Legionnaires DiseaseLegionella pneumophila bacteria cause a severe formof pneumonia known as legionnaires disease. Forit to be spread there must be an infected spray,such as with spray humidifiers or cooling towers.Legionnaires disease has not been associatedwith conventional swimming pools. However, itis easily spread in poorly maintained anddisinfected spa pools due to the fine spray(aerosols) generated at the turbulent watersurface. Careful maintenance, frequent filterbackwashing and close attention to disinfectantlevels are critical.

Skin Irritations and RashesSkin irritation and rashes can be associated withpool use. Good water management and adequatedilution will keep these to a minimum. Skinrashes associated with pool use are usually due toone of the following factors:

Drying of the skin due to a reduction innatural body oils common with prolongedimmersion and warm water in hydrotherapypools and spas.

Residual disinfectant left on the skin.

Infection (more common in spas due to higherbather loads) skin abrasion from the aeratedwater jets and higher water temperature.

These factors contribute to common skinconditions, such as pool rash, bromine itch andfolliculitis.

Pool Rash

Pool rash is essentially a mild dermatitis causedby prolonged immersion and the effect of thedisinfectant creating a dry, irritated skin. Itresponds well to unperfumed moisturisingcreams and/or reduced exposure to the pool.

Bromine Itch

Bromine itch is another form of dermatitiscaused by sensitisation to bromine and its by-products used to disinfect the pool. Incidence

28

increases with age and exposure, particularlywith prolonged immersion. It is intensely itchyand occurs within 12 hours of exposure. It oftenrecurs with repeated exposure to brominatedpools.

Folliculitis

Folliculitis is an infection of the hair folliclecaused by the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Acombination of intense skin wetting and highlevels of the bacteria is necessary for the infectionto occur. It is most common in spas, where thereare higher temperatures (over 35C), longerexposure times (one to two hours) and inadequatedisinfection. Unlike bromine rash, it tends not tobe itchy.

Respiratory ComplaintsGenerally speaking, the warm, humid air arounda pool assists respiration. High levels ofchloramines, the by-product of chlorinedisinfection, may trigger asthma attacks. Theselevels can be high because the pool is poorlydesigned, overloaded or poorly maintained.Chloramines themselves, and other substances inthe air, do not cause asthma, but may provoke anattack.

SummaryThe bather load generally introduces pollution toa pool. If this is controlled to avoid overcrowding,at the same time as maintaining standard hygieneprocedures and normal pool disinfectant levels,then cross-contamination of pool users isminimised. When appropriate, emergencyprocedures are established and used inconjunction with regular maintenance, cross-contamination is unlikely to then occur.

People suffering from diarrhoea or gastroenteritisshould not use a pool until at least one week afterthe symptoms have cleared. Faecally incontinentpeople should not use a pool or spa unless theircondition is managed by a health professional.Signage to this effect should be displayed.

Emergency ProceduresExposure of Pool Water to Faecal MatterThe treatment required will depend upon thecondition of the faecal matter introduced. Loosefaecal matter (diarrhoea) requires greatertreatment than a firm stool, as it is more likely tocontain a large number of microorganisms, willspread rapidly over a large area and is not easilyretrieved from the pool.

Pool operators will need to assess each situationand make a judgment about the exact action to betaken.

Loose Stool

The following are guidelines for responding toloose faecal matter in the pool:

1. The pool, in the vicinity of the faecal accident,should be cleared of people.

2. The faecal matter should be removed asthoroughly as possible using a fine mesh scoopnet or vacuumed to waste.

3. The pool should be superchlorinated, with thebulk of the disinfectant added to theimmediate vicinity of the accident.

4. The pool should be superchlorinated thatnight.

5. The pool filters should be backwashed thatnight.

6. Details of the accident and treatment should benoted in the pool operation log.

7. Patrons should only be allowed back into thewater when disinfectant and pH levels arewithin recommended ranges and all faecalmatter has been removed from the water.

Firm Stool

A firm solid stool requires the following action:

The pool in the vicinity of the faecal accidentshould be cleared of people.

1. The stool should be removed.

2. Water should be tested to ensure compliancewith the Health Regulations.

3. If the water meets the Regulations, patronsmay be allowed to re-enter the water.

29

Contamination of the Pool Water by Bloodor VomitIf blood or vomit contaminates the pool water, thefollowing action should be taken:

1. The pool in the vicinity of the accident shouldbe cleared of people.

2. Large particles should be removed using a finemesh scoop net, vacuumed to waste.

3. Allow and assist any remaining contaminantto disperse.

4. Water should be tested to ensure compliancewith the Health Regulations.

5. If the water meets the Regulations, patronsmay be allowed to re-enter the water.

Disinfection of Contaminated SurfacesAny contaminant on the pool deck should not bewashed into the pool water circulation system.

Chlorine based disinfectants are commonly usedfor dealing with blood or body fluid spills. Forexample, a 1:10 dilution of sodium hypochloritein water can be used. Dangerous Goods (Storageand Handling) Regulations should be consultedbefore preparing chemical dilutions.

The procedure for dealing with a contaminatedsurface is:

1. Wear rubber gloves and remove excesscontaminant using disposable paper towels orsimilar.

2. Wipe non-porous surfaces with hot water anddetergent and then flood with a chlorine baseddisinfectant and leave for ten minutes.

3. Porous surfaces, such as the pool deck, aremore difficult to clean. Wash the areathoroughly with detergent and allow the runoff to go down the drain. Flood with a chlorinebased disinfectant and leave for ten minutes.

4. Towels, gloves, excess contamination andother items should be placed in a bag andsealed. All contaminated items should bedisposed of appropriately.

30

OverviewGood pool water management and adequatehygiene procedures will prevent pollution andcross-contamination in most cases. The nextchapter, Pool Water Contamination, deals withtypes of contamination, and the followingchapter, Disinfection, deals with maintainingappropriate disinfectant levels. This chapterconcentrates on cleanliness and hygiene in thepool surrounds and in the pool itself.

Public EducationSwimmers need to understand the importance tothem of pre-swim hygiene; it helps provide morecomfortable water. Posters, pool rule handoutsand informal education all help to inform thepublic of their part in keeping the pool clean.However, if the toilet and shower facilities do notaccommodate swimmer numbers, or they areinaccessible or dirty, no amount of education willencourage swimmers to use them.

Pool Users Personal Hygiene

The pre-swim shower will remove mostpotential contaminants dead skin cells,fibres from clothes, dirt, body oils andsweat before the swimmer enters thepool water.

In Australia it is not compulsory to shower, weara swimming cap or walk through a footbathbefore entering a pool, as it is in some othercountries. However, there seems to be some sensein encouraging the pre-swim shower.

Footbaths were once considered invaluable forpreventing contamination with tinea and plantarwarts but this no longer appears to be the case.Showers clean the feet more effectively and bringextra benefits of rinsing the body at the sametime.

Swim showers should be supplied with freshwater and run to waste. The frequency of cleaningshowers will depend on number of swimmersusing them, but regular inspection and at leastdaily cleaning should be part of routinemanagement.

ToiletsThese need to be placed so they can beconveniently used prior to entering the pool.Public education is necessary, especially withchildren, to minimise involuntary urination in thepool. Babies should be in bathers rather thannappies, and be encouraged to empty bladdersbefore entering the pool. Frequency of cleaningwill depend on numbers attending, but toiletsshould be cleaned at least once daily, and morefrequently in times of heavy use. Sanitary andnappy disposal units should be made available.Regular inspection should be part of routinemanagement.

Hot Water SystemsHot water systems serving showers and handbasins should deliver water at less than 43C toprevent scalding. The main boilers should bemaintained at temperatures not below 60C toprevent the colonisation of Legionella bacteria.The temperature reduction required can beachieved by mixing valves. Tepid water systemsor modified tepid water systems that maintainwater below 50C must be maintained inaccordance with the Standards prescribed by the

Figure 5 Instantaneous Hot Water SystemsInstantaneous hot water systems can be set to providewarm water without mixing valves or having to store hotor warm water.

31

Pool Hygiene and Cleaning

Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations tominimise colonisation by Legionella bacteria.Instantaneous hot water systems can becontrolled to provide water at these rangeswithout the need for storage or mixing valves.

Cleaning in and Around the Pooland Changing RoomsFrom a hygiene perspective to preventtransmission of infection, the pool surrounds andchange rooms need to be cleaned regularly.Frequency will again depend on the number ofswimmers attending but should be monitoredand in