TUTORIAL NOTE

POLICE SCIENCE

AND

BORDER POLICEOLOGY

BY

SPYRIDON M. KYRIAKAKIS

INTERNATIONAL EXPERT

IN POLICE SCIENCE, SECURITY MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED BORDER MANAGEMENT & IN

THE STRATEGIC COMMAND COURSE

ATHINA SEPTEMBER 2005

TIRANA OCTOBER 2005

EFFECTIVE WINDOW OF CONTENTS

PART I or

PREFATORY FORUM: It consists the first Part of the present work.In this part: The analytic table of contents, the list of abbreviations, the Preface which is the hard core of the philosophical bas of this work, the acknowledgement, the tutorial note, the draft terminology list the scope/main effort the objectives the introduction along with the systematisation and the syllabus/method of study, are included.

PART II or

METHODOLOGY: The part II includes everything according the scientific approach, of policing intreching the new science, police science or policeology, the focusing on its specific field, the Border Policeology is done at the Part III.

PART III or

FUNDAMENTAL

POLICE SCIENCE

POLICEOLOGY: It includes Police science matters applying to Border Police too, as the Historical Perspective, the Police (and Border Police) role, the police styling, the code of Police Ethics, the principles of organisation, the Police/Security management and the Integrated Border Management.

PART IV or

FUNCTIONAL POLICE

SCIENCE AND BORDER

POLICEOLOGY: It is the bridge leads the studious reader from the theory to the practical field. Matters as E4 provisions for state border control and the main points of the implementation of this control, the strategy of omnipresence, patrol management and managing and Border Surveillance, are illustrated in this part along With many other related issues as armed crime, the approach of a scene of crime, the matter of reporting/establishing the facts, the security plan of the Airport and Port facilities, the Police community relations and the Border Police as the face of the State.

PART V:This part is focused on how a senior Police (Border Police) Officer could be an effective trainer. The field of the flexible education in Police (Border Police) and security matters. Moreover guides on how the trainer will create flexible educational material.

PART VI: It is the last part. In this the general bibliography (sustaining scientifically every issue of the present work, is reported and it is followed by the Epilogue.

TABLE of CONTENTS

DescriptionPage

PART I PREDATORY FORUM

List of Abbreviations

Preface

Acknowledgement

Tutorial Note

Draft terminology list

Scope And Main Effort (Aim)

Objectives

Introduction

Systematization

Syllabus

Method of Study

PART II METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

Police science as a science

INTRODUCTION

THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP

Legal sciences

Criminology

Sociology

Psychology

Forensic sciences

Public administration

Political sciences and strategic studies

POLICE SCIENCE

Definition

Key concepts

Field of study

RESEARCH

Theory

Empirical phenomena

Methodology

The research process

Research procedures

Research techniques

SUMMARY

PART III Fundamental police science

CHAPTER1

Historical perspective

INTRODUCTION

THE UNPOLICED SOCIETY

Moral consensus

Codification of rules of conduct

Community involvement

Lack of continuity

Military attributes

Diversity of services

Individual rights

Parochial nature

THE POLICED SOCIETY

CHAPTER 2

The police role

INTRODUCTION

THE CONCEPT OF A "ROLE"

ROLE DIVISION

ROLE CONTENT

ROLE FULFILMENTPolice force versus police service

Styles of policing

Discretion

ROLE RESTRICTIONS

Authority and power

Individual rights

THE ROLE ENVIRONMENT

SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3

The Code of Police Ethics

CHAPTER 4

Principles of Organization

CHAPTER 5

The Concept of Management

CHAPTER 6

The Concept of IBM in E. U.

RISK ANALYSIS

Specific tasks of Border Control

Schooling and Training

Risk Analysis

PART IV FUNCTIONAL POLICE SCIENCE-FUNCTIONAL BORDER POLICEOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

Proactive policing

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CRIME PREVENTION - AN OVERVIEW

PUNITIVE PREVENTION

CORRECTIVE PREVENTION

CREATIVE PREVENTION

MECHANICAL PREVENTION

PREVENTION UNIT

CHAPTER 2

State border control/European general provisions

CHAPTER 3

Main Points on the Implementation it state border Control according the European Standards

CHAPTER 4

The principle strategy of Omnipresence

CHAPTER 5

Patrol

PATROL METHODS ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES

CHAPTER 6

Border Surveillance

BORDER POLICE PATROLADDITIONAL MATTERS

CRIME IN PROGRESS

THE SCENE OF CRIME AS SOURCE OF INFORMATION

ESTABLISHING THE FACTS

CHAPTER 7

Airports and Ports facilities security plans

CHAPTER 8

Police Community RelationsINTRODUCTIONS

DEFINITIONS

PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES

DIVISION CHARGED WITH RELATIONAL PROBLEMS

ADVANTAGES OF SOUND POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS

ATTITUDES

CONCLUDING

BORDER POLICE THE FACE OF THE STATE

PART V The police and the Border Police trainers standard guidelines for a flexible training

Scope

Objectives

CHAPTER 1

The need of education

The learning

The trainees in the post initial education

Introductory notes

CHAPTER 2Section 1-4

CHAPTER 3Section 5-9

Section of Annexes

Evaluation. The stereotype figure

Table of an axis evaluation attached by a list of variables

Epilogue of the PART V

PART VI

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EPILOGUE OF THE WORK

PART I PREDATORY FORUM

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BCP

Border Crossing Point

BP

Border Police

BR

Bibliographical Report

CARDSCommunity Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and StabilisationEUEuropean Union

IBMIntegrated Border Management

PAMECAPolice Assistance Mission of the European Community to Albania

PREFACE

In our word all the professions are related by one or the other way with the life itself. But in three of them this connection is prominently distinguished, by a first glance. These three professions are: The doctors, The police professionals and the managers. The matter is of a deep philoshophical analysis and it is proved by physics. (Chaos Theory). Life is a revolutionary power resists to the lows which governs the universe. These lows function by such way that everything is leaded to a thermodynamical equilibrium or in a situation of positive entropia. That it means to disorder and Chaos and to the life loss. Consequently in order the life be preserved it must be fed with negative entropia. Negative entropia is contrary to positive one (Chaos). That is order. For the medical science it is illuminately obvious. The main task of policing is the maintaining of order and the same task concerns managers, who have the role to create the future. For their organisation or business, with other words to feed them (organisation or business) with life.

Based on the afore mentioned philoshophical base we see that doctors and managers are roofed under their own science. All of us having the experience of policing, understand fully the necessity of a policing own roof. And this is the target of the present work. To contribute the development of the new science. That is the policeology or police Science. As every science has its own branches, the main branch of Policeology is the Border Policeology. It is proved and underlined by the following philosophical allegory.

"The most beautiful harmony comes out by the differences and disputes" ("Heraclitus and the cosmic fragments" by G.S. KIRK-university press, Cambridge 1954).

"The nowadays philosophy follows the thoughts of Heraclitus and Aristotle (Karl Marx 14 July 1842).

The real art and the real attainment have to do with the achievement of the equilibrium among al the components of the matter we are interested for. The question is "how we can achieve it"? The answer is given by Heraclitus: "we have to mimic the nature and especially the human been".

Examining the human existence medically we observe the next:

The human skin and the mucous membrane of the external cavities (e.g. mouth), are the boundary barriers of the human corp. They dispose a lot of organs of sense (alarms). The more important the below (internal) organ the most the density of the alarms on the upset surface of the skin and the mucous membrane. If an "intruder", in spite of these alarms, achieves to infiltrate, then an immediate operation by histamine, takes place. Histamine reacts and encircles the intruder.

In more serious instances there is the lymphatic system which is parallel to the blood circulation system. The lymphatic system is the vigilante of the venous blood. Every threat (e.g. virus) is localized, it is detected, investigated and detained. Then the lymphatic system acts as the enforcement authorities (many times arrests the intruder and imprisons it inside the lymphatic glands).

Now, you are requested to compare all the above mentioned with our policing reality. The boundary barriers of the corp, the alarms and the histamine correspond to Border Police. The lymphatic system corresponds to all the other police authorities (e. g. security (of Albania, Schengen area) intelligence, patrol, service etc.) inside the state (e. g. Albania and of course inside the Schengen area). Of course all the functions (of the human body) corresponds to functions of the state operation with Border Police and the international cooperation (bi/multi) (Schengen area states and others) for the maintaining the order. It means cooperation interagencies and internationally.

The necessity of the development of the police science (policeology) with the primary task of the development simultaneously the policeology branch of borderpoliceology doesnt need any other comments, at the moment. All the rest of the present work, underline the answers to the why.

Which is the primary task of a science. Moreover the present work, goes further, because it is focused on the how as it is demanded from an applied science as the police science (and border policeology) are.

So I personally followed the path having in mind all the scientific methodological issues along with the principles of the European highest education.(Bologna declaration 1999 and the notices of Prague-2001, Berlin 2003 and Bergen of Norvege 2005, as you find in the introduction of the present.

The present work is dedicated to all border policemen and to European colleagues who lost their lives or suffered during their task, protecting people from crme.

By the present I address an open invitation to readers to contact me through PAMECA with regard to errors, omissions and limitations that need to be attended to.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe real motif of the present effort was excavated during the CARDS/Twinning Project Development of the Albanian Border Management Strategy, in which I participated during 2005 in Tirana and in Shkoder. As soon as I arrived in Tirana, It was a great pleasant surprise for me, to meet an excellent colleague and friend from the past, with whom, be had served, together, 30 years before, in Migration police Department of Rhodes island of Greece and who now is a very prominent cadre of PAMECA. He is the international adviser in Integrated Border Management and Senior officer of the Hellenic Police, mr. Nikos HATZIS. Mr. Nikos HATZIS, urged by ides about Police Science and its branch of Border Policeology and he made many useful arrangement. Among them the acquaintances, between me and very important officials of PAMECA, as with Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT the head of the Mission and Mr. Sigurd WERNER, with whom I had for a long period similar tasks.

Consequently I acknowledge and express my gratitude for the many helpful comments and directions made by Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT and Mr. Nikos HATZIS.

Moreover I add sincere thanks to Mr. Klaus SCHMIDT and Mr. Nikos HATZIS, for their constant encouragement, support and understanding.

I express also my sincere thanks to Mr. Constantine MATZOUKAS Resident Twinning Advisor of CARDS/Twinning Project, to komisar Mr,Besnik BAKIN head of IBM and Training of Directorate of Border and Migration Police of Albania and to Mrs Dolores ALIPYRGOU because due the discussions with them, my idea about Policeology was developed.

I wish also to express gratitude for Mr. Douglas ADAMS Deputy Head of PAMECA-Operations Manager Mr. Bornt ERZEN Border management expert and Mrs. Denisa FECOLLARI PAMECA Language Assistant for their excellent support and their understanding.

TUTORIAL NOTE

The present has two purposes: First to contribute to the development of the new science this of police science and its branch of Border Policeology which refers to integrated Border Management, providing a scientific base. Second to assist the hopeful police strategic cadres. This last one, means that the present dissertation is applying to adults having maturity personalities. Consequently the specific psychological elements of this facet of the age have been taken under consideration and an active way of language has been used for this presentation.

Subsequently all the principles of the updated flexible education (combination of traditional and alternative) have been kept in order this handbook be able to be in interaction with you, personally.

The way that it has been built, with a modular system of units, permits to do future amendments and to sail freely according your wish in the extent of this assignment so to avoid boredom and fatigue.

I welcome you in the world of Border Policeology as the Police Science and its Border Policing Application has been introduced, (by the author of the present dissertation), to be named.

First of all a discretion must be done between the academic and administrative aspects of the Border Policeology study.

The administrative aspects have to do with the organization of study while on the other hand the methodology of the study, the further research the self evaluation or an experimental assignment are academic matters.

Consequently some general study heights of postgraduate nature have to be followed ( Border Policeology is laid on the postgraduate level of the Police Science or of the Police and security studies). The above mentioned heights are:

Study at postgraduate level requires high standards and demands self-discipline

The traditional study problems must be overcome

The success will largely depend on the ability the distinguish between the important during your relevant surveys

Communication (with tutors, libraries, colleagues organizations) is the key to success.

DRAFT TERMINOLOGY LIST

Border checkIt includes the carried out and according the regulations:

(i) checks at authorized Border Crossing Points to ensure that persons, their vehicles and the objects in their possession maybe authorized to enter or leave the territory of a state or the Schengen Member States

(ii) Surveillance of borders and in an internal zone of 10 km in order to maintain the order by individuals or group to enter or to leave the aforementioned on (i ), territory illegally.

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Border Crossing Point(BCP)It concerns land, sea and air having to do with external borders, been authorized by the competent authorities for crossing external borders.

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Border Police Guard(BPG)Border Police Operational Personnel at land, maritime air borders authorized to transact checks or surveillance at external borders or to participate in prevention measures according the regulation in order to maintain the order inside the state and the order for the common borders countries

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Management of (external) Borders.It is the general management refers to the task of leading which is performed at all levels of Albania Border Police management (General Police Directorate, Regional Police Directorates/Border Police Subsections and Basic Border Units/BCP, Border Posts, Border Vessel Stations). This function consists of the 4 basic management functions (Planning, Organizing, Leading, Controlling) and the 6 additional functions inserting to the previous 4, (Decision making, Communication, Motivation, Coordinating, Delegation and Discipline) in order to achieving goals having to do with:

Effective transaction of checks and surveillance at external border (for Schengen area it is provided by articles 5 and 6 of Schengen convention).

Gathering analyzing exchanging and managing intelligence (strategical and operational) according the regulations for inter corp purposes, interagency and international cooperation purposes

Anticipating any logistic need

Managing effectively and intended (criminal) deed or non intended deed (natural, technological disaster.

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Managing of (external ) BordersManaging is the operational art of (Albanian) Border Police operational staff based on the Management of (external) Borders and according the best practices (e.g Schengen Catalogues)

(B. R. No 12, 10)

Risk AnalysisIt is an evaluation about the probability of an unexpected crisis or to anticipate the results in all fields before preparing an action or after the action

(B. R. No 10, 12, 17)

Safety It has to do with unsafe conditions during the Border Police service, risks and harards not intended

(B. R. No 21)

Security It has to do with the prevents of crime. Crime is the result of two categories of factors which are reacted among them. These are the group of predisposing factors and the group of the precipitating factors

(B. R. No 21)

Surveillance All activities and operations carried out by (Albanian) Border Police Personnel at external band, maritime and air borders to prevent illegal crossing and criminality.

(B. R. No 10, 12, 16)

Vulnerability The formula of vulnerability is V=S. B/C where V=Vulnerability, S=Security threats, B=Backlog in Security,C=Security Consciousness

(B. R. No 14)

DISCUSSION OF KEY CONCEPTS IN POLICE SCIENCE

Partnership policing

The privotal principle underlying this concept is that the police and the public are inseparable. The police are essentially an instrument of the public through which civil order is maintained. The public collectively delegate power and authority to the police to enable them to:

maintain civil order

ensure public safety with due regard for the rights of individuals

the police as an active partner therefore function on virtue of mandate received from the public to carry out general public duties relating to civil order, and they are accountable to the public. The public as the passive partner are not exempt from their primary and basic obligations in this regard, which comprise:

Individual civil and law-abiding behaviour The individuals assumption of responsibility for his own safety

Thus the two partners and accountable to each other in the following matters:

Safeguarding individual rights and liberty

Wholehearted cooperation, support and mutual assistance

By means in this partnership the policing principle is embodied in a closely integrated structure. The active partner, however, is expected to create an environment within which the passive partner can become involved in combating the crime problem.

Crime hypothesis

This concept caused confusion even among officers because it is susceptible to two different interpretations. Most police cadres linked the concept to the investigation hypothesis, which relates to criminal investigation, but it can also be associated with the crime prevention/causation hypothesis.(B. R. No 28)

Investigation hypothesis

The formulation of an investigation hypothesis emanates from active policing in terms of which violations are cleared up by means of criminal investigation.

In accordance with the hypothesis the crime investigator approaches the perpetration situation objectively, applying his knowledge, experience and the scientific aids at his disposal to prove his bona fide assumption that a crime has in fact been committed. The perpetration situation is evaluated in accordance with certain identification criteria in an effort to identify and prove facts.(B. R. No 28)

The identification arrived at have a cumulative effect that leads to individualization, with the result that the hypothesis as an accepted but unproven assertion acquires legitimacy as it is borne out by incontrovertible evidence.

Policing

In terms of the traditional perspective policing hinges decisively on the maintenance of civil order, with the emphasis on prevention. Where preventive methods fail, however, a violation must be resolved by reactive means entailing the enforcement and administration of law.

The law is not merely a means of keeping human behaviour in check, however, but also serves as a force both for order and for the protection of individual constitutional claims against possible violations. Accordingly the emphasis on prevention is described by law as a force for order.

The above principles are telescoped that policing is the personalization of order and a guarantee that the constitutional claims of each individual, regardless of his social standing or group affiliations, will be protected within the dispensation that society institutionalizes, or purposes to institutionalize, as order at a given them by means of a delegated authoritative structure.

(B. R. No2)Social order

Social order is the most fundamental concept underlying police science since it represents the overall goal to be achieved by the policing function.

Bear in mind that a definition of social order can never be simplistic. Because of divergent expectations and needs, consensus has not been reached on the implications of social order.

In this complex situation the law serves as a regulating force which controls human behaviour and safeguards individual rights against potential violations. Crime prevention is the fundamental objective of the policing function. If preventative (proactive) methods fail, a violation is resolved by repressive (reactive) means entailing enforcement and the administration of the law.

These two facets, namely protection (prevention/maintenance of law and order/implementation of the law)and coercive control (law enforcement), are related but nonidentical policing aims. Protection and coercive control are two extremes, but both involve the achievement of the ideal of social order.

(B. R. No 2)

Styles of policing

Policing entails the maintenance of social order with prevention (service style) as the chief object. When preventive (proactive) methods fail, the violated situation has to be restored by means of reactive methods, and this entails the execution and enforcement of law (war style).

The general nature of service largely determines whether the emphasis is on the police power (coercive/law enforcement) or police service (execution of law). This dynamic service function gives rise to styles of policing who are, in fact, methods of pursuing aims and rendering service: in other words, outward-directed policy.

Two recognizable policing styles are Hopkins controversial war style and Wilsons watchman, legalistic and service styles. The service style is a synthesis of the watchman and legalistic styles, which indicates that service is seldom a rigid, closed style but is significantly affected by the aforementioned factors.

Primary security measures

According to Botha et al (1989:153), the interaction of predisposing and precipitating factor is a basic premise in security. Security is concerned with the elimination of one or both types of factors.

Security includes two aspects that are basic to the policing function; partnership and proactive policing. The eliminations of predisposing factors refer to such thins as voluntarily observance of the law by the public and special emphasis on the necessity of looking after ones own and other peoples interests. Security also means to eliminate the opportunities for crime by convincing the prospective offender that he would

experience serious problems committing his crime owing to the presence of obstacles

be faced with purposeful and speedy counteraction even should he succeed.

Security does not relate exclusively to defense against crime: it also implies protection against eventualities such as natural disasters. That is why we prefer to refer to risks.

The Locard principle

The Locard principle, also known as the contact theory, concerns reactive policing. According to this, the violated order of the community is restored by resolving the situation (of crime perpetration) by means of criminal investigation.

The philosophical principle behind the contact theory is the continuous latent presence of clues (objective traces) at the scene of the crime, and on the offender, the victim and other objects. This means that, while a crime is being committed, there is a reciprocal transfer of traces are referred to as latent since they are frequently hidden and have to be traced by the criminal using his knowledge and experience, a positive approach and all possible means at his disposal.

These objective traces may take a wide variety of forms and may be organic or inorganic. They may be perceived and classified through the senses, macroscopically (with the naked eye) or microscopically (by chemical analysis and so on), and in conjunction with one another, they make individualization possible.

9. Identification and individualization

Identification and individualization are two keys concepts in criminalistics as the study of scientific crime investigation. Crime investigation relates the repressive policing which implies the restoration of the violated social order. The positive resolution of a crime situation of the criminal act and the persons involved.

Identification is based on the theory that everything in the universe is unique and has specific individual and class characteristics. Consequently, identifying an object for what it really is constitutes the basis of criminal investigation. This process of identification, which in itself consists simply of the identification of a fingerprint, blood and so on (class characteristics), has limited value. However, these identifications are exploited and expanded via a series of additional identifications and comparisons, thus pursuing individualization.

The process of identification usually entails a series of identifications and the comparison of an identified disputed sample with other authentic samples of known origin in order to prove its unique individuality. As a result, the involvement of the objects or person from which the comparable standard has been obtained is regarded as conclusive evidence of the criminal deed. These identifications have a cumulative (increasing through successive additions) effect which leads to individualization (uniqueness and origin).

CRIME PREVENTION (REACTIVE POLICING)

Crime prevention represents a general consensus among experts in the field and is useful as a guiding philosophy for the crime prevention practitioner. Crime prevention is cost effective and needs active cooperation; it gives quality to life in communities and the workplace alike. Crime prevention has a broad scope and is everyones business and duty. It must be tailored to specific needs and is central to policing work.

Crime prevention is a responsibility of government and management at all levels. Crime prevention is forward-thinking and need a visionary approach.

It goes beneath the surface and addresses the root causes of crime.

ORDER / DISORDER

Although the term order is in itself an elusive concept, it amounts to social order where every person must live up to certain expectations and accept certain obligations. To ensure order, we may also demand certain rights from other people.

If the abovementioned state of being implies order, then certainly the term disorder implies order , then certainly the term disorder implies a collapse of order , a state of disorganization and the disrupted society.

SCOPE AND MAIN EFFORT

(AIM)

The open fully the gate of the home of the new science, this of the Police Science and of its Branch the Border Policeology. More over to build a bridge between theory and practice of policing taking in mind all the relevant policies and practices of Europe we can say that...

The aim of the book and of the relevant module is to familiarize participants with the BU polices and practices on Border Management as well as with the concept of the Integrated Border management in order to improve the knowledge, skills, educations and professionalism and be consider as scientists senior officers and not only practitioners.

More over the future demands a new model of police officer. The staff cadre of the first line This is a new style, and we make the present effort aimed to this direction as you see in Chapter 2 of the Part III (Police Role/styles of Policing).

OBJECTIVES

After studying or using periodically this workbook or at the end of this module, the participants should:

1.Know and understand the benefits of the present specialized training and how it can contribute to improving the professionalism and quality of service the Police provides to the state. By this way every one participant will prepare the road of his promotions.

2.I have studied the E.U. Border Management And Integrated Border Management concepts and other necessary best practices and procedures required for carrying out tasks of a senior (Border Police) Officer (job administration, planning and managing border policing related activities and operations).

3.Be capable of monitoring international and regional developments in the area of Border Management.

4.Be able to command Border Police officers in different kind of operational situations and to correspond to the demanded new model of Police officer The staff cadre of the first line.

5.Be able to take strategical and operational measures in order to eliminate the precipitating Factors minimising by the way the opportunities of crime commitment and to develop their relationship with the passive partner against the crime that is the community.

6.Be able to train officers and basic level staff in all the above mentioned and to supply them with written material.

7. Discuss about the philosophical base of Police in general and understand every police matter by a strategical point of view.

INTRODUCTION

The present study concerns an effort to show the new horizons in police matters which are changing rapidly trough out the world.

New terms like police science, security management, integrated border management. Have been introduced in policing along with understanding that nothing exists in a vacuum. Till now everything was considered in its home without seeing that all these apartments, were joined in their backside. This interaction open the till now horizon and helps to solve problems and to develop our knowledge and skills. So it is necessary the so called multiattack (term which is in use in flexible education). This means that all the providings have to reflect to three domains the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain (according the system of Benjamin BLOOM). In order the reported aim and objectives be achieved the present work has try to cover everything concerns the demands for a contemporary strategic police cadre (and border police officer) ready to react to the future challenges of policing. The whole work has been divided in five parts, as you have already seen in the pages of effective window of contents. The Part II mainly and the Part III partly are reported to Police Science because it is the base for Border Policeology. Many titles and subtitles are used in order to facilitate the studious readers. For scientific purposes in some chapters an additional specific bibliography is used reported by the end of these chapters. The significant points are underline other putting them in frames or using bold letters and the so called difficult points are explained. The whole work (educationally) is in fully accordance with the new steps of the European Pedagogy as they are included in Bologna Charta (1999) and in the announcements and Resolution of Prague (2001), Berlin (2003) AND Bergen of Norway (2005) and taking in mind the No. 1,3,4,6,8,9,10,12,13,18,24,27,31 Bibliographical sources which concern the integrated Border Management.

SYSTEMATIZATION

The data of this workbook have been arranged scientifically.

The essential points of the workbook, the acknowledge sources (listed either in the general bibliography or in the specific bibliography of a chapter, alphabetically), are indicated with the reference technique of modified Harvard system. Concerning the last one, the references in the text of the essay are abbreviated by using between brackets, the superscript Arabical numerals indicating the position of the particular source in the list of the bibliography. In some units chapters the previous reported system is used, accompanied by authors name. This last is used every when, the circumstances demand more details.

SYLLABUSPolice science is about the task of maintaining order in society, which is delegated to the police, and with the powers and limitations, the methods and techniques and the relationship issues in the external and internal occupational environment that affect the carrying out of this task. Naturally the subject includes many topics which have to be subdivided for systematic study. Policing as a process always involves all the various topics. Although we present police science in a compartmentalized way, all the subsections are continuous and overlapping in the total police task- the maintenance of order. The syllabus is therefore designed to guide you progressively towards understanding the full implications of the subject.

METHOD OF STUDY

Study is an intellectual activity requiring effort. It is an undertaken largely by the studious reader, and interaction between him and lecturer is inevitable. The authors task is to guide the studious readers within the framework of a particular field of study, and they are expected to study purposefully. This means to look carefully and constantly for new facts; and analyze them critically, assimilating them. This is the only route to independent though and a personal view of the truth contained in the reality around us.

PART II METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

POLICE SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE AND BORDER POLICEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP

Legal sciences

Criminology

Sociology

Psychology

Forensic sciences

Public administration

Political sciences and strategic studies

POLICE SCIENCE

Definition

Key concepts

Field of study

RESEARCH

Theory

Empirical phenomena

Methodology

The research process

Research procedures

Research techniques

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this chapter is to clarify the general meaning of the concept of science-the abstract theory of various sciences or systems of knowledge, and their interdependence.

When scientific study is described as theoretical-philosophical, this does not mean that the particular sphere of knowledge of the various sciences exists in a vacuum, independently of social reality. In earlier times there was a desire for knowledge for the shake of knowledge, irrespective of any applicability to the social context, but this has been replaced by a demand that knowledge should be socially relevant. This does not mean that science is functionally oriented; in other words, it is not concerned with how practitioners should behave in practice, but concentrates rather on the whys, that is on a thorough examination of problems, so that they can be understood and explained. Scientific theorizing arising mainly from social reality, so that the knowledge acquired can be applied in practice.

Depending on the sphere of interest, some sciences are regarded as applied sciences; in other words, the scientifically-based knowledge can be applied by practitioners.

The application of sciences is, however, not science, but the practical application of scientific information. Since police science is concerned with a particular social function, policing, it is classed as an applied science. This does not mean that it deals exclusively with functional procedures. The theoretical relevance (another requirement for a science) of police science is in the exploration of those factors that affect the functional activities of the police, so that, through abstract theory, practitioners can contrast a frame of reference for evaluating the implications of police behaviour. Policing and an orderly society can never be separated. When we explore all the factors influencing functional policing in this interactional process a rich field emerges which provides policing with a distinctive scientific basis. No occupation can acquire the status of a true profession without this kind of scientific reflection. The discussion in this chapter should make it clear that police science has a distinctive field of interest and that, in its overall aim, it has a place alongside the other sciences, this aim being to create a pleasant and orderly way of life.

ORIGIN OF KNOWLEDGE

The four main approaches to the origin of knowledge:

Empiricism. The view that all knowledge comes from sense perception or sensory observation

Rationalism. The view that knowledge comes from both empirical observation and the intellect, but that only the intellect can produce true knowledge.

Criticism. Immanuel Kants view that both sensory observation and intellect contribute to knowledge. Without the contribution of the senses (sense perception) intellect is empty, whereas the senses are blind unless intellect gives form to their perceptions. The senses and the intellect together form a whole and the one cannot function without the other.

Skepticism. This is the view that no real knowledge or truth is possible. The following reason are given:

Human ignorance

Weakness of our research

Doubtfulness of research results and findings

The many errors that are made, and so forth

THE RISE OF THE SCIENCES

The word science is derived from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. A science is the aggregate of knowledge about a subject. This implies that every science has its own orderly system of knowledge that centres on its own field, and that there are specific methods of broadening that knowledge.

Knowledge, or systems of knowledge, are related to particular facets of the world of phenomena around us. Therefore all sciences, no matter how abstract their content may appear, are relevant to society- that is, the theoretical thinking is related to some facet of human existence.

Of course the widely diverse phenomena of human existence cannot all be studied by a single science. Conversely, in most sciences directly concerned with human behaviour, it is difficult to study any one facet without overlapping with the fields of other sciences. Indeed, most of the younger sciences, such as criminology and police science, have been spawned by other sciences as these expanded their fields. The breaking away or emancipation of criminology from sociology, and of police science from criminology, for example, is the consequence of increasingly, intensified, refined and detailed expansion of knowledge along ideographic guidelines, that is, the expansion of knowledge into specialized and unique fields of study. Nor does this knowledge expands in a vacuum, since it works reciprocally towards the nomothetic or established, comprehensive universe of a great variety of sciences; in other words, sciences derive knowledge from one another, and they make knowledge available to one another, contributing to the clarification of facets of individual fields. Derivative or supplementary knowledge cannot, however, from a basic system of knowledge for the recipient science. It has always to be assimilated into a given system of knowledge, where its only purpose is t provide clarity in the particular field of specialization.

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP

The fact that one science springs from another does not mean that the new science is dependent only on the knowledge of the mother science.

In fact, derivation is only of academic interest, in the sense that that the derived science obtains the status of an academic discipline through the mother science. Before its breakaway, in the development of its own specialized field, the expansion of knowledge is symposial rather than unilateral. In other words, the new system of knowledge is related not only to the mother science (unilateral) but also to various other sciences (symbosial derives from the symposium of the great philosopher Plato. (Alltogether around a dinner table where the participants contribute to a serious discussion in a base of equality of rights)

The specialized field of police science is the policing of social order. Police science is concerned with a special and radical social function which embraces all aspects of human interaction. Its relationship with various other sciences is also very important, and the most important of these are discussed below.

Legal sciences

Policing, as the executive authority of the state, is indissolubly bound to the complex set of legal rules controlling human behaviour. Order, which the police have to maintain, could not exist without these. Furthermore, order cannot be achieved through the mere existence of a set of legal rules if their content is not enforced. Thus maintenance of order, the fundamental task of the police and the special field of police science, requires, firstly, the existence of special rules and customs, and, secondly, their execution, that is the enforcement of the legal rules to ensure order.

The various legal sciences and especially concerned with the juridical principles, and with the elements and powers underlying various legal regulations, whereas police science is concerned with the nature and extend of police authority and power created by the legal rules, and with their fundamental significance in the maintenance of order.

The power and authority of the police are certainly not unlimited. Their authority, that is, the right to act in certain circumstances, is determined by the rules that forbid certain acts or omissions on pain of punishment. Interference in human conduct, and actions against people, are justified only if their conduct is in conflict with regulations, which determine authority, are found in the provisions of common law and statutory law.

SYMPOSIAL RELATIONSHIP

The fact that one science springs from another does not mean that the new science is dependent only on the knowledge of the mother science.

In fact, derivation is only of academic interest, in the sense that the derived science obtains the status of an academic discipline through the mother science. Before its breakaway, in the development of its own specialised field, the expansion of knowledge is symposial rather than unilateral. In other words, the new system of knowledge is related not only to the mother science (unilateral) but also to various other sciences (symposial).

The specialised field of police science is the policing of social order. Police science is concerned with a special and radical social function which embraces all aspects of human interaction. Its relationships with various other sciences are also very important, and the most important of these are discussed below.

Legal sciences.

Policing, as the executive authority of the state, is indissolubly bound to the complex set of legal rules controlling human behaviour. Order, which the police have to maintain, could not exist without these. Furthermore, order cannot be achieved through the mere existence of a set of legal rules if their content is not enforced. Thus maintenance of order, the fundamental task of the police and the special field of police science, requires, firstly, the existence of special rules and customs, and, secondly, their execution, that is the enforcement of the legal rules to ensure order.

The various legal sciences are especially concerned with the juridical principles, and with the elements and powers underlying various legal regulations, whereas police science is concerned with the nature and extent of police authority and power created by the legal rules, and with their fundamental significance in the maintenance of order.

The power and authority of the police are certainly not unlimited. Their authority, that is, the right to act in certain circumstances, is determined by the rules that forbid certain acts or omissions on pain of punishment. Interference in human conduct, and actions against people, are justified only if their conduct is in conflict with regulation and customs. These regulations, which determine authority, are found in the provisions of common law and statutory law.

Common law refers to the habits and customs that have crystallised over the centuries for guiding and regulating interactions and relationships in the interests of social order. This set of legal norms, which are also known as primary or universal rules of living is transmitted from one generation to the next. In contrast, statutory law is a permanent system of rules made by a legislative body, and written down in a formal document. These are alternative rules of life, by which new situations in a dynamic society are controlled by regulations. It consists of written and promulgated decrees, proclamations and regulations by the legislative authority and other authorised subordinate bodies, such as provincial and local governments. The word "law" which originates in this and which is usually associated with the, decrees of Parliament (i.e. the government legislature) refers to a separate rule or a complex of rules. It does not include the entire body of legal rules, as the word "justice" implies. Note also that the concept of crime is usually associated with serious breaches of the law (i.e. common law and certain statutes that radically affect the survival of society), while the terms offence and contravention relate to less serious statutory breaches of law. These last are frequently referred to as convenience norms (i.e. norms not essential for an orderly society, but in helping everything to run smoothly). It is in the enforcement of these convenience norms that tolerance or discretionary action is justified.

In addition to these legal rules pertaining to the behaviour, acts and omissions of ordinary citizens, which indicate the ordinary sphere of police authority, the actions of the judiciary subsystem are controlled by procedural law. This permits the police to perform certain actions to restrain infringement of the law, and in fact lays down how these actions must be carried out.

The total set of legal rules is designed to maintain order in society in such a way that the constitutional rights of each individual will be upheld. Whereas the aim of substantive law is to protect the rights of individuals against the actions of others, the aim of procedural law is to protect individual rights in the process of the enforcement of penal law.

This underlying philosophy of protection and ordering makes the law less impersonal than is sometimes assumed. It is a language that speaks to everyone through the letter and the spirit of the law. The law is a form of communication between the legislature and the common man. This form of communication is not merely a matter of words (i.e. the letter), but it conveys a particular message or significance (the spirit of the law). It is of the utmost importance that the communicator (legislator) and the recipient (the public and especially the police who are charged with its implementation) should clearly understand the message of a law. For the legal executive it is of prime importance to understand laws and to interpret them so that the legislator's intention can be clearly identified. Briefly, the general rules applicable are:

(1)The golden rule is that words in an act should be interpreted as having their usual grammatical meaning, unless the words have acquired a special meaning in legal terminology or the purport of the words or the content of the act make it clear that they have acquired a special meaning.

(2)The meanings of words should be interpreted within their historical or common context.

(3)The meanings of words may not be changed by addition or omission. The legislator's meaning must be established by interpreting the actual words in the act in such a way that they are consistent with the content of the sections of the act and with the act as a whole. The legislator's intention should be considered and ambiguity or literal meaning should not be allowed to reduce the act to absurdity.

(4)Some words may possibly have a limited meaning when they are interpreted literally. When this is so, the words are given their broader meaning, so that effect can be given to the legislator's intention. The same rule applies when certain words do not appear in a given section, but where it is reasonable to expect that words need to be added, as they are used elsewhere in the act.

(5)The spirit of the law is not apparent from single words, but the legislator's intention is reflected in the act as a whole. When we speak of the act in its entirety, this does not mean only the sections contained in the act. The legislator's intention may be indicated in the preamble to the act, in its title, in headings to chapters and sections, in marginal notes, in its division into paragraphs and through punctuation, in sections defining words, and in annexures.

(6)When obscurity and ambiguity occur, the law of presumption is applied to determine the intention of the legislator. The most important presumptions are the following:

The legislator does not envisage the over-stringent, the unjust or the unreasonable.

Provisions in statutory law must be interpreted so that there is minimal interference in individual rights.

All persons affected by an act ought to be treated in the same way.

The legislator does not intend the absurd.

The legislator has something effective in mind, and does not make ineffectual or purposeless laws.

Although laws aim at the least possible encroachment on private rights, the interests of the public at large (society) take precedence over those of the individual if the law is ambiguous.

Laws are oriented to the future and not to the past.

Police science is concerned neither with the content nor with the interpretation of legal rules. The preceding discussion however makes it clear that the police, as the executive authority of the state, constitute an essential part of the judicial system, the existence of which is justified in the law. The concern of police science is the method of implementing' the content and philosophical background of the law.

Criminology

In contrast to the legal sciences, which are concerned with the principles and theories underlying laws, criminology deals with crime as a phenomenon related to law. The juridical description of crime is too narrow for criminology, and this subject therefore also embraces other antisocial behaviour which, though not punishable by law, is prejudicial to the stability of society. The phenomenon of crime in this broad sense is the main system of knowledge, and arising from it are studies of the criminal, the victim, and the criminal judicature as subsystems of knowledge.

Criminology is very closely related to sociology, at the point at which it broke away as an independent science from criminal sociology, although its development is directly related to penal law and the penological approach to the punishment of offenders. The classical or traditional penal law was preponderantly juridical- dogmatic, and punishment was meted out without any consideration for the individual in the situation. Studies of the causes, consequences and combating (prevention) of crime has gradually crystallised into criminology.

This suggests that the objective of the criminological study is to give due consideration to all the related factors in the phenomenon of crime, and so, through greater understanding, to combat crime effectively or prevent it

(B. R. No 2, 14, 21- BONGER).

This subject has various subdivisions.

(1)Symptomatology, consists of the descriptions of the phenomenon of crime on the basis of its complexity.

(2)The aetiology of crime is the explanation of causes of the phenomenon individual human and environmental factors.

(3)Control is the prevention and combating of the problem, using penology and police science. These two fields of specialisation, which are practical, have become independent subjects.

Sociology

Sociology is concerned with the study of man in his social or group contexts. Thus it deals with the interaction between people and the relationships stemming from this interaction. Among the points stressed are the nature, structure, origin, form, activities, life, organisation, change and development, of sociology. In this respect occupational sociology or the sociology of occupations is in the forefront. The sociologist expresses occupations in terms of the social relationships which are formed. The occupations are viewed as a collection of roles which individuals interpret and which are defined by the nature of the work performed by these individuals. In those instances where the police are studied from this point of view, the subject of police science acquires interesting and new dimensions (Caplan 1954 B. R. No 2).

A knowledge of military sociology is of particular significance in police science, where we are concerned with accommodation and turnover of individuals, group cohesion, supervision and leadership (Janowitz & Little B. R. No 2).

Most of the literature relating to the police is based on sociology. Relationship patterns created by traffic law enforcement, the particular method of law enforcement, police attitudes, police organisations and training, and protection, are a fruitful field of study, showing that there is a meaningful relationship between sociology and police science.

Psychology

Psychology is about the expression of man's psyche, that is, his personality, temperament, and emotional life. Policing can never be dissociated from these individual human traits, since the law is created by people for the control of people by people. It is sometimes said that the human environment is the product of the human psyche, and sometimes that the human psyche is the product of its environment. This shows the inevitable interaction between man's psyche and his environment. The effect of this interaction is of the utmost importance for police science, in its study of factors that beneficially or adversely affect the maintenance of order.

Forensic sciences

Crime investigation, or repressive policing, relies heavily on the findings and approaches of the forensic sciences through criminalistics. The forensic sciences are specialised branches or schools of chemistry, medicine, physics, pharmacology, physiology, biology, entomology, odontology, geology, botany, and metallurgy, where the knowledge of the different sciences is used in the solving of legal problems. )

Forensic medicine is a specialised branch of medical science which correlates medical knowledge, and applies it to legal questions (B. R. No 2, 14, 21-Taylor). It is of particular importance to police science and criminalistics, in that it plays a major role in the compilation and interpretation of facts revealed by post-mortem examinations of the human body. Crime investigation and the evidence that follows cannot make any progress without the help of these sciences.

Public administration

Administrative design and the fundamental principles underlying organisation and administration are the subject matter of public administration.

Since policing is always carried out in an organisational context, these general principles are always specifically related to the special nature of police institutions. General management and integrated border management are components of this b.g.section.

Political science and strategic studies

Political science is the study of political theories, dynamics and science, forms of government, government norms, systems of government, government policy and the implementation of such policy. The last-mentioned topic is of special importance to police science.

Strategic studies: deal with warfare, military power, armament, disarmament, nonmilitary forms of conflict and internal warfare (insurgency, civil or guerrilla warfare). Strategy is the first and foremost topic especially in Police cooperation issues.

POLICE SCIENCE

It has been noticed that, when discussing the other sciences, we referred time and again to those aspects related to police science. This illustrates the overlapping and interdependent complexity of people, and the wide variety of sciences related to man and his social world, that intersect at many points, and that derive knowledge from each other. This applies equally to police science. Admittedly knowledge is borrowed, but it does not constitute the basis of our system of knowledge. This exchange of knowledge does not vitiate the distinctive field of police science; here, as in the development of most sciences, borrowed knowledge is applied selectively to supplement the distinctive system of knowledge. Policing is in fact a social function involving almost all facets of human existence, and it is, by implication, related in some way to many other sciences. You should not regard police science as a conglomeration of parts of other sciences it is a distinctive field, and the borrowed knowledge is processed within the framework of this field.

Definition

Police science is the system of knowledge related to the policing of social order. It concerns particularly powers and limitations, methods and techniques, and relationship issues influencing the realisation of the delegated task of the police. This definition includes far more than general definitions such as scientific criminology and scientific crime detection. Police science is indeed concerned with the control and suppression of crime, as the definition implies. This is especially clear when the key concepts of policing and social order are considered.

KEY CONCEPTS

Social order: Note that social order cannot exist unless interrelationships are acceptably expressed. The individual as a gregarious creature always has a particular relationship with others, their property, and with the state (or society). When interaction shows signs of conflict it is essential that disruptive behaviour be expressly forbidden and suppressed. Because of this conflict in relationships, legal regulations are in force. Thus whereas the letter of the law aims at a specific act or omission, the spirit of the law lies in its underlying goal, which is to stabilise relationships in society in such a way as to preserve the constitutional rights of every citizen and the harmonious coexistence of all. Respect for the rights of others is ensured by informal and formal control.

Informal control is effected through formal and informal instruction. In this process of socialisation, or teaching, by primary groups such as the family, the school, the church, and the neighbourhood, accepted behaviour and norms are inculcated into the individual. By this means he becomes self-controlling in that he internalises expectations and norms (i.e. makes them his own) thus achieving internal .control. This means that any other form of control is Superfluous because the individual himself now directs his own behaviour in accordance with the accepted norms. We have referred to the role of "primary groups", that is, those people or social institutions that especially influence the young in their formative years. The people cannot hold themselves aloof from this process of socialisation: their ways of respecting the laws of the country and their ways of dealing with juveniles are invaluable in socialisation.

Formal control becomes necessary when informal control fails to keep behaviour at an accepted level. When informal control fails, conflicts set in, and these need to be controlled by formal regulations. Legal regulations, despite their formal nature, have a value in socialisation, because they aim at observance of the law. Essentially they make for order in that voluntary observance of the law makes further processes of control superfluous.

Because the mere existence of laws cannot control behaviour, society, through the government, provides for their implementation.

Policing

Policing is defined as that exercise of power in the formal structure of social control by which internal order is maintained in accordance with the principles of legal competence and individual constitutional rights.

This definition includes far more than merely the enforcement of the law, which is traditionally regarded as the only function of the police. Enforcing the law, which in fact means collection of evidence that a law has been contravened, and the arrest of the offender, emphasises the reactional (i.e. action after the deed) nature of policing. The term "maintenance of order" embraces far more.

"Maintenance" implies that a specific state of affairs should be preserved in the first place by preventing its disruption. This proactive or preventive character of policing derives from the historic evolution of the concept of policing. The status quo or existing state of affairs is protected by preventive methods until an unbalanced state of affairs needs to be restored to the status quo or improved by repressive methods.

We can draw a clear distinction between the terms "execution" and "enforcement" of the law. Enforcement of the law centres on the negative form of social control through prosecution, while execution of the law relates to its positive aspects. The law per se is not intended merely to restrain people's behaviour; it acts in addition to maintaining order, as protection against the conduct of others. This protective attitude on the part of government lies in the constitutional acceptance of the delegated task of protecting the rights of every citizen against unlawful interference by others. The maintenance and protective aspects of the law, are implicit in the police role, which centres on activities intended to eliminate or minimise latent threats to society and on the informal resolution of conflict in relationships.

Field of study

The field of study of a science is its delimited specialised sphere of interest; but in studying the particular sphere of interest, you need to take into account that its philosophical basis automatically includes certain fundamental issues such as its origins and development.

Preventive policing

Preventive policing aims at society's positive control of crime. This requires preventive activities such as patrol, traffic control, security, the education of society, the consolidation of the partnership in policing, (i.e. the stimulation of the public's cooperation), the handling of juveniles, and any other measure or aid for eliminating or minimising the opportunity or predisposition of individuals to commit a crime.

Repressive policing

Enforcement of the law is equated with repressive policing. This means the use by the police of specific powers, such as arrest, searching, entering premises, and detention, to restore an orderly situation which has been violated. These assertions of power are part of the process of administering justice whereby the police collect evidence or information which can be used to individualise positively the involvement of a person or persons. To effect individualisation (which in police science has the special meaning of positive proof of the guilt or innocence of a suspect or an accused), the police use every possible accepted method to collect evidence or facts. This includes all criminalistic procedures such as dactyloscopy, reference to ballistics, forensic medicine, forensic chemistry, the investigation of disputed documents, techniques for personal identification, interrogation, surveillance and observation.

Role environment

Because policing is very closely related to human interaction we can expect it to be influenced by the environment in which and through which it is fulfilled. Here we distinguish between the internal and external occupational environments. The external occupational environment refers to the field in which the real role of the police is fulfilled. It consists of the physical environment (i.e. the ecological or spatial distribution of people and the social processes that cause it) and the psychological environment (i.e. the inner psychological processes that influence human interactions). This is not the task of the police scientist to study in depth all these sociological and psychological problems. They merely form part of the knowledge borrowed by police science from other sciences to illuminate the problems facing policing.

The internal occupational environment relates to the organisational structure of police institutions. For this we study the influence of formal structure (rank and post hierarchy), administration, personnel management (recruitment, selection, training, motivation, discipline), and control, on the actualisation of the primary goal.

The role of the individual policeman is defined for him by the external and internal occupational environment (prescriptive role definition) and by himself (i.e. subjective role definition). The satisfactory performance of his function depends on the degree to which he succeeds in reconciling these definitions (Clinard 1968- B. R. No 2).

Study this brief account in conjunction with your textbooks and make sure that you will be able to answer a full question on the field of police science.

RESEARCH

We have already defined a science as an orderly system of knowledge about a specific field, in which certain methods are employed to broaden that knowledge. These methods constitute the methodology or rules applicable to scientific work. In this sense research is a fertile breeding ground for methodology.

Research can therefore be defined as "...the manner in which we attempt to solve problems in a systematic effort to push back the frontiers of human ignorance or to confirm the validity of solutions others have presumably solved" (Leedy- B. R. No 2, 14, 21).

There are three main elements in research: theory, methodology and data (empirical or observable phenomena). These elements are continually and consciously manipulated by the researcher, and this interaction may be described as research designed to expand and deepen the systematised knowledge that is science.

Thus science is an open system of knowledge in which there is always a possibility of dramatic new insight into a specific problem or phenomenon.

Theories are not absolute and can be modified at any time if this is proved necessary by empirically observed facts (reality).

In your study of police science you will encounter various theories of policing in general. Ideally these theories should be studied by comparing them with real situations and evaluating their relevance and validity. Testing a theory should stimulate further research, since theories do not always fully describe or explain the phenomena in question. It is therefore necessary to relate theory to practice to achieve congruence between theory and practice in a specific science. We will now discuss theory in general, as well as its methodological implications.

Theory

Although the diversity of sciences makes it difficult to describe theory as a general concept, Hughes's definition (1981- B. R. No 2, 19), albeit broad, is adequate for the purposes of police science. He defines theory as specific, interrelated concepts within a theoretical structure which claim to explain certain aspects of empirical reality.

Theories differ in the number and size of their concepts, in the complexity of the relationships between these concepts, and in their focus the empirical problems which they address themselves to (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19). It thus appears that theories explain specific phenomena (which constitute their empirical focus).

Theories are also useful in that they organise and condense knowledge. Skidmore (1979- B. R. No 2, 19) puts it thus:

In general, the strength of theory is its ability to bring a great deal of organized thought and information to bear on a specific problem, and thereby go beyond unsystematic thought in detail and precision. Theories work out and hold ideas ready to be used at a moment's notice.

Theories do not all have the same explanatory or predictive value. One can distinguish three levels:

(1)Low-level or ad hoc theories have only a few concepts of limited meaning. The crime hypothesis is a typical example of such a theory. It has only two concepts (predisposing and precipitating factors).

(2)Middle-range theories have more limited explanatory and predictive value and also use fewer concepts than general theories. Examples include Sutherland's differential association theory and Reckless's control theory.

(3)General theories appear or profess to describe and explain phenomena exhaustively. An example is Merton's anomie theory, particularly because the theoretical interaction between key concepts (innovation, rebellion, etc.) is not clearly spelled out. Thus, according to the theory, the concepts can apply to almost any relevant situation. It is questionable whether theories can be generalised to any great extent, although certain empirical (real-life) situations may be amenable to generalisation.

An eclectic approach is preferable to the theories discussed above because theories with a similar focus and similar problem-solving abilities (known as "unit theories") may all be capable of describing and explaining a given situation. Wagner maintains that "... theories may be said to be related because they share a problem focus or a base of relevant observations; that is, the predictions of theories may apply in similar empirical circumstances" (Wagner 1984- B. R. No 19).

Common sense may also suggest a variety of theories capable of describing a given situation. Note, however, that when a number of theories are applied to the same situation one will usually be more apposite than the rest. In a sense all these theories are part factors in a causal system, but one theory (the one that describes that situation most accurately) will tend to be the dominant one. The dominant one will be the progressive one within that particular causal system, whereas the less applicable ones will be regressive.

If a researcher formulates a theory which appears to explain a certain empirical (observable) situation, other researchers will want to test it. Wagner (1984- B. R. No 19) describes this process as follows:

(1) The researcher derives empirical statements from the theoretical structure by analysing concepts within it (that is, he compares theoretical concepts with reality or the world of phenomena).

(2)He performs one or more empirical investigations to test the validity of the explanation offered by the theory.

(3)The researcher then assesses the credibility of the theory.

Not all theories are equally amenable to empirical verification. We will not discuss this, however. A theory is sometimes regarded as "proven" once it has been tested in empirical reality. Scientists prefer, however, to regard a theory as relatively "true" rather than absolute (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19). According to Goldstein (1969- B. R. No 19) theoretical concepts are subject to the following standards:

(1)Empirical import: Theoretical concepts should enable the student or researcher to identify the empirical phenomena they purport to describe or explain. Theoretical concepts are abstract and should suggest their empirical counterparts.

(2)Fruitfulness: Theories should reduce or condense complex empirical situations or phenomena to a number of possible explanations. These should permit a large number of connections between theoretical concepts. Above all, theories should offer several explanations rather than a simplistic description.

(3)Internal consistency: The theoretical concepts used in a particular explanatory or descriptive model should be consistent and should not contradict one another.

(4)Mathematisation of expression: It should be possible to express theoretical concepts in mathematical terms. In the crime hypothesis, for example, the predisposing factor may be represented by the symbol P1 and the precipitating factor by the symbol P2.

An interesting and complex situation arises when theories profess to describe or explain the same phenomenon. The researcher then has to choose the theory best suited to his purposes. He may also subject the theories to further empirical verification. Theories may be competitive, particularly since they often share the same theoretical territory. Empirical research may lead the researcher to modify theories in order to describe or explain empirical or practical situations more fully. Such modification increases the relative "truth" and value of a theory. Theories may grow or expand from within, and two or more theories that are similar in structure may be integrated. This enhances their focus, their problem-solving ability and their value.

Theory growth is an evolutionary process subject to empirical verification. Empirical verification is not the only way in which theories grow, however. Reflection on the implications of theories is another:

If theory growth were to depend on increasing observational (empirical) support, no new ideas or theories would be possible ... Yes, data are informative for theory, but they do not tell us everything. Data constitutes [sic] only one input to knowledge; theoretical creativity, often ignored, constitutes the other (Wagner 1984- B. R. No 19).

Careful analysis of theories used in police science shows that they are closely related to the internal occupational environment (role environment). The above is merely a summary of the pertinence of theory to science. A second element to be considered is empirical phenomena (reality).

Empirical phenomena

The police scientist is interested in the internal and external occupational or role environment of the policeman. The external occupational environment consists of the physical and the psychological environments. The mechanisms of spatial and social mobility greatly influence human activities in general and policing in particular. They also determine relations between the police and the public. If one considers the complexity of the policeman's internal occupational (or organisational) environment as well as the ever changing external environment, one can appreciate the problematic and dynamic nature of his task. All factors pertaining to the internal and external occupational environments are empirically observable. The policeman is a visible, observable symbol, as are police stations and vehicles, members of the public, their homes in the suburbs and the interaction between public and police. It is important, however, to distinguish between objective and subjective reality. We all have subjective impressions of the world in which we live, and researchers are not immune. There is also an objective reality which researchers attempt to describe and explain, but their objectivity is impaired by imperfect sensory and cognitive processes (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19).

In view of this, researchers will always attempt to verify any theory which is in fact an abstraction of the objective reality it professes to explain. When their verificatory observations confirm those of the original theorist, they can be said to have reached consensus on their subjective impressions of objective reality. This consensus cannot, however, guarantee absolute correctness (Goldstein 1969- B. R. No 19), for various reasons. The researcher may make methodological errors (mistranslation of theoretical concepts into empirical concepts, incorrect observational techniques or misinterpretation of findings). Research must therefore always be tested for reliability and validity. In particular researchers should constantly ask themselves whether the most obvious explanations for their findings are necessarily the only ones. This is known in methodology as looking for "alternative plausible hypotheses" (Binder & Geis 1983- B. R. No 2).

Objective reality therefore provides a data base from which theories are generated and according to which they are evaluated, although theories are not the only way in which reality may be described and explained. Descriptions and explanations conducted at a nontheoretical level are sometimes called empirical studies and empirical findings. However, a theoretical basis is essential in any science. You will remember that theories at the various levels are not always empirically verified. Yet empirical verification is often presented as a foolproof test of the (relative) truth of a theory. Goldstein (1969- B. R. No 19) comments pertinently:

The recognition that a theory itself is not properly "true" or "false" but that it is only a guide to making certain observations, can help the practitioner to use theory as a guide and to recognize that connections between observations that are implied by the theory may not always be found in practice.

We have now discussed theory and empirical reality. Methodology, which may be regarded as the link between the two, is the subject of the next section.MethodologyMethodology has been described as the "science of methods" (Van der Walt et al. 1977- B. R. No 2, 21). We have already pointed out that methodology is the set of rules used to test scientific theories. When verifying theories one should be aware of the need to verify the scientific methods and techniques used by the researcher who postulated a particular theory. Mouton et al. (1985- B. R. No 2) point out that methodology is the logic underlying the use of scientific methods in the study of reality. As such it is the essence of research.Phenomena may be researched at an exploratory, descriptive or explanatory (applied) level. Different methodological rules apply to each of the three levels, and these make up different research strategies.Descriptive studies may merely describe specific phenomena, or they may indicate statistical correlations between variables, and in the process may explain them. Hence such studies may be quantitative or qualitative (Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2).The aim of explanatory studies is to demonstrate causal relations between events or variables. An explanatory (or applied) study may therefore enable the researcher to make certain predictions about the relation between specific variables (Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2).Exploratory studies make use of theories and could entail the modification or creation of theoretical concepts and the extension of the domain (or applicability) of a theory. New or expanded theories may then serve to generate new hypotheses (tentative explanations). We need to ask ourselves whether an exploratory study, especially a theoretical one, can be both descriptive and explanatory. The theoretical relation between concepts and the generation of hypotheses (tentative answers or explanations) implies causality in the sense of a specific correlation between concepts (variables).The various sciences have specific preferences as regards research methods and techniques. The researcher's choice of method or technique will depend on the degree of control he wishes to exercise over his research. He may use one of two methods: either case analysis or mass observation (whether direct or through the study of statistics).The two methods are combined in the analytical method, which is used at all levels of criminological and police science research whether descriptive or explanatory (applied, predictive). You may therefore come across studies in which both case analysis and mass-observational (statistical) methods are used. Specific techniques are associated with each of these methods. Statistical mass observation makes use of sampling techniques and frequency distribution tables, whereas in case analyses questionnaires and various other methods of observation (including experiments) are used.Mass observation may be used in a descriptive study to survey a phenomenon quantitatively (statistically), for instance by establishing its nature and extent by means of frequency distribution tables. After selecting cases from a group (population) by means of some sampling technique (part of the method of mass observation), the researcher can study them using interviews or questionnaires (part of the method of case analysis). As associations between variables emerge they can be isolated as elements of the problem under investigation. The association (or causal relationship) can then be expressed statistically and specific correlations between variables given in the explanation (Van der Westhuizen 1977- B. R. No 28).It appears from the literature that researchers disagree about the relative value of certain research techniques. It is generally assumed that some techniques do not provide sufficient control in the research situation. Questionnaires and interviews, for example, are regarded as unreliable measures, resulting in risky assumptions especially as regards validity.Binder and Geis (1983:123) write:Fieldwork in the manner of anthropologists and ethologists is generally called naturalistic observation. At the other end of the continuum, where we have the true experiment, the researcher enjoys full control of the investigative context. Between these two extreme points on the spectrum there are many situations where the researcher can exercise some, much, or a good deal of control over the subject matter, though, of cause, less than the full control made possible by laboratory conditions. Important advances of knowledge occur at all points along the continuum, from naturalistic observations through partial control to full control.Consequently, empirical studies, particularly those in which certain techniques are used, are sometimes disputed. This complicates the testing of theories because of the difficulty of relating theoretical implications (interpretation of concepts) to empirical phenomena (concepts). Subsequent testing of the empirical presuppositions of a given theory by means of specific techniques also presents problems. The researcher must therefore be alert to potential pitfalls.The above is a brief summary of methodology in general, but there are numerous sources which you could consult. We will now discuss the research process.The research processOur discussion of theory, empirical reality and methodology has been fairly brief. Research (and scientific practice) is, however, a complex process and human scientists have differing opinions on the nature of social reality. The subject of the human sciences is man in all his diversity. Because researchers approach social reality and human actions from different angles, we speak of research communities which operate on certain premises (paradigms). These assumptions may be regarded as social perspectives or ontological premises, which have far-reaching methodological consequences and affect the choice of methods and techniques.In science a primary distinction is made between positivism and humanism. Positivism emphasises the quantification of concepts, the attendant formalisation of concepts and theories, the use of objective methods and techniques, and the necessity of verifying theories through empirical observation. Positivism is based on the methods of the natural sciences, especially the quantification of data, and objectivity.Hughes (198- B. R. No 2) notes that in positivism "the scientist is invoked [sic] to rid himself of personal prejudices and biases which may stand in the way of the dispassionate and objective verification or falsification of his theories. He must stand outside the phenomena he studies". From a critical positivist point of view, only directly observable, objectively measurable phenomena are acceptable as scientific data.The subject of humanism, on the other hand, is man and his many activities. Humanists emphasise that "human beings are not 'things' to be studied in the way one studies arts, plants, or rocks, but are valuing, meaning-attributing beings to be understood as subjects and known as subjects The phenomena of everyday life must be studied in its [sic] own terms by methods that retain the integrity of that [sic] phenomena, not phenomena created by experimental situations or other positivistic methods" (Hughes 1981- B. R. No 2). An important humanist tenet is that the researcher, in his full humanity, is subjectively involved in the research situation.Research paradigms (or social perspectives) can be either positivist or humanist, and this will affect a researcher's view of social reality. A sociologist, for example, may adopt the systems approach to social reality. He identifies various subsystems within the system and logically integrates these. It is, furthermore, accepted that equilibrium is maintained through the mechanisms of adaptation, integration and goal achievement (Wagner 1984- B. R. No 19). Another paradigm or social perspective is Karl Marx's conflict theory with its highly distinctive suppositions about the nature of society. Marxian theory assesses the structure of society and social interaction in terms of dialectical (historical) materialism and the class struggle.It is important for you to understand that these different assumptions (system and conflict approaches) are simply frames of reference which the researcher may use in his study of social reality. They are neither true nor false but they orient research and theorisation. Let us consider the essential nature of research and scientific assumptions. Wagner writes:They are statements about values, not statements about facts. They tell us how we ought to study the social world, not what is true or false about the world such prescriptive arguments are largely nonempirical. Conflicts between them are generally unresolvable by either fact or reason.Irrespective of his chosen paradigm and approach, the researcher's aim is to generate valid findings (Mouton et al. 1985- B. R. No 2). The thing to remember, however, is that neither the positivist nor the humanist approach, with the associated paradigms, produces absolute truth.Researchers often adopt an approach midway between positivism and humanism. Quantitative research is generally associated with positivism (structured questionnaires and interviews), whereas qualitative research is associated with humanism (participant observation).Both approaches may be acceptable in terms of a specific social perspective (ontological premise). In police science, conflict arising from a given spatial and social mobility may involve both qualitative (humanist) and quantitative (positivist) research.Group formation depending on mobility (decentralisation) may be explained in terms of the systems approach, whereas stratification as a result of social mobility may be explained in terms of the conflict approach (or the class struggle).As pointed out above, paradigms are not necessarily exclusive: they may overlap, and the researcher may make use of a combination of positivism and humanism. This seems to be the best approach for police science. By combining t