polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in urban...

8/13/2019 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides in Urban Air of Konya,

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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls andorganochlorine pesticides in urban air of Konya, Turkey

Senar Ozcan, Mehmet Emin Aydin

Selcuk University, Department of Environmental Engineering, 42031 Campus, Konya, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history:Received 19 December 2008Received in revised form 13 February 2009Accepted 16 February 2009

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs),polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) andorganochlorinepesticides (OCPs) were determined in urban airsamples of Konya, Turkeybetween August 2006and May 2007. The concentrations of pollutants in both the gas and particulate phase wereseparately analysed. The average total (gas+particulate) concentrations of PAHs, PCBs andOCPs were determined as 206 ng m 3 , 0.106 ng m 3 , 4.78 ng m 3 respectively. All of theinvestigated targetcompounds were dominantly found in the gasphase except OCPs. Higher airconcentrations of PAHs were found at winter season while the highest concentrations of PCBswere determined in September. The highest OCPs were detected in October and in March. Inurban air of Konya, PCB 28 and PCB 52 congeners represent 46% and 35% of total PCBs whilePhenanthrene, Fluoranthene, Pyreneaccountedfor 29%,13%,10% of total PAHs. HCH compounds( + + + -HCH), total DDTs ( p, p -DDE, p, p -DDD, p, p -DDT), Endosulfan compounds(Endosulfan I, Endosulfan II, Endosulfan sulfate) were dominantly determined as 30%, 21%,20% of total OCPs respectively. Considering the relation between these compounds with

temperature, there was no signi cant correlation observed. Despite banned/restricted use inTurkey, some OCPs were determined in urban air. These results demonstrated that they areeither illegally being used in the course of agricultural activityand gardens in Konya or they areresidues of past usein environment.According to these results, it can be suggestedthat Konya isan actively contributing region to persistent organic pollutants in Turkey.

2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Polychlorinated biphenylsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsOrganochlorine pesticidesUrban air

1. Introduction

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs, pesti-cides, PAHs are toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic organiccompounds. POPs can be transported over long distances

from their sources by means of atmospheric activity, they bio-accumulate in the food chain and can reach high concentra-tions in living organisms. Even, these pollutants can bedetermined in remote locations including polar regionswhere they have never been used or produced. Owing totheir toxicity, they can pose a threat to humans and theenvironment. The control and reduction of emissions of POPsmust be provided for protection of human health and theenvironment from their adverse effects. These compounds

are mainly anthropogenic in origin and released in greatquantities to environment ( Breivik et al., 1999 ).

Anthropogenic emission sources for PAHs in the atmo-sphere include emissions from motor vehicles, waste incin-eration plants, domestic heating, oil re ning, other industrialprocesses and forest res. Due to carcinogenic, toxic andmutagenic properties of some of thesecompounds, the fate of PAHs in urban and industrialized areas is of great environ-mental concern ( Cincinelli et al., 2007 ). PCBs may enter theatmosphere from transformers and capacitors, incinerators,paints, plastics, land lls, sludge drying beds. Even thoughPCBs production and use were banned since 1979, theybecome ubiquitous pollutants in all environmental compart-ments in many locations around the world ( Brunciak et al.,2001 ). The extensive use of pesticides to improve agriculturalproductivity played an important role in the last century.Although most of OCPs have been banned in many countries

Atmospheric Research 93 (2009) 715 722

Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (M.E. Aydin).

0169-8095/$

see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.02.012

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Atmospheric Research

j o u r n a l h o mep a g e : ww w.e l sev i e r. co m / l o ca t e / a t m o s
mailto:[email protected]://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.02.012http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01698095http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01698095http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2009.02.012mailto:[email protected]


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silica gel. 70 mL of n-hexane was suf cient to elute all PCBswith some of the PAHs and OCPs compounds, additional60 mL of n-hexane/ethyl acetate (1/1, v/v) was enough toelute the remaining PAHs and OCPs compounds. Internalstandards of Tetrachloro-m-xylene, PCB209 and 1,2,3,4-Tetrachloronaphthalene were then added.

Total suspended particles (TSP) were determined weigh-ing before and after sampling the micro bre lters. TSPconcentrations were determined in between 50 g m 3 and320 g m 3 . While mean air temperature varied from 6.5 C (December) to 19.2 C (May), mean relative humidityvaried from 38.4% to 79.3%. Rainfalls were determined onlythree times ranging between 0.1 mm and 8 mm. Investigatedconventional pollutants, lowest concentrations for PM 10 andSO2 were measured during the spring while the highestconcentrations were observed during winter.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Quality control and quality assurance

The analytical quality of the data was determined usinglimit of detection (LOD), recovery, reproducibility, linearityand by checking sampling artifacts. The MS was tuned dailywith per uorotributylamine. Instrument detection limits(IDLs) for all compounds were determined according topublished guidelines at a signal-to-noise ratio ( S / N ) of three(Wolska, 2002 ). Blank samples (including six pre-cleanedPUF plugs and lters) were prepared, treated and analysed inthe same manner as the real samples. The limit of methoddetection (MDL) was de ned as the mean blank mass+ threestandard deviations. No peaks matching the target com-pounds were found on blank PUFs and lters. MDLs ranged

from 0.04 pg m 3 to 0.08 pg m 3 for PCBs, from 0.05 pg m 3

to 0.05 ng m 3 for PAHs and from 1.6 pg m 3 to 0.03 ng m 3

for OCPs. Relative standard deviation was lower than 2.7% and5.8% for MSD and -ECD measurements, respectively.

Recovery experiments were carried out for spiked surrogateand standards. The recovery values ( n =5) for micro bre lterswere obtained between 962% and 1233% with RSD 9%for PCBs, between 721% and 1011% with RSD 8% forPAHs while the recoveries were changed from 625% to 1101%with RSD 6% for OCPs compounds. The recovery values of the PUF plugs were obtained between 1062% and 1205%with RSD 6% for PCBs, between 802% and 113 2%with RSD 6% for PAHs while the recoveries were changedfrom 676% to 118 5% with RSD 6% for OCPs compounds.To check the background concentration levels of target com-pounds blank analyseswere carried out. The results of theblanktests did not show any interference peaks that would inhibitquantifyingthe target compounds in PUFs andmicro bre lters.Blank micro bre lters and PUF plugs were routinely placed inthe eld to determine possible analytical contaminants duringsample handling and preparation for the sampling andanalyses.Also, laboratory blank samples were routinely analysed in samemanner as the real samples. Blank levels of individual com-pounds were determined usually b 10% of the amounts in theblank micro bre lters and PUF plugs and most cases notdetectable.

3.2. Air concentrations of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs

Individual and total concentrations of targetPAHs,PCBs andOCPs in urban air were given in Table 1. Mean individualPAH concentrations in gas phase ranged from 0.1 ng m 3

to 53.5ng m 3 and in theparticulate phase ranged from 0.3ng

Table 1Mean concentrations of individual PAHs, PCBs, OCPs in urban air in Konya.

PAHs (ng m 3 ) PCBs (pg m 3 ) OCPs (ng m 3 )

Gas Particulate Total Gas Particulate Total Gas Particulate Total

Nap 9.5 0.3 9.8 PCB 28 42 6 48 -HCH 0.36 0.13 0.49Acy 15.1 0.8 15.9 PCB 52 25 15 37 -HCH 0.34 0.19 0.53Ace 3.8 0.4 3.7 PCB 101 4 2 6 -HCH 0.16 0.22 0.38F 9.8 0.9 10.7 PCB 138 3 1 4 -HCH 0.34 0.12 0.47P 53.6 7.8 61.4 PCB 153 3 3 6 Hepchl 0.02 0.09 0.12A 7.8 2.7 11.0 PCB 180 b dl 3 3 Ald 0.01 0.06 0.07Fluor 14.9 11.2 26.2 Hep epox b dl b dl b dlPyr 11.0 9.5 20.5 Dield 0.01 0.05 0.06B[a]A 0.3 7.0 7.1 p, p -DDE 0.01 0.05 0.07

Chrys 0.7 11.7 12.4 End 0.006 0.02 0.03B[b]F 0.1 6.4 6.4 End al 0.01 0.07 0.08B[k]F 0.1 7.7 7.8 End ket 0.03 0.46 0.50B[a]Pyr 0.1 5.3 5.4 Eslf I 0.008 0.37 0.38Ipyr 0.04 3.5 3.5 Eslf II b dl 0.09 0.09D[a,h]A 0.03 2.4 2.4 p, p -DDD 0.12 0.30 0.43Bper 0.04 2.0 2.0 Eslf sul 0.05 0.49 0.51

p, p -DDT b dl b dl b dlMeocl 0.003 0.48 0.48

PAHs 126.8 80.0 206 PCBs 78 29 106 OCPs 1.51 3.27 4.78

b dl: limit of detection.Nap (Naphthalene), Acy (Acenaphthalene), Ace (Acenaphthene), F (Fluorene), P (Phenanthrene), A (Anthracene), Fluor (Fluoranthene), Pyr (Pyrene), B[a]A(Benzo[a]anthracene), Chrys(Chrysene), B[b]F(Benzo[b] ouranthene), B[k]F(Benzo[k] uoranthene), B[a]Pyr (Benzo[a]pyrene), Ipyr (Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene),D[a,h]A (Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene), Bper (Benzo[g,h,i]perylene). , , ,-HCH ( , , ,-Hexachlorocyclohexane), Hepchl (Heptachlor), Ald (Aldrin), Hep epox (Heptachlor epoxide), Dield (Dieldrin), p, p -DDE (p , p -

dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), End (Endrin), End al (Endrin aldehyde), End ket (Endrin ketone), Eslf I (Endosulfan I), Eslf II (Endosulfan II), p , p

-DDD(p , p -dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane), Eslf sul (Endosulfan sulfate), p , p -DDT (p , p -dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Meocl (Methoxychlor).

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m 3 to 11.7 ng m 3 . The mean concentrations of 16 EPA PAHcompounds were 126.8 ng m 3 and 80 ng m 3 for gas andparticulate phase, respectively. Phenanthrene was the mostabundant PAH withconcentration of 61.4 ng m 3 in mean total(gas+ particulate phase). Low molecular weight PAH com-pounds (with 2 to 4 rings) including Phenanthrene, Fluor-anthene, Pyrene, Acenaphthalene, Chrysene, Fluorene,Naphthalene, Benzo[a]anthracene were dominantly deter-mined than high molecular weight PAH compounds (5 and 6rings) including Benzo[b] ouranthene, Benzo[k] uoranthene,Benzo[a]pyrene, Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, Dibenzo[a,h]anthra-cene, Benzo[g,h,i]perylene in the total concentrations. WhilePhenanthrene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene accounted for 29%, 13%,10% of total PAHs, other compounds formed b 5% of total PAHs.Tasdemir and Esen (2007) reported that the mean totalconcentrations of PAHs in the urban air at a traf c site inTurkey was 456 ng m 3 . PAH concentrations have beenreported different areas in the world by many researchers(Mller et al., 1998; Odabas et al., 1999; Ollivon et al., 2002;Park et al., 2002; Tsapakis andStephanou 2005; Cincinelli et al.,2007 ). They measured Phenanthrene as the most abundantcompounds in all sampleswhile Fluoranthene, Pyrene, Anthra-cene, Chrysene were determined in higher percentage indetected total concentrations.

The concentrations of total PCBs in the urban air of Konyachanged from 3 pg m 3 to 48 pg m 3 while the meanconcentration of total PCBs was 106 pg m 3 . Whileinvestigated all PCBs congeners were detected in the urbanair of Konya, PCB28 and PCB52 were representing 46% and35% of total PCBs, respectively. Other PCB congeners made upbetween 3% and 6% of total PCBs. It can be seen in Table 1 thatlow chlorinated PCBs were predominantly found in the gasphase while high chlorinated PCBs were predominantlydetermined in the particulate phase. The concentrations of PCBs were decreasing with increasing number of Cl in PCBs inthe urban air. This type of homolog pro les has been observedby other researchers ( Montone et al., 2003; Yeo et al., 2004;Cindoruk and Tasdemir, 2007 ). Bigger congeners than penta-chlorinated biphenyls of PCBs homolog deposited easily onsurfaces of plants, soil and waters and can evaporate lesscomparing higher vapor pressure congeners such as tri-chlorinated biphenyls and tetra-chlorinated biphenyls. There-fore, examining distribution of PCB homologs for all samplesanalysed, the highest levels of PCBs homologs in atmospherehave less chlorine and high vapor pressure such as tri-chlorinated biphenyls and tetra-chlorinated biphenyls. Dis-

tributions of PCBs in the atmosphere have been studied byother researchers in various urban, rural and industrializedareas in worldwide. A number of these studies are frequentlydetected 6 PCB congeners which were studied in this work. At

rst time, the atmospheric levels of PCBs were studied byCindoruk and Tasdemir (2007) in Turkey. The mean PCBconcentrations gas and particulate phases were determined120.2 pg m 3 and 21.13 pg m 3 , respectively. Our averagetotal PCBs results are lower than their average values. Theirsampling point was an urban area with high traf c loading inBursa which is an industrialized city. Yeo et al. (2004)determined that mean concentrations of total PCBs in urbanand rural air in Korea were 39.35 pg m 3 and 15.5 pg m 3 ,

respectively while Montone et al. (2003) determined thatmean PCBs in the marine atmosphere over a summer period

at King George Island were 20.4 pg m 3 . Mandalakis andStephanou (2007) measured average total concentrations of PCBs as 25 pg m 3 in the rural area in eastern Germany.Atmospheric total concentrations of PCBs were recorded64 pg m 3 at an urban location in Birmingham, UK betweenApril 1999 and July 2000 by Harrad and Mao (2004) .

Mean OCPs concentrations in the gas phase varied fromb dl to 0.36 ng m 3 while in the particulate phase they variedfrom b dl to 0.49 ng m 3 . Heptachlor epoxide and p, p -DDTwere not detectedin theurban air of Konya while investigatedother OCPs compounds were detected. Total mean concentra-tions ofHCHs ( + + + ) in the gas and particulate phasewere determined as 1.2 ng m 3 and 0 .66 ng m 3 ,respectively. This group was dominantly determined in theinvestigated OCPs as 30% of total OCPs. HCHs are one of themost widely used and most readily detected organochlorinepesticides in environmental samples. The use of -HCH wasbanned in 1979 while technical HCH was banned in 1985 inTurkey. Technical HCH consists of -HCH (65 70%), -HCH(7 10%), -HCH (14 15%), -HCH (~7%), -HCH (~1 2%),other components (~1 2%). Lindane is consisting of almost100% isomers and is also known as -HCH. In thestudy, otherisomers were detected more dominantly than -HCH. Totalmean DDTs ( p, p -DDT, p, p -DDD, p, p -DDE) and total meanEndrin compounds (Endrin, Endrin aldehyde, Endrin ketone)determined in urban air of Konya were 0.94 ng m 3 and0.17 ngm 3 , respectively.Determined totalmean DDTs made up20% of total OCPs. DDT is used for the control of vectors transmittingsomediseasessuchas malaria, typhus, plague, trypanosomiasis.Their uses were restricted in 1978 and then were banned in1985 in Turkey. But it is still used in some countries forcontrolling malaria, especially in the tropical region. Endrinwasused tocontrolmice,volesandother rodents andwas spreadonthe leaves ofcrops such as cotton and grains. Aldrinwasused tokill termites and other soil pests, in grain storage, for vectorcontrol. Using of endrin and aldrin were banned in 1979.Dieldrin wasused basically to control termites and textile pests.Also it was used to control insects transmitting some diseasesand living in agricultural soils. Dieldrin usewas banned in 1971.Aldrin anddieldrinweredetermined at verylowconcentrationsin urban air of Konya. Endosulfan is considered as a prioritypollutant by the EPA. Total mean concentrations of Endosulfancompounds (Endosulfan I, Endosulfan II, Endosulfan sulfate)were determined 1.04 ng m 3 . This value accounted for 21% of total OCPs. Konya is the biggest plain of Turkey and accountedfor 17% of all agricultural land. Banned pesticides, especially

DDTs, aldrin,dieldrinwereobservedin urbanarea ofKonya maybe due to wide agricultural areas. They can evaporate fromcontaminated soils and waters and can be transported longrange from used areas.

Organochlorine pesticidesconcentrations wereinvestigatedbetween 14 and 23 May 2003 in zmir, Turkey ( Sofuoglu et al.,2004 ) and mean concentrations of total OCPs were detected as2.2 ng m 3 . Comparing their results with total OCPs concen-trations determined in May in this work, it can be suggestedthat values of total OCPs were similar. Sofuoglu et al. (2001)determined in between 0.24 ng m 3 and 1.35 ng m 3 the gasphase atmospheric total concentrations of OCPs in Chicago,between June and October 1995. Scheyer et al. (2005) carried

out analysis of some OCPs in urban air atmosphere inStrasbourg and aldrin and dieldrin were detected with lower

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concentrations, between 0.01 ng m 3 and 0.09 ng m 3 while -HCH and -HCH were detected in between 0.01 ng m 3 and4ngm 3 . Aldrinwas not detectedin theambient airof Chiapas,Mexico while total mean concentrations of other investigatedpesticides were detected as 2.26 ng m 3 by Alegria et al.(2006) . In the study carried out by Gioia et al. (2005) , averageconcentrations of gas and particulate phase in the urban/industrial area in New Jersey were determined as 1.5 ng m 3

and 17.8 pg m 3 , respectively. Levelsof OCPs determined in thestudy were compared with results of different regions by otherresearcher, it can be said that OCPs concentrations weregenerally higher than other research results.

3.3. Seasonal trends of total PAHs, PCBs and OCPs in gas and particulate phases

Monthly variations of total PAHs, PCBs, OCPs in gas andparticulate phases are given in Figs.1 3 respectively. Looking

at the seasonal variations, the higher PAH concentrationswere observed in cold season sampling times. The higherconcentrations of PAHs were determined in January with587 ng m 3 value while the lower concentrations of PAHswere determined in August with 32 ng m 3 value. The reasonwhy lower concentrations of PAHs observed during summermay be because of no coal burning for domestic heating, mayalso be because of reduced traf c load and the formation of inversion. In addition these compounds are decomposed bymeans of photochemical reactions in summer. It can be saidthat domestic heating widely contributed to the concentra-tions of PAHs determined in Konya urban air. In a lot of works,PAHs concentrations in the air have been determined higherduring the winter season and lower during the summerseason.

Results from seasonally monitoring of PCBs in urban air of Konya show that the highest PCB concentrations weredetermined in September at 0.36 ng m 3 (0.22 ng m 3 in

Fig. 2. Monthly variations of total PCBs in gas and particulate phases.

Fig. 1. Monthly variations of total PAHs in gas and particulate phases.



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gas phase, 0.14 ng m 3 at particulate phase) while the lowestPCB concentrations were in April at 0.005 ng m 3 in gasphase. Temperature in September (18 C) is higher than inApril (8.4 C). It can be suggested that higher temperaturemay increase volatilization from contaminated environment.Also, higher wind speed might have caused transportation of these compounds. Looking at Fig. 3, it can be seen that thehighest OCP concentrations were observed in October andMarch with concentrations of 9.21 ng m 3 (5.05 ng m 3 ingas phase, 4.16 ng m 3 at particulate phase), and8.85 ng m 3

(1.05 ng m 3 in gas phase, 7.80 ng m 3 at particulate phase),respectively. In these months, lands were prepared forplanting by farmers. Therefore, as soil is treated the transferof pesticides may increase from soils to the atmosphere.Similar results were recorded by Scheyer et al. (2005) .

The number of foggy days is quite a lot in winter seasonaccording to meteorological data and temperature inversionsalso occur very often in winter. In stagnant foggy days with nowind, emission from chimneys and motor vehicles exhaustswould not disperse in the atmosphere but stay close to theground. Air pollution in such days in Konya rise to quite highlevels. Monthly variations of the three groups of pollutantsinvestigated were similar and changing according to atmo-spheric conditions. Also, particle fractionation ratios of thethree group compounds are changing in similar pattern and

gas phase ratios are decreased in winter months. 3.4. Gas particle partitioning of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs

In urban air of Konya, as all of the PAHs and PCBsinvestigated were dominantly detected in gas phase, OCPswere dominantly detected in particulate phase. Total PAHsconcentrations in gas phase were 61% of total PAHsconcentrations determined in urban air of Konya. While thelower quantity in the particulate phase was recorded inSeptember with 2% value, the highest value was recorded in January with 52%. Total PCB concentrations in gas phase were73% of total PCB concentrations determined in urban air of

Konya while total OCPs concentrations in the particulatephase were 45% of total OCPs concentrations determined.

Total PCBs and PAHs concentrations in the gas phase wererecorded higher generally than 90% value reported by Parket al. (2002) , Mandalakis and Stephanou (2007) , Tasdemirand Esen (2007) . Comparing the literature values with theseresults, the percentage of existing PCB andPAH compounds ingas phase in urban air of Konya were lower than thatdetermined in other cities or countries. This situation can beexplained that air pollutions in the city have been raisedrecently parallel with rapid urbanization and industrializationin Konya region. Particulate matter concentrations are higherthan those determined by other researchers. The dominatingwind direction of the city is from north-east to south-westand the industrial areas are in the north of the city. Thereforepolluted air may disperse over the city.

3.5. Potential sources and exposure risk characterization of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs

In determining PAHs compound's anthropogenic andbiogenic emission sources, speci c compounds concentra-tion diagnostic ratios are used. Benzo[a]pyrene/Benzo[g,h,i]perylene ratios between 0.39 and 0.51 indicate that thesource of these compounds are vehicles exhaust gases, if theratio is above 0.8 then it indicates that sources of PAHcompounds are burning fossil fuels for domestic heating

(Parket al., 2002 ). Benzo[a]anthracene/(Benzo[a]anthracene+Chrysene) ratios are used for differentiating traf c originatingcompounds formation. If the ratioFluoranthene/(Fluoranthene+Pyrene) is between 0.2 and 0.4 petrol engines, between 0.6and 0.9 diesel engines, between 0.4 and 0.6 fossil fuelsburning processes are the main sources in PAH compoundsformation. Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene/(Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene+Benzo[g,h,i]perylene) ratio is between 0.2 and 0.3 then thesourceof PAH compounds formation is petrol engines, between0.3 and 0.4 the source is diesel engines, if the ratio however isbetween 0.4 and 0.9 then the source is burning processes(Chen, 2007 ).

The ratios obtained from mean total values determined

by the measurements between August 2006 and May 2007are as follow: Benzo[a]pyrene/Benzo[g,h,i]perylene ratio is

Fig. 3. Monthly variations of total OCPs in gas and particulate phases.



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2.71, Fluoranthene/(Fluoranthene+ Pyrene) ratio is 0.56,Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene/(Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene +Benzo[g,h,i]perylene) ratio is 0.64, Benzo[a]anthracene/(Benzo[a]anthracene+Chrysene) ratio is 0.36. Ratios determined inthe city indicating that PAH compounds formationsources aremainly domestic heating processes while Benzo[a]anthra-cene/(Benzo[a]anthracene+Chrysene) ratio indicating thattraf c originating PAH compounds coming from mainly petrolengines. Some of the PAH compounds are proved to be ascarcinogenic and/or mutagenic compounds and cause forconcern with their widely existence in ambient air. It isproved that small particles and PAH compounds (such asBenzo[a]pyrene) attached together and reach to the bronchiaand alveoli. Potential health risks caused by inhalation of carcinogenic PAH compounds were evaluated considering thetoxic equivalency factor of Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]Pyr TEF ) valuesgivenby Castellano et al. (2003) fordeterminedPAH compounds.Gas andparticle phase mean total Benzo[a]pyrene concentrationvalue determined in Konya urban air was 5.4 ng m 3 while B[a]PyrTEF value was found as 11.64 ng m 3 . Target annual meanBenzo[a]pyrene value is given as 1 ng m 3 in some Europeancountries. The annualmean targetvalueof 1 ngm 3 forBenzo[a]pyrene level found in this work was exceeded. This result showsthat, there isa healthriskespecially forpeople livingaroundthesesampling locations.

PCBs may be emitted also from industrial or municipalwaste burning processes in addition to the other sources. PCBcompounds determined in Konya city atmosphere wereassumed to be coming from evaporation from where theyare used. Another source may be burning of old tires and usedmineral oils for heating in small workshops in the city.

p, p -DDT/ p, p -DDE ratio could be used as an indicator indetermining the time of DDT compounds staying in atmo-sphere. If p, p -DDT/ p, p -DDE ratio is about 1 it indicates themixture of DDT compounds coming from recent use, below 1ratio indicates previous use of DDT compounds only, if p, p -DDT/ p, p -DDE ratio is above 1 then this is an indication of current use of DDT compounds. Technical -HCH/ -HCHratio is in the range of 4 8. Lower ratios indicate continuinglindane ( -HCH) use in the area. p, p -DDT/ p, p -DDE ratio wasfound as 20 while -HCH/ -HCH ratio was found as 2.55 inKonya city atmosphere. Therefore, by looking at these ratios itcould be concluded that use of DDT and lindane continuesduring agricultural activities in Konya. These compounds areglobal problems for human and environmental health andmay cause birth defects and disabilities, various cancers,

immune system disruption, reproduction system defects,decrease in IQ levels, and endocrinological disruption inmammals.

3.6. Variations of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs concentrations withatmospheric temperature

It was observed in this work that when the temperatureincreased generally concentration of compounds in gas phaseis increased in ambient air depending on their Henryconstants. There was a weak correlation observed betweentemperatureand PCB concentrations in gas phase andparticlephase ( r 0.3). Weak negative correlations were observed

between temperatures with PAH concentration in gas andparticle phases and also with total concentrations ( r is 0.05,

0.51, 0.32). In previous researches, weak correlation wasfound between total PCB concentration and temperature(r =0.01) by Montone et al. (2003) , between total PAHconcentrations and temperatures ( r =0.19) by Odabas et al.(1999) , (r = 0.55) by Tsapakis and Stephanou (2005) ,(r =0.06) by Tasdemir and Esen (2007) . Correlation betweentemperature, wind speed and direction, sources with PAHsand PCB concentrations in Chicago atmosphere was investi-gated and the variations could not be explained ( Sofuogluet al., 2001 ). Weak correlations between gas phase concen-tration of OCP compounds and temperature ( r is 0.01) wereobserved while weak negative correlations were observedbetween particles and total OCP concentrations ( r is 0.28 and0.26). Observing no strong correlation between gas phaseconcentration and temperature is an indication that thesepollutants are not transported into atmosphere by evapora-tion from polluting sources.

4. Conclusion

In content of the Stockholm agreement, Turkey carry outnational implementation plan to protect human health andthe environment by eliminating or restricting the produc-tion, use and release of 12 POP chemicals (aldrin, chlordane,DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene,hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins andfurans). Therefore, their concentrations must be identi ed inthe environment rst and then, their possible sources mustbe determined.Afterwards, in order to reduce or exterminatetheir possible risk to human health and the environment,precautions must be taken by authorities. Primary results onPAHs, PCBs which are widely investigated in atmosphere,OCPs which were frequentlyused during agriculturalactivitywere found between August 2006and May 2007 in thestudy.All target compounds were detected in urban air of Konya.According to these results, it can be suggested that Konya isan actively contributing region to persistent organic pollu-tants in Turkey. Despite banned/restricted use in Turkey,some OCPs were determined in urban air. These resultsdemonstrated that they are illegally being used in the courseof agricultural activity and gardens in Konya or they areresidues of past use in the environment. Considering the riskcharacterization of these compounds it could be concludedthat these compounds pose health risks for human.

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