plc based automation

8/18/2019 plc based automation

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PLEASE NOTE: THE MATTER

PRODUCED BELOW IS

REFERENCE MATERIAL ONLY

FOR PREPARING THE PROJECT

REPORT. IT IS NOT THE

COMPLETE PROJECT REPORT.

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A PROJECT REPORT ON

LOW COST PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL (PLC) FOR

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION IN REPETATIVE NATURE OF

WORK

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

AC!E"OR OF EN#$NEER$N#

$N

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% EN#$NEER$N#

S&'$TTE( )

-------------------- (--------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

(EPART'ENT OF %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% EN#$NEER$N#

%%%%%%%%%%CO""E#E OF EN#$NEER$N#

AFF$"$ATE( TO %%%%%%%%%%% &N$*ERS$T)

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CERTIFICATE

This is to +ertif, that the dissertation wor- entitled LOW COST

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL ( PLC) FOR INDUSTRIAL

AUTOMATION IN REPETATIVE NATURE OF WORK is the wor- done b,

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%submitted in partial

fulfillment for the award of .AC!E"OR OF EN#$NEER$N# /0E12in

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%Engineering from%%%%%%%%%%%%%% College of

Engineering affiliated to %%%%%%%%% &ni3ersit,4 !,derabad 0

________________ ____________

(Head of te de!a"t#e$t% ECE) (A&&'&ta$t P"ofe&&o")

ETERNAL EAMINER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfa+tion and euphoria that a++ompan, the su++essful +ompletion of an,

tas- would be in+omplete without the mentioning of the people whose +onstant

guidan+e and en+ouragement made it possible0 5e ta-e pleasure in presenting

before ,ou4 our pro6e+t4 whi+h is result of studied blend of both resear+h and

-nowledge0

5e e7press our earnest gratitude to our internal guide4 Assistant Professor

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%4 (epartment of ECE4 our pro6e+t guide4 for his +onstant

support4 en+ouragement and guidan+e0 5e are grateful for his +ooperation and

his 3aluable suggestions0

Finall,4 we e7press our gratitude to all other members who are in3ol3ed either

dire+tl, or indire+tl, for the +ompletion of this pro6e+t0

DECLARATION4


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5e4 the undersigned4 de+lare that the pro6e+t entitled LOW COST

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL ( PLC) FOR INDUSTRIAL

AUTOMATION IN REPETATIVE NATURE OF WORK*4 being submitted

in partial fulfillment for the award of a+helor of Engineering (egree in

Ele+troni+s and Communi+ation Engineering4 affiliated to %%%%%%%%%

&ni3ersit,4 is the wor- +arried out b, us0

%%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%

CONTENTS PAGE NO+

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80 ASTRACT 9

:0 $NTRO(&CT$ON TO E'E((E( S)STE'S 8;

RE"A) ?

?0 P&S! &TTONS ?9

?0B "C( <

?09 &"N:;;< >

?08; 8N?;;

?088 "E(

?08: "OA(

?08: RES$STORS

?08< CAPAC$TORS

0 SOFT5ARE RE@&$RE'ENTS >

08 $(E

0: CONCEPT OF CO'P$"ER

0< CONCEPT OF CROSS CO'P$"ER B

0? =E$" C CROSS CO'P$"ER 9

0 &$"($N# AN APP"$CAT$ON $N &*$S$ON: 9

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0> CREAT$N# )O&R O5N APP"$CAT$ON $N &*$S$ON: 9

0 (E#$N# AN APP"$CAT$ON $N &*$S$ON: >;

0B START$N# &*$S$ON: D CREAT$N# A PROJECT >8

09 5$N(O5S% F$"ES >8

08; &$"($N# PROJECTS D CREAT$N# !E F$"ES >8

088 CP& S$'&"AT$ON >:

08: (ATAASE SE"ECT$ON >:

08< START (E#$N# ><

08? ($SASSE'") 5$N(O5 ><

08 E'E((E( C >?

>0 SC!E'AT$C ($A#RA' >>

08 (ESCR$PT$ON >

0 "A)O&T ($A#RA' 8

B0 $"" OF 'ATER$A"S :

90 CO($N#

908 CO'P$"ER >

90: SO&RCE CO(E B?

8;0 !AR(5ARE TEST$N# BB

8;08 CONT$N&$T) TEST BB

8;0: PO5ER ON TEST B9

880 RES&"TS >9

8:0CONC"&S$ON 9<

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:/a1 E'E((E( (ES$#N CA""S 8:

:/b1 .*2 ($A#RA' 8:

< "OC= ($A#RA' OF T!E PROJECT 8>

?08 A T)P$CA" TRANSFOR'ER 89

?0:/a1 "OC= ($A#RA' OF *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR :8

?0:/b1 RAT$N# OF *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR ::

?0:/+1 PERFOR'ANCE C!ARACTER$ST$CS

OF *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR ::

?0/a1 "OC= ($A#RA' OF ATB9S: :

?0/b1 P$N ($A#RA' OF ATB9S: :B

?0/+1 OSC$""ATOR CONNECT$ONS


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The main ob6e+ti3e of the pro6e+t is designing a programmable sequential swit+hing

of an, load using embedded s,stem based mi+ro+ontroller +on+ept0

The de3elopment of this appli+ation requires the +onfiguration of mi+ro+ontroller

ar+hite+ture that is the sele+tion of the ma+hines4 and writing debugging of the appli+ation

program0 $n this pro6e+t4 the +lo+- pla,s an important role4 where it is used in the following

mode i0e04 the set mode4 auto mode and manual mode for +ontrolling different ma+hines0 $n

set mode4 through the digital +lo+- the ma+hiner, will run based onoff and on time where as

in auto mode the, will run b, default settings and finall, in the manual mode the realGtime

s,stems used e7tensi3el, in industrial +ontrol appli+ations +an run depending on the user2s

need and fle7ibilit,0

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-+INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED S.STEMS

Wat '& e#/edded &0&te#1

An Embedded S,stem is a +ombination of +omputer hardware and software4 and

perhaps additional me+hani+al or other parts4 designed to perform a spe+ifi+ fun+tion0 An

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E#/eddedS0&te#&

Computer Ar+hite+ture

SoftwareEngineering(ata

Communi+ationControl

Engineering

Ele+tri+ motorsand a+tuators

Sensors andmeasurements

AnalogEle+troni+ design

(igitalEle+troni+ design

$ntegrated +ir+uitdesign

E#/edded &0&te# de&'2$ 3a44& o$ #a$0 d'&3'!4'$e&

Operating Systems

BuildDownloadDebugTools

embedded s,stem is a mi+ro+ontrollerGbased4 software dri3en4 reliable4 realGtime +ontrol

s,stem4 autonomous4 or human or networ- intera+ti3e4 operating on di3erse ph,si+al

3ariables and in di3erse en3ironments and sold into a +ompetiti3e and +ost +ons+ious mar-et0

An embedded s,stem is not a +omputer s,stem that is used primaril, for pro+essing4

not a software s,stem on PC or &N$4 not a traditional business or s+ientifi+ appli+ation0

!ighGend embedded D lower end embedded s,stems0 !ighGend embedded s,stem G #enerall,

? it Controllers used with OS0 E7amples Personal (igital Assistant and 'obile phones

et+ 0"ower end embedded s,stems G #enerall, B48> it Controllers used with an minimal

operating s,stems and hardware la,out designed for the spe+ifi+ purpose0

S.STEM DESIGN CALLS5

Figure :/a1H Embedded s,stem design +alls

EMBEDDED S.STEM DESIGN C.CLE

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SystemTestin

g

SystemDefinit

ionTargeting

RapidProt

otyping

Hardware-in-the-

LoopTesting

Figure :/b1HI* (iagram

Ca"a3te"'&t'3& of E#/edded S0&te#

K An embedded s,stem is an, +omputer s,stem hidden inside a produ+t other than a

+omputer0

K The, will en+ounter a number of diffi+ulties when writing embedded s,stem software

in addition to those we en+ounter when we write appli+ations0

L Throughput L Our s,stem ma, need to handle a lot of data in a short period of

time0

L ResponseLOur s,stem ma, need to rea+t to e3ents qui+-l,0

L Testabilit,LSetting up equipment to test embedded software +an be diffi+ult0

L (ebugabilit,L5ithout a s+reen or a -e,board4 finding out what the software is

doing wrong /other than not wor-ing1 is a troublesome problem0

L Reliabilit, L embedded s,stems must be able to handle an, situation without

human inter3ention0

L 'emor, spa+e L 'emor, is limited on embedded s,stems4 and ,ou must

ma-e the software and the data fit into whate3er memor, e7ists0

L Program installation L ,ou will need spe+ial tools to get ,our software into

embedded s,stems0

L Power +onsumption L Portable s,stems must run on batter, power4 and the

software in these s,stems must +onser3e power0

L Pro+essor hogs L +omputing that requires large amounts of CP& time +an

+ompli+ate the response problem0

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L Cost L Redu+ing the +ost of the hardware is a +on+ern in man, embedded

s,stem pro6e+tsM software often operates on hardware that is barel, adequate

for the 6ob0

K Embedded s,stems ha3e a mi+ropro+essor mi+ro+ontroller and a memor,0 Some

ha3e a serial port or a networ- +onne+tion0 The, usuall, do not ha3e -e,boards4

s+reens or dis- dri3es0

APPLICATIONS

81 'ilitar, and aerospa+e embedded software appli+ations: 1 Communi+at ion App li+at ions


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3.BLOCK DIAGRAM

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Fig


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4.HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE COMPONENTS5

80 TRANSFOR'ER /:


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:0 *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR /"' B;1


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power supplies use a stepGdown transformer to redu+e the dangerousl, high 3oltage to a safer

low 3oltage0

F$# ?08H A T)P$CA" TRANSFOR'ER

The input +oil is +alled the primar, and the output +oil is +alled the se+ondar,0 There

is no ele+tri+al +onne+tion between the two +oilsM instead the, are lin-ed b, an alternating

magneti+ field +reated in the softGiron +ore of the transformer0 The two lines in the middle of

the +ir+uit s,mbol represent the +ore0 Transformers waste 3er, little power so the power out

is /almost1 equal to the power in0 Note that as 3oltage is stepped down and +urrent is stepped

up0

The ratio of the number of turns on ea+h +oil4 +alled the turn2s ratio4 determines the

ratio of the 3oltages0 A stepGdown transformer has a large number of turns on its primar,/input1 +oil whi+h is +onne+ted to the high 3oltage mains suppl,4 and a small number of turns

on its se+ondar, /output1 +oil to gi3e a low output 3oltage0

T&RNS RAT$O /*p *s1 / Np Ns 1

5here4

*p primar, /input1 3oltage0

*s se+ondar, /output1 3oltage

Np number of turns on primar, +oil

Ns number of turns on se+ondar, +oil

$p primar, /input1 +urrent

$s se+ondar, /output1 +urrent0

Idea4 !o7e" e89at'o$

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The ideal transformer as a +ir+uit element

$f the se+ondar, +oil is atta+hed to a load that allows +urrent to flow4 ele+tri+al power istransmitted from the primar, +ir+uit to the se+ondar, +ir+uit0 $deall,4 the transformer is

perfe+tl, effi+ientM all the in+oming energ, is transformed from the primar, +ir+uit to the

magneti+ field and into the se+ondar, +ir+uit0 $f this +ondition is met4 the in+oming ele+tri+

power must equal the outgoing powerH

#i3ing the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normall, ha3e high effi+ien+,4 so this formula is a reasonable appro7imation0

$f the 3oltage is in+reased4 then the +urrent is de+reased b, the same fa+tor0 The impedan+e in

one +ir+uit is transformed b, the square of the turns ratio0 For e7ample4 if an impedan+e Z s is

atta+hed a+ross the terminals of the se+ondar, +oil4 it appears to the primar, +ir+uit to ha3e an

impedan+e of / N p N s1: Z s0 This relationship is re+ipro+al4 so that the impedan+e Z p of the

primar, +ir+uit appears to the se+ondar, to be / N s N p1: Z p0

6+- VOLTAGE REGULATOR :;


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Feat9"e&

K Output Current up to 8A0

K Output *oltages of 4 >4 B4 94 8;4 8:4 84 8B4 :?*0

K Thermal O3erload Prote+tion0

K Short Cir+uit Prote+tion0

K Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Prote+tion0

De&3"'!t'o$

The "'B"'BA series of threeGterminal positi3e regulators are a3ailable in

the TOG::;(GPA= pa+-age and with se3eral fi7ed output 3oltages4 ma-ing them useful in a

5ide range of appli+ations0 Ea+h t,pe emplo,s internal +urrent limiting4 thermal shutdown

and safe operating area prote+tion4 ma-ing it essentiall, indestru+tible0 $f adequate heat

sin-ing is pro3ided4 the, +an deli3er o3er 8A output Current0 Although designed primaril, as

fi7ed 3oltage regulators4 these de3i+es +an be used with e7ternal +omponents to obtain

ad6ustable 3oltages and +urrents0

I$te"$a4 B4o3> D'a2"a#

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F$# ?0:/a1H "OC= ($A#RA' OF *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR

A/&o49te Ma?'#9# Rat'$2&

TA"E ?0:/b1H RAT$N#S OF T!E *O"TA#E RE#&"ATOR

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6+@ RECTIFIER

A re+tifier is an ele+tri+al de3i+e that +on3erts alternating +urrent /AC14 whi+h

periodi+all, re3erses dire+tion4 to dire+t +urrent /(C14 +urrent that flows in onl, one

dire+tion4 a pro+ess -nown as re+tifi+ation0 Re+tifiers ha3e man, uses in+luding as

+omponents of power supplies and as dete+tors of radio signals0 Re+tifiers ma, be made of

solid state diodes4 3a+uum tube diodes4 mer+ur, ar+ 3al3es4 and other +omponents0 The

output from the transformer is fed to the re+tifier0 $t +on3erts A0C0 into pulsating (0C0 The

re+tifier ma, be a half wa3e or a full wa3e re+tifier0 $n this pro6e+t4 a bridge re+tifier is used

be+ause of its merits li-e good stabilit, and full wa3e re+tifi+ation0 $n positi3e half +,+le onl,

two diodes/ 8 set of parallel diodes1 will +ondu+t4 in negati3e half +,+le remaining two diodes

will +ondu+t and the, will +ondu+t onl, in forward bias onl,0

6+6 FILTER

Capa+iti3e filter is used in this pro6e+t0 $t remo3es the ripples from the output of

re+tifier and smoothens the (0C0 Output re+ei3ed from this filter is +onstant until the mains

22

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_arc_valvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_arc_valve


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3oltage and load is maintained +onstant0 !owe3er4 if either of the two is 3aried4 (0C0 3oltage

re+ei3ed at this point +hanges0 Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage0

The simple +apa+itor filter is the most basi+ t,pe of power suppl, filter0 The use of

this filter is 3er, limited0 $t is sometimes used on e7tremel, highG3oltage4 lowG+urrent power

supplies for +athodeGra, and similar ele+tron tubes that require 3er, little load +urrent from

the suppl,0 This filter is also used in +ir+uits where the powerGsuppl, ripple frequen+, is not

+riti+al and +an be relati3el, high0 elow figure +an show how the +apa+itor +hanges and

dis+harges0

6+= MICROCONTROLLER AT;S=-

The ATB9S: is a lowGpower4 highGperforman+e C'OS BGbit mi+ro+ontroller with B=

b,tes of inGs,stem programmable Flash memor,0 The de3i+e is manufa+tured using Atmel2s

highGdensit, non 3olatile memor, te+hnolog, and is +ompatible with the industr, standard

B;C8 instru+tion set and pin out0 The onG+hip Flash allows the program memor, to be

reprogrammed inGs,stem or b, a +on3entional non 3olatile memor, programmer0 ,

+ombining a 3ersatile BGbit CP& with inGs,stem programmable Flash on a monolithi+ +hip4

the Atmel ATB9S: is a powerful mi+ro+ontroller whi+h pro3ides a highl,Gfle7ible and +ostG

effe+ti3e solution to man, embedded +ontrol appli+ations0 The ATB9S: pro3ides the

following standard featuresH B= b,tes of Flash4 :> b,tes of RA'4 Gbit timer+ounters4 a si7G3e+tor twoGle3el interrupt

ar+hite+ture4 a full duple7 serial port4 onG+hip os+illator4 and +lo+- +ir+uitr,0 $n addition4 the

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ATB9S: is designed with stati+ logi+ for operation down to ero frequen+, and supports two

software sele+table power sa3ing modes0 The $dle 'ode stops the CP& while allowing the

RA'4 timer+ounters4 serial port4 and interrupt s,stem to +ontinue fun+tioning0 The PowerG

down mode sa3es the RA' +ontents but freees the os+illator4 disabling all other +hip

fun+tions until the ne7t interrupt or hardware reset0

Feat9"e&5

K Compatible with 'CSQG8 Produ+ts

K B= ,tes of $nGS,stem Programmable /$SP1 Flash 'emor,

L Enduran+eH 8;4;;; 5riteErase C,+les

K ?0;* to 0* Operating Range

K Full, Stati+ OperationH ; ! to Gbit TimerCounters

K Eight $nterrupt Sour+es

K Full (uple7 &ART Serial Channel

K "owGpower $dle and PowerGdown 'odes

K $nterrupt Re+o3er, from PowerGdown 'ode

K 5at+hdog Timer

K (ual (ata Pointer

K PowerGoff Flag

K Fast Programming Time

K Fle7ible $SP Programming /,te and Page 'ode1

K #reen /Pb!alideGfree1 Pa+-aging Option

B4o3> D'a2"a# of AT;S=-5

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F$# ?0/A1H "OC= ($A#RA' OF ATB9S:

P'$ Co$f'29"at'o$& of AT;S=-

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F$# ?0/b1H P$N ($A#RA' OF ATB9S:

P'$ De&3"'!t'o$5

VCC5

Suppl, 3oltage0

GND5

#round

Po"t


27/87

e7ternall, being pulled low will sour+e +urrent /$$"1 be+ause of the internal pullGups0 $n

addition4 P80; and P808 +an be +onfigured to be the timer+ounter : e7ternal +ount input

/P80;T:1 and the timer+ounter : trigger input /P808T:E10

Po"t -5

Port : is an BGbit bidire+tional $O port with internal pullGups0 The Port : output

buffers +an sin-sour+e four TT" inputs0 5hen 8s are written to Port : pins4 the, are pulled

high b, the internal pullGups and +an be used as inputs0 As inputs4 Port : pins that are

e7ternall, being pulled low will sour+e +urrent /$$"1 be+ause of the internal pullGups0 Port :

emits the highGorder address b,te during fet+hes from e7ternal program memor, and during

a++esses to e7ternal data memor, that uses 8>Gbit addresses /'O* (PTR10 $n this

appli+ation4 Port : uses strong internal pullGups when emitting 8s0 (uring a++esses to e7ternal

data memor, that uses BGbit addresses /'O* R$14 Port : emits the +ontents of the P:

Spe+ial Fun+tion Register0

Po"t @5

Port < is an BGbit bidire+tional $O port with internal pullGups0 The Port < output

buffers +an sin-sour+e four TT" inputs0 5hen 8s are written to Port < pins4 the, are pulled

high b, the internal pullGups and +an be used as inputs0 As inputs4 Port < pins that are

e7ternall, being pulled low will sour+e +urrent /$$"1 be+ause of the pullGups0

RST5

Reset input0 A high on this pin for two ma+hine +,+les while the os+illator is running

resets the de3i+e0 This pin dri3es high for 9B os+illator periods after the 5at+hdog times out0

The ($SRTO bit in SFR A&R /address BE!1 +an be used to disable this feature0 $n the

default state of bit ($SRTO4 the RESET !$#! out feature is enabled0

ALEPROG5

Address "at+h Enable /A"E1 is an output pulse for lat+hing the low b,te of the

address during a++esses to e7ternal memor,0 This pin is also the program pulse input /PRO#1

during Flash programming0

$n normal operation4 A"E is emitted at a +onstant rate of 8> the os+illator frequen+,

and ma, be used for e7ternal timing or +lo+-ing purposes0 Note4 howe3er4 that one A"E pulse

is s-ipped during ea+h a++ess to e7ternal data memor,0

PSEN5

Program Store Enable /PSEN1 is the read strobe to e7ternal program memor,0 5hen

the ATB9S: is e7e+uting +ode from e7ternal program memor,4 PSEN is a+ti3ated twi+e ea+h

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ma+hine +,+le4 e7+ept that two PSEN a+ti3ations are s-ipped during ea+h a++ess to e7ternal

data memor,0

EAVPP5

E7ternal A++ess Enable0 EA must be strapped to #N( in order to enable the de3i+e

to fet+h +ode from e7ternal program memor, lo+ations starting at ;;;;! up to FFFF!0 Note4

howe3er4 that if lo+- bit 8 is programmed4 EA will be internall, lat+hed on reset0 EA should

be strapped to *CC for internal program e7e+utions0 This pin also re+ei3es the 8:G3olt

programming enable 3oltage /*PP1 during Flash programming0

TAL,5

$nput to the in3erting os+illator amplifier and input to the internal +lo+- operating

+ir+uit0

TAL-5

Output from the in3erting os+illator amplifier0

O&3'44ato" Ca"a3te"'&t'3&5

TA"8 and TA": are the input and output4 respe+ti3el,4 of an in3erting amplifier

whi+h +an be +onfigured for use as an onG+hip os+illator4 as shown in Figure 80 Either a quart

+r,stal or +erami+ resonator ma, be used0 To dri3e the de3i+e from an e7ternal +lo+- sour+e4

TA": should be left un+onne+ted while TA"8 is dri3en as shown in Figure >0:0 There are

no requirements on the dut, +,+le of the e7ternal +lo+- signal4 sin+e the input to the internal

+lo+-ing +ir+uitr, is through a di3ideGb,Gtwo flipGflop4 but minimum and ma7imum 3oltage

high and low time spe+ifi+ations must be obser3ed0

F$# ?0/+1H Os+illator Conne+tions

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+apabilit,0 Appli+ations in+lude rela, dri3ers4 hammer dri3ers4 lamp dri3ers4 displa, dri3ers

/"E( gas dis+harge14 line dri3ers4 and logi+ buffers0

The &"N:;;< has a :0-5 series base resistor for ea+h (arlington pair for operation

dire+tl, with TT" or * C'OS de3i+es0

FigH &"N :;;<

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FEATURES5

• Pin no0H8>

• Temperature4 Operating RangeHG:;C to BC

• Transistor Polarit,H NPN• Transistors4 No0 ofH

• Case St,leH($PG8>

• Temp4 Op0 'inHG:;C

• Temp4 Op0 'a7HBC

• ase NumberH:;;<

• Channels4 No0 ofH

• Current4 Output 'a7H;;mA

• (e3i+e 'ar-ingH&"N:;;


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PIN D'a2"a#5

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F'25 S3e#at'3& of Da"4'$2to$*& !a'"

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F'25 Da"4'$2to$ !a'"

(arlington pairs are ba+- to ba+- +onne+tion of two transistors with some sour+e resistors

and when the, are arranged as shown in the +ir+uit the, are used to amplif, wea- signals0

The amount b, whi+h the wea- signal is amplified is +alled the .#A$N20 0

FEATURES OF DRIVER5

• Se3en (arlington2s per pa+-age

• Output +urrents;;mA per dri3er/>;;mA pea-1

• $ntegrated suppression diodes for indu+ti3e loads

• Outputs +an be paralleled for high +urrents

• TT"C'OSP'OS(T" +ompatible inputs0

• $nputs pinned opposite to outputs

• Simplified la,out

Figure shows the (arlington pair +onne+tion of transistor0 The +ir+uit abo3e is a

.(arlington Pair2 dri3er0 The first transistor2s emitter feeds into the se+ond transistor2s base

and as a result the input signal is amplified b, the time it rea+hes the output0 The important

point to remember is that the (arlington Pair is made up of two transistors

FEATURES

U ;;mA rated +olle+tor +urrent /Single output10

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U !ighG3oltage outputsH ;*0

U $nputs +ompatible with 3arious t,pes of logi+0

U Rela, dri3er appli+ation0

6+: RELA.

A rela, is an ele+tri+all, operated swit+h0 'an, rela,s use an ele+tromagnet to

operate a swit+hing me+hanism me+hani+all,4 but other operating prin+iples are also used0

Rela,s are used where it is ne+essar, to +ontrol a +ir+uit b, a lowGpower signal /with

+omplete ele+tri+al isolation between +ontrol and +ontrolled +ir+uits14 or where se3eral

+ir+uits must be +ontrolled b, one signal0

A rela, is an ele+tri+all, operated swit+h0 Current flowing through the +oil of the rela,

+reates a magneti+ field whi+h attra+ts a le3er and +hanges the swit+h +onta+ts0 The +oil

+urrent +an be on or off so rela,s ha3e two swit+h positions and most ha3e double throw

/+hangeo3er1 swit+h +onta+ts as shown in the diagram0

35


36/87

Fig ?0B Rela, showing +oil and swit+h +onta+ts

Rela,s allow one +ir+uit to swit+h a se+ond +ir+uit whi+h +an be +ompletel, separate

from the first0 For e7ample a low 3oltage batter, +ir+uit +an use a rela, to swit+h a :


37/87

'ost rela,s are designed for PC mounting but ,ou +an solder wires dire+tl, to the

pins pro3iding ,ou ta-e +are to a3oid melting the plasti+ +ase of the rela,0

The supplierVs +atalogue should show ,ou the rela,Vs +onne+tions0 The +oil will be

ob3ious and it ma, be +onne+ted either wa, round0 Rela, +oils produ+e brief high 3oltage

Vspi-esV when the, are swit+hed off and this +an destro, transistors and $Cs in the +ir+uit0 To

pre3ent damage ,ou must +onne+t a prote+tion diode a+ross the rela, +oil0

The figure shows a rela, with its +oil and swit+h +onta+ts0 )ou +an see a le3er on the

left being attra+ted b, magnetism when the +oil is swit+hed on0 This le3er mo3es the swit+h

+onta+ts0

37


38/87


39/87


40/87

to return to their unGpushed state0 (ifferent people use different terms for the pushing of the

button4 su+h as press4 depress4 mash4 and pun+h0

U&e&5

$n industrial and +ommer+ial appli+ations push buttons +an be lin-ed together b, a

me+hani+al lin-age so that the a+t of pushing one button +auses the other button to be

released0 $n this wa,4 a stop button +an for+e a start button to be released0 This method of

lin-age is used in simple manual operations in whi+h the ma+hine or pro+ess ha3e no

ele+tri+al +ir+uits for +ontrol0

Pushbuttons are often +olorG+oded to asso+iate them with their fun+tion so that the

operator will not push the wrong button in error0 Commonl, used +olors are red for stopping

the ma+hine or pro+ess and green for starting the ma+hine or pro+ess0

Red pushbuttons +an also ha3e large heads /mushroom shaped1 for eas, operation and

to fa+ilitate the stopping of a ma+hine0 These pushbuttons are +alled emergen+, stop buttons

and are mandated b, the ele+tri+al +ode in man, 6urisdi+tions for in+reased safet,0 This large

mushroom shape +an also be found in buttons for use with operators who need to wear glo3es

for their wor- and +ould not a+tuate a regular flushGmounted push button0 As an aid for

operators and users in industrial or +ommer+ial appli+ations4 a pilot light is +ommonl, added

to draw the attention of the user and to pro3ide feedba+- if the button is pushed0 T,pi+all,

this light is in+luded into the +enter of the pushbutton and a lens repla+es the pushbutton hard

+enter dis-0

The sour+e of the energ, to illuminate the light is not dire+tl, tied to the +onta+ts on

the ba+- of the pushbutton but to the a+tion the pushbutton +ontrols0 $n this wa, a start button

when pushed will +ause the pro+ess or ma+hine operation to be started and a se+ondar,

+onta+t designed into the operation or pro+ess will +lose to turn on the pilot light and signif,

the a+tion of pushing the button +aused the resultant pro+ess or a+tion to start0

$n popular +ulture4 the phrase the button refers to a /usuall, fi+tional1 button that a

militar, or go3ernment leader +ould press to laun+h nu+lear weapons0

40


41/87

P9& to ON /9tto$5

Fig0?0/b1H push on button

$nitiall, the two +onta+ts of the button are open0 5hen the button is pressed the, be+ome

+onne+ted0 This ma-es the swit+hing operation using the push button0

6+ LIUID CR.STAL DISPLA. (LCD)

De&3"'!t'o$5

This is the e7ample for the Parallel Port0 This e7ample doesnVt use the iG

dire+tional feature found on newer ports4 thus it should wor- with most4 if not all Parallel

Ports0 $t howe3er doesnVt show the use of the Status Port as an input for a 8> Chara+ter 7 :

"ine "C( 'odule to the Parallel Port0 These "C( 'odules are 3er, +ommon these da,s4

and are quite simple to wor- with4 as all the logi+ required running them is on board0

P"o&5

• *er, +ompa+t and light

• "ow power +onsumption

• No geometri+ distortion

• "ittle or no fli+-er depending on ba+-light te+hnolog,

• Not affe+ted b, s+reen burnGin

• No high 3oltage or other haards present during repairser3i+e

• Can be made in almost an, sie or shape

41


42/87

• No theoreti+al resolution limit

LCD Ba3>2"o9$d5

Frequentl,4 an B;8 program must intera+t with the outside world using input and

output de3i+es that +ommuni+ate dire+tl, with a human being0 One of the most +ommon

de3i+es atta+hed to an B;8 is an "C( displa,0 Some of the most +ommon "C(s +onne+ted

to the B;8 are 8>7: and :;7: displa,s0 This means 8> +hara+ters per line b, : lines and :;

+hara+ters per line b, : lines4 respe+ti3el,0

Fortunatel,4 a 3er, popular standard e7ists whi+h allows us to +ommuni+ate with the

3ast ma6orit, of "C(s regardless of their manufa+turer0 The standard is referred to as

!(??B;&4 whi+h refers to the +ontroller +hip whi+h re+ei3es data from an e7ternal sour+e

/in this +ase4 the B;81 and +ommuni+ates dire+tl, with the "C(0

F$# ?08;H "C(

66:;< LCD BACKGROUND

The ??B; standard requires < +ontrol lines as well as either ? or B $O lines for the

data bus0 The user ma, sele+t whether the "C( is to operate with a ?Gbit data bus or an BGbit

data bus0 $f a ?Gbit data bus is used the "C( will require a total of data lines /< +ontrol lines

plus the ? lines for the data bus10 $f an BGbit data bus is used the "C( will require a total of 88

data lines /< +ontrol lines plus the B lines for the data bus10

42


43/87

The three +ontrol lines are referred to as EN4 RS4 and R50

The EN line is +alled Enable0 This +ontrol line is used to tell the "C( that ,ou are

sending it data0 To send data to the "C(4 ,our program should ma-e sure this line is low /;1

and then set the other two +ontrol lines andor put data on the data bus0 5hen the other lines

are +ompletel, read,4 bring EN high /81 and wait for the minimum amount of time required

b, the "C( datasheet /this 3aries from "C( to "C(14 and end b, bringing it low /;1 again0

The RS line is the Register Sele+t line0 5hen RS is low /;14 the data is to be treated

as a +ommand or spe+ial instru+tion /su+h as +lear s+reen4 position +ursor4 et+010 5hen RS is

high /814 the data being sent is te7t data whi+h should be displa,ed on the s+reen0 For

e7ample4 to displa, the letter T on the s+reen ,ou would set RS high0

The R5 line is the Read5rite +ontrol line0 5hen R5 is low /;14 the information

on the data bus is being written to the "C(0 5hen R5 is high /814 the program is effe+ti3el,

quer,ing /or reading1 the "C(0 Onl, one instru+tion /#et "C( status1 is a read +ommand0

All others are write +ommandsGGso R5 will almost alwa,s be low 0Finall,4 the data bus

+onsists of ? or B lines /depending on the mode of operation sele+ted b, the user10 $n the +ase

of an BGbit data bus4 the lines are referred to as (;4 (84 (:4 (4 and

(0

43


44/87

6+,< ,N6


45/87

FigHPN Jun+tion diode

PN UNCTION OPERATION

Now that ,ou are familiar with PG and NGt,pe materials4 how these materials are 6oined

together to form a diode4 and the fun+tion of the diode4 let us +ontinue our dis+ussion with the

operation of the PN 6un+tion0 ut before we +an understand how the PN 6un+tion wor-s4 we

must first +onsider +urrent flow in the materials that ma-e up the 6un+tion and what happens

initiall, within the 6un+tion when these two materials are 6oined together0

C9""e$t F4o7 '$ te NT0!e Mate"'a4

Condu+tion in the NGt,pe semi+ondu+tor4 or +r,stal4 is similar to +ondu+tion in a +opper

wire0 That is4 with 3oltage applied a+ross the material4 ele+trons will mo3e through the +r,stal 6ust as +urrent would flow in a +opper wire0 This is shown in figure 8G80 The positi3e

potential of the batter, will attra+t the free ele+trons in the +r,stal0 These ele+trons will lea3e

the +r,stal and flow into the positi3e terminal of the batter,0 As an ele+tron lea3es the +r,stal4

an ele+tron from the negati3e terminal of the batter, will enter the +r,stal4 thus +ompleting the

+urrent path0 Therefore4 the ma6orit, +urrent +arriers in the NGt,pe material /ele+trons1 are repelled

b, the negati3e side of the batter, and mo3e through the +r,stal toward the positi3e side of

the batter,0

45


46/87

C9""e$t F4o7 '$ te PT0!e Mate"'a4

Current flow through the PGt,pe material is illustrated0 Condu+tion in the P material is

b, positi3e holes4 instead of negati3e ele+trons0 A hole mo3es from the positi3e terminal of

the P material to the negati3e terminal0 Ele+trons from the e7ternal +ir+uit enter the negati3e

terminal of the material and fill holes in the 3i+init, of this terminal0 At the positi3e terminal4

ele+trons are remo3ed from the +o3alent bonds4 thus +reating new holes0 This pro+ess

+ontinues as the stead, stream of holes /hole +urrent1 mo3es toward the negati3e terminal

6+,, LED

"E(s are semi+ondu+tor de3i+es0 "i-e transistors4 and other diodes4 "E(s are made

out of sili+on0 5hat ma-es an "E( gi3e off light are the small amounts of +hemi+al

impurities that are added to the sili+on4 su+h as gallium4 arsenide4 indium4 and nitride0

5hen +urrent passes through the "E(4 it emits photons as a b,produ+t0 Normal light

bulbs produ+e light b, heating a metal filament until it is white hot0 "E(s produ+e photons

dire+tl, and not 3ia heat4 the, are far more effi+ient than in+andes+ent bulbs0

Fig ?088/a1H T,pi+al "E( Fig ?088/b1H +ir+uit s,mbol

Not long ago "E(s were onl, bright enough to be used as indi+ators on dashboards or

ele+troni+ equipment0 ut re+ent ad3an+es ha3e made "E(s bright enough to ri3al traditionallighting te+hnologies0 'odern "E(s +an repla+e in+andes+ent bulbs in almost an,

appli+ation0

T0!e& of LED*S

"E(s are produ+ed in an arra, of shapes and sies0 The mm +,lindri+al pa+-age is the

most +ommon4 estimated at B;W of world produ+tion0 The +olor of the plasti+ lens is often the

same as the a+tual +olor of light emitted4 but not alwa,s0 For instan+e4 purple plasti+ is often used

for infrared "E(s4 and most blue de3i+es ha3e +lear housings0 There are also "E(s in e7tremel,

46


47/87

tin, pa+-ages4 su+h as those found on blin-ers and on +ell phone -e,pads0 The main t,pes of "E(s

are miniature4 high power de3i+es and +ustom designs su+h as alphanumeri+ or multiG+olor0

Fig ?088/+1 (ifferent t,pes of "E(2S

6+,- RESISTORS

A resistor is a twoGterminal ele+troni+ +omponent designed to oppose an ele+tri+ +urrent b,

produ+ing a 3oltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the +urrent4 that is4 in

a++ordan+e with OhmVs lawH

* $R

Resistors are used as part of ele+tri+al networ-s and ele+troni+ +ir+uits0 The, are e7tremel,

+ommonpla+e in most ele+troni+ equipment0 Pra+ti+al resistors +an be made of 3arious

+ompounds and films4 as well as resistan+e wire /wire made of a highGresisti3it, allo,4 su+h

as ni+-el+hrome10

The primar, +hara+teristi+s of resistors are their resistan+e and the power the, +an

dissipate0 Other +hara+teristi+s in+lude temperature +oeffi+ient4 noise4 and indu+tan+e0 "ess

wellG-nown is +riti+al resistan+e4 the 3alue below whi+h power dissipation limits the

ma7imum permitted +urrent flow4 and abo3e whi+h the limit is applied 3oltage0 Criti+al

resistan+e depends upon the materials +onstituting the resistor as well as its ph,si+al

dimensionsM itVs determined b, design0

47


48/87

Resistors +an be integrated into h,brid and printed +ir+uits4 as well as integrated

+ir+uits0 Sie4 and position of leads /or terminals1 are rele3ant to equipment designersM

resistors must be ph,si+all, large enough not to o3erheat when dissipating their power0

A resistor is a twoGterminal passi3e ele+troni+ +omponent whi+h implements ele+tri+al

resistan+e as a +ir+uit element0 5hen a 3oltage * is applied a+ross the terminals of a resistor4

a +urrent $ will flow through the resistor in dire+t proportion to that 3oltage0 The re+ipro+al of

the +onstant of proportionalit, is -nown as the resistan+e R4 sin+e4 with a gi3en 3oltage *4 a

larger 3alue of R further resists the flow of +urrent $ as gi3en b, OhmVs lawH

Resistors are +ommon elements of ele+tri+al networ-s and ele+troni+ +ir+uits and are

ubiquitous in most ele+troni+ equipment0 Pra+ti+al resistors +an be made of 3arious

+ompounds and films4 as well as resistan+e wire /wire made of a highGresisti3it, allo,4 su+has ni+-elG+hrome10 Resistors are also implemented within integrated +ir+uits4 parti+ularl,

analog de3i+es4 and +an also be integrated into h,brid and printed +ir+uits0

The ele+tri+al fun+tionalit, of a resistor is spe+ified b, its resistan+eH +ommon

+ommer+ial resistors are manufa+tured o3er a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude0

5hen spe+if,ing that resistan+e in an ele+troni+ design4 the required pre+ision of the

resistan+e ma, require attention to the manufa+turing toleran+e of the +hosen resistor4

a++ording to its spe+ifi+ appli+ation0 The temperature +oeffi+ient of the resistan+e ma, also be

48

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_proportionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_proportionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm's_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_networkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_networkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_wirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_tolerance#Electrical_component_tolerancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_coefficienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_proportionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm's_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_networkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_wirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_boardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_tolerance#Electrical_component_tolerancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_coefficient


49/87

of +on+ern in some pre+ision appli+ations0 Pra+ti+al resistors are also spe+ified as ha3ing a

ma7imum power rating whi+h must e7+eed the anti+ipated power dissipation of that resistor

in a parti+ular +ir+uitH this is mainl, of +on+ern in power ele+troni+s appli+ations0 Resistors

with higher power ratings are ph,si+all, larger and ma, require heat sin-ing0 $n a high

3oltage +ir+uit4 attention must sometimes be paid to the rated ma7imum wor-ing 3oltage of

the resistor0

The series indu+tan+e of a pra+ti+al resistor +auses its beha3ior to depart from ohms

lawM this spe+ifi+ation +an be important in some highGfrequen+, appli+ations for smaller

3alues of resistan+e0 $n a lowGnoise amplifier or preGamp the noise +hara+teristi+s of a resistor

ma, be an issue0 The unwanted indu+tan+e4 e7+ess noise4 and temperature +oeffi+ient are

mainl, dependent on the te+hnolog, used in manufa+turing the resistor0 The, are not

normall, spe+ified indi3iduall, for a parti+ular famil, of resistors manufa+tured using a

parti+ular te+hnolog,0X8Y A famil, of dis+rete resistors is also +hara+teried a++ording to its

form fa+tor4 that is4 the sie of the de3i+e and position of its leads /or terminals1 whi+h is

rele3ant in the pra+ti+al manufa+turing of +ir+uits using them0

Units

The ohm /s,mbolH Z1 is the S$ unit of ele+tri+al resistan+e4 named after #eorg Simon

Ohm0 An ohm is equi3alent to a 3olt per ampere0 Sin+e resistors are spe+ified and

manufa+tured o3er a 3er, large range of 3alues4 the deri3ed units of milliohm /8 mZ 8; [<

Z14 -ilohm /8 -Z 8;


50/87

A +apa+itor or +ondenser is a passi3e ele+troni+ +omponent +onsisting of a pair of +ondu+tors

separated b, a diele+tri+0 5hen a 3oltage potential differen+e e7ists between the +ondu+tors4

an ele+tri+ field is present in the diele+tri+0 This field stores energ, and produ+es a

me+hani+al for+e between the plates0 The effe+t is greatest between wide4 flat4 parallel4

narrowl, separated +ondu+tors0

An ideal +apa+itor is +hara+teried b, a single +onstant 3alue4 +apa+itan+e4 whi+h is

measured in farads0 This is the ratio of the ele+tri+ +harge on ea+h +ondu+tor to the potential

differen+e between them0 $n pra+ti+e4 the diele+tri+ between the plates passes a small amount

of lea-age +urrent0 The +ondu+tors and leads introdu+e an equi3alent series resistan+e and the

diele+tri+ has an ele+tri+ field strength limit resulting in a brea-down 3oltage0

The properties of +apa+itors in a +ir+uit ma, determine the resonant frequen+, and

qualit, fa+tor of a resonant +ir+uit4 power dissipation and operating frequen+, in a digital

logi+ +ir+uit4 energ, +apa+it, in a highGpower s,stem4 and man, other important aspe+ts0

A +apa+itor /formerl, -nown as +ondenser1 is a de3i+e for storing ele+tri+ +harge0 The

forms of pra+ti+al +apa+itors 3ar, widel,4 but all +ontain at least two +ondu+tors separated b,

a nonG+ondu+tor0 Capa+itors used as parts of ele+tri+al s,stems4 for e7ample4 +onsist of metal

foils separated b, a la,er of insulating film0

Capa+itors are widel, used in ele+troni+ +ir+uits for blo+-ing dire+t +urrent while

allowing alternating +urrent to pass4 in filter networ-s4 for smoothing the output of power

supplies4 in the resonant +ir+uits that tune radios to parti+ular frequen+ies and for man, other

purposes0

50

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51/87

A +apa+itor is a passi3e ele+troni+ +omponent +onsisting of a pair of +ondu+tors

separated b, a diele+tri+ /insulator10 5hen there is a potential differen+e /3oltage1 a+ross the

+ondu+tors4 a stati+ ele+tri+ field de3elops in the diele+tri+ that stores energ, and produ+es a

me+hani+al for+e between the +ondu+tors0 An ideal +apa+itor is +hara+teried b, a single

+onstant 3alue4 +apa+itan+e4 measured in farads0 This is the ratio of the ele+tri+ +harge on

ea+h +ondu+tor to the potential differen+e between them0

The +apa+itan+e is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of

+ondu+tor4 hen+e +apa+itor +ondu+tors are often +alled plates4 referring to an earl, means of

+onstru+tion0 $n pra+ti+e the diele+tri+ between the plates passes a small amount of lea-age

+urrent and also has an ele+tri+ field strength limit4 resulting in a brea-down 3oltage4 while

the +ondu+tors and leads introdu+e an undesired indu+tan+e and resistan+e0

Theor o! o"er#tion

'ain arti+leH Capa+itan+e

Charge separation in a parallelGplate +apa+itor +auses an internal ele+tri+ field0 A diele+tri+

/orange1 redu+es the field and in+reases the +apa+itan+e0

51

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_differencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_(electronics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance


52/87

A simple demonstration of a parallelGplate +apa+itor

A +apa+itor +onsists of two +ondu+tors separated b, a nonG+ondu+ti3e regionXBY0 The nonG

+ondu+ti3e region is +alled the diele+tri+ or sometimes the diele+tri+ medium0 $n simpler

terms4 the diele+tri+ is 6ust an ele+tri+al insulator 0 E7amples of diele+tri+ mediums are glass4

air4 paper4 3a+uum4 and e3en a semi+ondu+tor depletion region +hemi+all, identi+al to the

+ondu+tors0 A +apa+itor is assumed to be selfG+ontained and isolated4 with no net ele+tri+

+harge and no influen+e from an, e7ternal ele+tri+ field0 The +ondu+tors thus hold equal and

opposite +harges on their fa+ing surfa+es4X9Y and the diele+tri+ de3elops an ele+tri+ field0 $n S$

units4 a +apa+itan+e of one farad means that one +oulomb of +harge on ea+h +ondu+tor +auses

a 3oltage of one 3olt a+ross the de3i+e0X8;Y

The +apa+itor is a reasonabl, general model for ele+tri+ fields within ele+tri+ +ir+uits0 An

ideal +apa+itor is wholl, +hara+teried b, a +onstant +apa+itan+e C4 defined as the ratio of

+harge \@ on ea+h +ondu+tor to the 3oltage * between themHXBY

Sometimes +harge buildGup affe+ts the +apa+itor me+hani+all,4 +ausing its +apa+itan+e to3ar,0 $n this +ase4 +apa+itan+e is defined in terms of in+remental +hangesH

Ener$ stor#$e

5or- must be done b, an e7ternal influen+e to mo3e +harge between the +ondu+tors in a

+apa+itor0 5hen the e7ternal influen+e is remo3ed the +harge separation persists in theele+tri+ field and energ, is stored to be released when the +harge is allowed to return to its

equilibrium position0 The wor- done in establishing the ele+tri+ field4 and hen+e the amount

of energ, stored4 is gi3en b,HX88Y

52

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p168-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p157-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p169-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p169-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p168-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p168-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p157-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p169-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Ulaby_p168-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-10


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=+SOFTWARE REUIREMENTS

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=+, INTRODUCTION TO KEIL MICRO VISION (IDE)

=eil an AR' Compan, ma-es C +ompilers4 ma+ro assemblers4 realGtime -ernels4

debuggers4 simulators4 integrated en3ironments4 e3aluation boards4 and emulators for

AR'AR'9Corte7G'7C8>7ST8;4 :84 and B;8 'C& families0

=eil de3elopment tools for the B;8 'i+ro+ontroller Ar+hite+ture support e3er, le3el

of software de3eloper from the professional appli+ations engineer to the student 6ust learning

about embedded software de3elopment0 5hen starting a new pro6e+t4 simpl, sele+t the

mi+ro+ontroller ,ou use from the (e3i+e (atabase and the ]*ision $(E sets all +ompiler4

assembler4 lin-er4 and memor, options for ,ou0

=eil is a +ross +ompiler0 So first we ha3e to understand the +on+ept of +ompilers and

+ross +ompilers0 After then we shall learn how to wor- with -eil0

=+- CONCEPT OF COMPILER

Compilers are programs used to +on3ert a !igh "e3el "anguage to ob6e+t +ode0

(es-top +ompilers produ+e an output ob6e+t +ode for the underl,ing mi+ropro+essor4 but not

for other mi+ropro+essors0 $0E the programs written in one of the !"" li-e .C2 will +ompile

the +ode to run on the s,stem for a parti+ular pro+essor li-e 7B> /underl,ing mi+ropro+essor

56


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in the +omputer10 For e7ample +ompilers for (os platform is different from the Compilers for

&ni7 platform So if one wants to define a +ompiler then +ompiler is a program that translates

sour+e +ode into ob6e+t +ode0

The +ompiler deri3es its name from the wa, it wor-s4 loo-ing at the entire pie+e of

sour+e +ode and +olle+ting and reorganiing the instru+tion0 See there is a bit little differen+e

between +ompiler and an interpreter0 $nterpreter 6ust interprets whole program at a time while

+ompiler anal,ses and e7e+ute ea+h line of sour+e +ode in su++ession4 without loo-ing at the

entire program0

The ad3antage of interpreters is that the, +an e7e+ute a program immediatel,0

Se+ondl, programs produ+ed b, +ompilers run mu+h faster than the same programs e7e+uted

b, an interpreter0 !owe3er +ompilers require some time before an e7e+utable program

emerges0 Now as +ompilers translate sour+e +ode into ob6e+t +ode4 whi+h is unique for ea+h

t,pe of +omputer4 man, +ompilers are a3ailable for the same language0

=+@ CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER

A +ross +ompiler is similar to the +ompilers but we write a program for the target

pro+essor /li-e B;8 and its deri3ati3es1 on the host pro+essors /li-e +omputer of 7B>10 $t

means being in one en3ironment ,ou are writing a +ode for another en3ironment is +alled

+ross de3elopment0 And the +ompiler used for +ross de3elopment is +alled +ross +ompiler0 So

the definition of +ross +ompiler is a +ompiler that runs on one +omputer but produ+es ob6e+t

+ode for a different t,pe of +omputer0

=+6 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER

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=eil is a #erman based Software de3elopment +ompan,0 $t pro3ides se3eral

de3elopment tools li-e

K $(E /$ntegrated (e3elopment en3ironment1

K Pro6e+t 'anager

K Simulator

K (ebugger

K C Cross Compiler4 Cross Assembler4 "o+ator"in-er

The =eil AR' tool -it in+ludes three main tools4 assembler4 +ompiler and lin-er0 An

assembler is used to assemble the AR' assembl, program0 A +ompiler is used to +ompile the

C sour+e +ode into an ob6e+t file0 A lin-er is used to +reate an absolute ob6e+t module suitable

for our inG+ir+uit emulator0

=+= B9'4d'$2 a$ A!!4'3at'o$ '$ V'&'o$-

To build /+ompile4 assemble4 and lin-1 an appli+ation in ]*ision:4 ,ou mustH

8 Sele+t Pro6e+t G/fore7ample48>>^EA'P"ES^!E""O^!E""O0&*:10

: Sele+t Pro6e+t G Rebuild all target files or uild target0]*ision: +ompiles4 assembles4

and lin-s the files in ,our pro6e+t0

=+ C"eat'$2 .o9" O7$ A!!4'3at'o$ '$ V'&'o$-

To +reate a new pro6e+t in ]*ision:4 ,ou mustH

8 Sele+t Pro6e+t G New Pro6e+t0

: Sele+t a dire+tor, and enter the name of the pro6e+t file0

< Sele+t Pro6e+t G Sele+t (e3i+e and sele+t an B;84 :84 or C8>7ST8; de3i+e from the

(e3i+e (atabase_0

? Create sour+e files to add to the pro6e+t0

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Sele+t Pro6e+t G Targets4 #roups4 Files0 AddFiles4 sele+t Sour+e #roup84 and add the

sour+e files to the pro6e+t0

> Sele+t Pro6e+t G Options and set the tool options0 Note when ,ou sele+t the target

de3i+e from the (e3i+e (atabase_ all spe+ial options are set automati+all,0 )ou

t,pi+all, onl, need to +onfigure the memor, map of ,our target hardware0 (efault

memor, model settings are optimal for most appli+ations0

Sele+t Pro6e+t G Rebuild all target files or uild target0

=+: De/922'$2 a$ A!!4'3at'o$ '$ V'&'o$-

To debug an appli+ation +reated using ]*ision:4 ,ou mustH

8 Sele+t (ebug G StartStop (ebug Session0

: &se the Step toolbar buttons to singleGstep through ,our program0 )ou ma, enter #4

main in the Output 5indow to e7e+ute to the main C fun+tion0

< Open the Serial 5indow using the Serial ̀ 8 button on the toolbar0

(ebug ,our program using standard options li-e Step4 #o4 rea-4 and so on0

=+; Sta"t'$2 V'&'o$- a$d C"eat'$2 a P"oe3t

]*ision: is a standard 5indows appli+ation and started b, +li+-ing on the program

i+on0 To +reate a new pro6e+t file sele+t from the ]*ision: menu Pro6e+t L New Pro6e+t0

This opens a standard 5indows dialog that as-s ,ou for the new pro6e+t file name0 5e

suggest that ,ou use a separate folder for ea+h pro6e+t0 )ou +an simpl, use the i+on Create

New Folder in this dialog to get a new empt, folder0 Then sele+t this folder and enter the file

name for the new pro6e+t4 i0e0 Pro6e+t80 ]*ision: +reates a new pro6e+t file with the name

PROJECT80&*: whi+h +ontains a default target and file group name0 )ou +an see these

names in the Pro6e+t0

=+ W'$do7 F'4e&+

Now use from the menu Pro6e+t L Sele+t (e3i+e for Target and sele+t a CP& for ,our

pro6e+t0 The Sele+t (e3i+e dialog bo7 shows the ]*ision: de3i+e data base0 Just sele+t the

mi+ro+ontroller ,ou use0 5e are using for our e7amples the Philips B;C8R( CP&0 This

sele+tion sets ne+essar, tool Options for the B;C8R( de3i+e and simplifies in this wa, the

tool Configuration0

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=+,< B9'4d'$2 P"oe3t& a$d C"eat'$2 a HE F'4e&

T,pi+al4 the tool settings under Options L Target are all ,ou need to start a new

appli+ation0 )ou ma, translate all sour+e files and line the appli+ation with a +li+- on theuild Target toolbar i+on0 5hen ,ou build an appli+ation with s,nta7 errors4 ]*ision: will

displa, errors and warning messages in the Output 5indow L uild page0 A double +li+- on a

message line opens the sour+e file on the +orre+t lo+ation in a ]*ision: editor window0 On+e

,ou ha3e su++essfull, generated ,our appli+ation ,ou +an start debugging0

After ,ou ha3e tested ,our appli+ation4 it is required to +reate an $ntel !E file to

download the software into an EPRO' programmer or simulator0 ]*ision: +reates !E files

with ea+h build pro+ess when Create !E files under Options for Target L Output is enabled0

)ou ma, start ,our PRO' programming utilit, after the ma-e pro+ess when ,ou spe+if, the

program under the option Run &ser Program `80

=+,, CPU S'#94at'o$

]*ision: simulates up to 8> 'b,tes of memor, from whi+h areas +an be mapped for

read4 write4 or +ode e7e+ution a++ess0 The ]*ision: simulator traps

and reports illegal memor, a++esses0 $n addition to memor, mapping4 the simulator also

pro3ides support for the integrated peripherals of the 3arious B;8 deri3ati3es0 The onG+hip

peripherals of the CP& ,ou ha3e sele+ted are +onfigured from the (e3i+e0

=+,- Data/a&e &e4e3t'o$

)ou ha3e made when ,ou +reate ,our pro6e+t target0 Refer to page B for more

$nformation about sele+ting a de3i+e0 )ou ma, sele+t and displa, the onG+hip peripheral

+omponents using the (ebug menu0 )ou +an also +hange the aspe+ts of ea+h peripheral using

the +ontrols in the dialog bo7es0

=+,@ Sta"t De/922'$2

)ou start the debug mode of ]*ision: with the (ebug L StartStop (ebug

Session Command0 (epending on the Options for Target L (ebug Configuration4 ]*ision:

will load the appli+ation program and run the startup +ode ]*ision: sa3es the editor s+reen

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la,out and restores the s+reen la,out of the last debug session0 $f the program e7e+ution stops4

]*ision: opens an editor window with the sour+e te7t or shows CP& instru+tions in the

disassembl, window0 The ne7t e7e+utable statement is mar-ed with a ,ellow arrow0 (uring

debugging4 most editor features are still a3ailable0

For e7ample4 ,ou +an use the find +ommand or +orre+t program errors0 Program

sour+e te7t of ,our appli+ation is shown in the same windows0 The ]*ision: debug mode

differs from the edit mode in the following aspe+tsH

% The I(ebug 'enu and (ebug Commands des+ribed on page :B are a3ailable0 The

additional debug windows are dis+ussed in the following0

% The pro6e+t stru+ture or tool parameters +annot be modified0 All build +ommands are

disabled0

=+,6 D'&a&&e#/40 W'$do7

The (isassembl, window shows ,our target program as mi7ed sour+e and assembl,

program or 6ust assembl, +ode0 A tra+e histor, of pre3iousl, e7e+uted instru+tions ma, be

displa,ed with (ebug L *iew Tra+e Re+ords0 To enable the tra+e histor,4 set (ebug L

Enable(isable Tra+e Re+ording0

$f ,ou sele+t the (isassembl, 5indow as the a+ti3e window all program step

+ommands wor- on CP& instru+tion le3el rather than program sour+e lines0 )ou +an sele+t a

te7t line and set or modif, +ode brea-points using toolbar buttons or the +onte7t menu

+ommands0

)ou ma, use the dialog (ebug L $nline Assembl, to modif, the CP& instru+tions0

That allows ,ou to +orre+t mista-es or to ma-e temporar, +hanges to the target program ,ou

are debugging0 Numerous e7ample programs are in+luded to help ,ou get started with the

most popular embedded B;8 de3i+es0

The =eil ]*ision (ebugger a++uratel, simulates onG+hip peripherals /$C4 CAN4

&ART4 SP$4 $nterrupts4 $O Ports4 A( Con3erter4 (A Con3erter4 and P5' 'odules1 of

,our B;8 de3i+e0 Simulation helps ,ou understand hardware +onfigurations and a3oids time

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wasted on setup problems0 Additionall,4 with simulation4 ,ou +an write and test appli+ations

before target hardware is a3ailable0

=+,= EMBEDDED C &se of embedded pro+essors in passenger +ars4 mobile phones4 medi+al equipment4

aerospa+e s,stems and defense s,stems is widespread4 and e3en e3er,da, domesti+

applian+es su+h as dish washers4 tele3isions4 washing ma+hines and 3ideo re+orders now

in+lude at least one su+h de3i+e0

e+ause most embedded pro6e+ts ha3e se3ere +ost +onstraints4 the, tend to use lowG

+ost pro+essors li-e the B;8 famil, of de3i+es +onsidered in this boo-0 These popular +hips

ha3e 3er, limited resour+es a3ailable most su+h de3i+es ha3e around :> b,tes /not

megab,tesc1 of RA'4 and the a3ailable pro+essor power is around 8;;; times less than that

of a des-top pro+essor0 As a result4 de3eloping embedded software presents signifi+ant new

+hallenges4 e3en for e7perien+ed des-top programmers0 $f ,ou ha3e some programming

e7perien+e G in C4 C or Ja3a G then this boo- and its a++ompan,ing C( will help ma-e

,our mo3e to the embedded world as qui+- and painless as possible0

).SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

JFOR SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM REFER CD

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+, SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPL.

The +ir+uit uses standard power suppl, +omprising of a stepGdown transformer from

:


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AT'E" series of B;8 famil, of mi+ro +ontrollers need +ertain standard +onne+tions0

The a+tual number of the 'i+ro+ontroller +ould be IB9C8 4 IB9C:4 IB9S84 IB9S:4

and as regards to :; pin +onfiguration a number of IB9C:;80 The ? set of $O ports are used

based on the pro6e+t requirement0 E3er, mi+ro+ontroller requires a timing referen+e for its

internal program e7e+ution therefore an os+illator needs to be fun+tional with a desired

frequen+, to obtain the timing referen+e as t 8f0

A +r,stal ranging from : to :; '! is required to be used at its pin number 8B and 89

for the internal os+illator0 $t ma, be noted here the +r,stal is not to be understood as +r,stal

os+illator $t is 6ust a +r,stal4 while +onne+ted to the appropriate pin of the mi+ro+ontroller it

results in os+illator fun+tion inside the mi+ro+ontroller0 T,pi+all, 880;9: '! +r,stal is

used in general for most of the +ir+uits using B;8 series mi+ro+ontroller0 Two small 3alue

+erami+ +apa+itors of


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the +ontroller a++esses the program from e7ternal memor,0 !owe3er as we are using the

internal memor, it is alwa,s +onne+ted to *0

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF WORKING OF RELA.

A rela, is an ele+tri+all, operated swit+h0 Current flowing through the +oil of the rela,

+reates a magneti+ field whi+h attra+ts a le3er and +hanges the swit+h +onta+ts0 The +oil

+urrent +an be on or off so rela,s ha3e two swit+h positions and most ha3e double throw

/+hangeo3er1 swit+h +onta+ts0 Rela,s allow one +ir+uit to swit+h a se+ond +ir+uit whi+h +an

be +ompletel, separate from the first0 For e7ample a low 3oltage batter, +ir+uit +an use a

rela, to swit+h a :


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upto se3en rela,s +an be used for se3en different loads to be swit+hed on b, the normall,

open/NO1 +onta+t or swit+hed off b, the normall, +losed +onta+t/NC1

"oad off "oad on

OPERATION EPLANATION

CONNECTIONS5

The output of power suppl, whi+h is +onne+ted to the ?;th pin of

mi+ro+ontroller and ground is +onne+ted to its :; th pin0 Se3en push buttons are +onne+ted as

an input to the port


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WORKING5

This pro6e+t is designed to wor- li-e a P"C for a spe+ifi+ operation su+h as

programmable timing based sequential swit+hing operation of industrial loads0 Four loads are

used independentl, from the +onta+ts of four rela,s dri3en b, a rela, dri3er $C &"N:;;< as

e7plained abo3e0 Three setup swit+hes are used for auto mode4 setting mode4 manual mode0

Four more push buttons are separatel, pro3ided for manual operation of the rela,s while

manual mode is +hosen0 Sele+ting auto mode4 the output the mi+ro+ontroller pin


68/87

:+ PROECT LA.OUT

68


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69


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;+ BILL OF MATERIALS

T. PARTREFS VALUE

Re&'&to"&

8 R8


71/87

8 ?;GP$N

8 8>GP$N

D'ode&

? (8G(? 8N?;;

M'&3e44a$eo9&

8 CR)STA" 880;9:'!

? "8G"? "A'P

? "A'P !O"(ER

8 "C( "';8>"/8>:1

"E(8G"E( "E(GRE(

8 POT 8;=

? RE"A)8GRE"A)? 8:*

B S8GSB P&S! &TTON

8 TRANSFOR'ER ;G8:*

PC CONNECTORS :GP$N

8 FE'A"E &R#E 8>GP$N

8 'A"E &R# 8>GP$N

8 'A"E &R# :GP$N

71


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8 FE'A"E &R# :GP$N

8 !EAT S$N=

72


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*.CODING

73


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*.+ COM,ILER

,+ Cli+- on the =eil *ision $+on on (es-top

-+ The following fig will appear

@+ Cli+- on the Pro6e+t menu from the title bar

6+ Then Cli+- on New Pro6e+t

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=+ Sa3e the Pro6e+t b, t,ping suitable pro6e+t name with no e7tension in u r ownfolder sited in either CH^ or (H^

+ Then Cli+- on Sa3e button abo3e0

:+ Sele+t the +omponent for u r pro6e+t0 i0e0 Atmel

;+ Cli+- on the S,mbol beside of Atmel

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+ Sele+t ATB9C8 as shown below

,


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,-+ Then Cli+- either )ES or NOmostl, INO0

,@+ Now ,our pro6e+t is read, to &SE0

,6+ Now double +li+- on the Target84 ,ou would get another option ISour+e group 8

as shown in ne7t page0

,=+ Cli+- on the file option from menu bar and sele+t Inew0

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,+ The ne7t s+reen will be as shown in ne7t page4 and 6ust ma7imie it b, double

+li+-ing on its blue boarder0

,:+ Now start writing program in either in IE'E((E( C or IAS'0

,;+ For a program written in Assembl,4 then sa3e it with e7tension I0 asm and for

IE'E((E( C based program sa3e it with e7tension I 0C

78


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,+ Now right +li+- on Sour+e group 8 and +li+- on IAdd files to #roup Sour+e0

-


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-,+ Now sele+t as per ,our file e7tension gi3en while sa3ing the file

--+ Cli+- onl, one time on option IADD0

-@+ Now Press fun+tion -e, F to +ompile0 An, error will appear if so happen0

-6+ $f the file +ontains no error4 then press ControlF simultaneousl,0

-=+ The new window is as follows

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-+ Then Cli+- IO=0

-:+ Now +li+- on the Peripherals from menu bar4 and +he+- ,our required port as

shown in fig below0

-;+ (rag the port a side and +li+- in the program file0

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-+ Now -eep Pressing fun+tion -e, IF88 slowl, and obser3e0

@


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,


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Then we appl, this 3oltage to the power suppl, +ir+uit0 Note that we do this test

without mi+ro+ontroller be+ause if there is an, e7+essi3e 3oltage4 this ma, lead to damaging

the +ontroller0 5e +he+- for the input to the 3oltage regulator i0e04 are we getting an input of

8:3 and an output of 30 This 3 output is gi3en to the mi+ro+ontrollers2 ?; th pin0 !en+e we

+he+- for the 3oltage le3el at ?; th pin0 Similarl,4 we +he+- for the other terminals for the

required 3oltage0 $n this wa, we +an assure that the 3oltage at all the terminals is as per the

requirement0

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,,+RESULT

85


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,@+BIBLIOGRAPH.

TET BOOKS REFERED

80 IThe B;8 'i+ro+ontroller and Embedded s,stems b, 'uhammad Ali 'aidi and Jani+e

#illispie 'aidi 4 Pearson Edu+ation0

:0 AT'E" B9S: (ata Sheets0

WEBSITES

• www0atmel0+om

• www0be,ondlogi+0org

• www0wi-ipedia0org

• www0howstuffwor-s0+om

• www0alldatasheets0+om

plc based automation

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