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PLANTS OF MENOKIN (SO FAR)

1. TREES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Red Maple Acer rubrum L.

River Birch Betula nigra L.

Ironwood Carpinus caroliniana Walter

Hickory, Mockernut Carya alba (L.) Nutt. Aka Carya tomentosa

Hickory, Pignut Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet

Persimmon Diospyros virginiana L.

American Beech Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.

Green Ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.

Honey Locust Gleditsia triacanthos L.

Holly, American Ilex opaca Aiton

Black Walnut Juglans nigra L.

Eastern Red Cedar Juniperus virginiana L.

Spicebush Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume

Tulip Poplar, Tulip Tree Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Sweet Gum Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Black Gum Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Loblolly Pine Pinus taeda L.

Virginia Pine Pinus virginiana Mill.

Sycamore Platanus occidentalis L.

Wild Cherry, Black Cherry Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Oak, White Quercus alba L.

Scarlet Oak Quercus coccinea Münchh.

Southern Red Oak Quercus falcata Michx.

Northern Red Oak Quercus rubra L. var. rubra

Post Oak Quercus stellata Wangenh.

Sassafras Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees

Total so far: 26

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2. SHRUBS

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Black Haw Viburnum prunifolium L.

Black Raspberry, Black-cap, Thimbleberry Rubus occidentalis L.

Blueberry, Highbush Vaccinium corymbosum L.

Bristly Dewberry, Swamp Dewberry Rubus hispidus L.

Coralberry Symphoricarpos orbicularus Moench

Devil's Walkingstick Aralia spinosa L.

Flowering Dogwood Cornus florida

Mapleleaf Viburnum Viburnum acerifolium L.

Mimosa, Silktree Albizia julibrissin Durazz.

Mountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia L.

Chinese Privet Ligustrum sinense Lour.

Redbud, Judas Tree Cercis canadensis

?Rose, Multiflora Rose? Rosa spp?

Strawberry Bush, Bursting Heart Euonymus americanus

Smooth Sumac Rhus glabra L.

St. Andrew's Cross Hypericum hypericoides (L.) Crantz

Sweet Pepperbush Clethra alnifolia L.

Wax Myrtle Morella cerifera (L.) Small or Myrica cerifera

Winterberry, Black Alder Ilex verticillata (L.) A. Gray

Total Shrubs so far: 19

3. VINES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Cat Greenbrier Smilax glauca Walter

Chinese Yam Dioscorea oppositifolia L.

Common Periwinkle Vinca minor L.

Coral Greenbrier Smilax walteri Pursh

English Ivy Hedera helix L.

Japanese Honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Thunb.

Muscadine Grape Vitis rotundifolia Michx.

Poison Ivy Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze

Trumpet Creeper Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. Ex Bureau

Virginia Creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.

Total so far: 10

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4. HERBS

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Arrowhead Arum, Wapatoo, Arrowleaf, Arrowroot Sagitarria latifolia Wild.

Black Mustard? Brassica nigra?

Carolina Horse-nettle Solanum carolinense L.

Cattails Typha latifolia?, T. angustifolia? T. x glauca? T. domingensis?

Cleavers, Stickywilly Galium aparine L.

Common Chickweed Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

Common Ragweed Amrosia artemisiifolia L.

Crownbeard Verbesina occidentalis (L.) Walter

Curled Dock, Yellow Dock, Wild Dock Rumex crispus L.

Dandelion Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg.

Eastern Black Nightshade, West Indian Nightshade Solanum ptycanthum Dunal also Solanum nigrum and Solanum americanum

Field Garlic Allium vineale L.

Garlic Mustard, Hedge Carlic Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara & Grande

Goldenrod Solidago spp.

Greater Celandine Chelidonium majus L.

Hawkweed? Hieracium spp.

Henbit Lamium amplexicaule L.

Jimsonweed or Purple Thorn-Apple Datura stramonium L.

Marsh Mallow, Eastern Rose-mallow, Crimsoneyed Rosemallow

Hibiscus moscheutos L.

Narrowleaf Plantain, English Plantain, Soldier Herb Plantago lanceolata L.

Nettle? Urtica, Laportea

Oriental Lady's Thumb, Long-Bristled Smartweed Polygonum cespitosum Blume

Partridgeberry, Squaw Vine Mitchella repens

Partridge pea Chamaecrista fasciculata

Pickerelweed Pontederia cordata L.

Pokeweed, American Pokeweed, Poke Phytolacca americana L.

Pussytoes Anterraria plantaginifolia?

Queen Anne's Lace Daucus carota L.

Rough Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium

Slender Lespedeza Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britton

Spotted Pipsissewa, Striped Prince's Pine Chimaphila maculate (L.) Pursh

Swamp Milkweed Asclepias incarnate L.

White Snakeroot Ageratina altissima (L.) King and H. Rob. Also Eupatorium rugosum Houtt.

Yarrow, Milfoil, Nosebleed, Sneezewort Achillea millefolium L.

Yellow Wood-Sorrel, Common Yellow Oxalis Oxalis stricta L.

Total so far: 22

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5. GRASSES COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Common Reed? Phragmites australis (or communis)

Foxtail Grass Setaria spp.

Wild Rice? Zizania aquatic

Total so far: 4

6. OTHER PLANTS

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Beechdrops Epifagus virginiana

Running Cedar Lycopodium digitatum Dill. Ex A. Braun

Sphagnum Moss Sphagnum spp.

Total so far: 3 GRAND TOTAL: 84

1. Trees

1.1 American Beech

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. – Native Uses:

Edible

Beverage

Medicinal

Wood

Taylor, page 12: In colonial times the wood was used for furniture, tool handles, and other woodenware. The American Beech was introduced into England in 1766, as "Fagus ferruginea," and beech seeds were among the 105 species sent by John Bartram to his English patrons.

Department of the Army (2009), page 29: Edible Parts: The mature beechnuts readily fall out of the husklike seedpods. You can eat these dark brown triangular nuts by breaking the thin shell with your fingernail and removing the white, sweet kernel inside. Beechnuts are one of the most delicious of all wild nuts. They are a most useful survival food because of the kernel's high oil content. You can also use the beechnuts as a coffee substitute. Roast them so that the kernel becomes golden brown and quite hard. Then pulverize the kernel and, after boiling or steeping in hot water, you have a passable coffee substitute.

Hutchins, page 19: Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves. Solvent: Water. Bodily Influence: Tonic, astringent, antiseptic. Uses: Beech is a medicinal tree of internal and external value. The bark and leaves contain effective substance for action of the stomach, ulcers, liver, kidney, bladder, and the weakening inflammation of dysentery. Beech is among the herbal tree medications for improving conditions of diabetes. The leaves are soothing to the nerves and stomach and are astringent. As a tonic, used to clean and tone the entire system and improve appetite.

Kavasch, page 5.

Erichsen-Brown, page 59: 1749 Kalm Quebec 25

th. Sept. 530-1. "Here is an abundance of beech trees in the woods and they now have

ripe seeds. The people of Canada collect them in autumn, dry them and keep them till winter, when they eat them instead of walnuts and hazel nuts; and I am told they taste very good." 1778 Carver 501. "The Beech nut. Though this tree grows exactly like that of the same name in Europe; yet it produces nuts equally as good as chestnuts; on which ears, martins, squirrels, partridges, turkies, and many other beasts and birds feed. The nut is contained, whilst growing, in an outside case like that of a chestnut, but not so prickly; and the coat of the inside shell is also smooth like that; only its form is nearly triangular. Vast

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quantities of them lie scattered about in the woods, and supply with food great numbers of creatures just mentioned. The leaves, which are white, continue on the trees during the whole winter. A decoction made of them is certain and expeditious cure for wounds which arise from burning or scalding, as well as a restorative for those members that are nipped by the frost. 1931 Grieve England 92. "Owing to the capacity of its root system for assisting in the circulation of air throughout the soil, and by the amount of potash in the leaves, Beech trees conserve the productive capacity of the soil better than any other kind of tree, and improve the growth of other trees when planted with them...Well-ripened mast yields from 17 to 20 per cent of a non-drying oil similar to hazel and cotton-seed oils and is used in European countries for cooking, as well as burning, and in Silesia as a substitute for butter. The cake left when the oil has been pressed out may be used as a cattle food. During the war an attempt was made in Germany to use beech leaves as a substitute for tobacco, and a mixture was served to the army, but proved a failure...Choline is present in the seeds." 1942 Speck Rappahannock 34. Rappahannock steeped a handful of beech tree bark from the north side of the tree in a pint of water, to which a little salt was added. This was applied thrice daily to poison ivy sores.

1.2 American Holly, White Holly

Ilex opaca Aiton – Native

Uses: Medicinal 8,10

Poisonous (berries)

Wood

Taylor, page 37: Peter Kalm, who remarked on finding holly in wet places and scattered forests in New Jersey, noted that the Swedes there boiled the dried leaves for a pleurisy medicine. Both Washington and Jefferson planted American holly, and Jefferson listed it (but not the English species) as an ornamental. In 1771, he planned a circular burying place, to be surrounded either by untrimmed red cedars or a "stone wall with a holly hedge on it." John Bartram sent berries of the American holly to Peter Collinson.

"Washington and other colonial gardeners brought in young trees from the woods or raised them from berries. On March 28,1786, Washington received some small holly trees boxed in earth from "Colonel "Lighthorse Harry" Lee (father of Robert E. Lee). He set them out in his holly planting semicircle at Mount Vernon. Fifteen years earlier Jefferson had thought of enclosing a burial ground with either a "stone wall with a holly hedge on it," or with red cedar trees. Holly is an ideal wood for inlay work, approaching ivory in color. It was used, along with boxwood, for the inlay work on the staircase in the rebuilt Governor's Palace in Williamsburg." 14

Lust, page 227: Medicinal Part: Leaves. Properties and Uses: Diuretic, purgative. White holly seems to have been used in the past primarily as a means of cleansing the system by promoting the proper elimination of waste products from the body. CAUTION: The berries are mildly poisonous and dangerous to small children.

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1.2.1 Black Cherry, Wild Cherry

Prunus serotina Ehrh. - Native Uses:

Edible (fruit, beverage, soup, jelly, wine)

Medicinal 8,9,10

Wood

Dye 10

Dutton, page 16: The wood of the wild black cherry is smooth grained and is for the cabinetmaker one of the choicest of all native woods. He ranks it second only to the wood of the black walnut." 14

Medsger, page 48: "In years gone by, the fruits were much esteemed for flavoring rum and whisky, making what is known as "cherry bounce." "

Alan Hall, page 115: Black Cherry is sometimes known as Rum Cherry because its fruits were widely used by early colonists to flavor rum and other liquors. They have a rich winey flavor and, despite a hint of bitterness, can be eaten raw. The fruit is collected from young trees with branches that can be reached from the ground or readily climbed; mature trees frequently have 50 ft. of unbranched trunk (hence their use as a valuable source of fine cabinet wood). Choke cherry's name is well deserved: the fruit is too bitter and astringent to be eaten fresh, but cooking removes its astringency. Both Choke Cherries and Black Cherries make excellent jellies, each with an individual character. They lack pectin though, so commercial pectin or the juice of apples should be used to promote jelling. Pies can be made from Black Cherries but pitting the small fruits is tedious. The fruit of either can be added to muffins or pancakes. The easiest way is to prepare a sauce by boiling with sugar before adding them to the batter. The same sauce, chilled and with water added, makes a good cold fruit soup or beverage. The fruits can also be used to make wine.

Charles Francis Saunders, page 190: And of course every holder to the old traditions is loyal to Wild Cherry bark. This is taken from the familiar Wild Cherry tree (Prunus serotina, Ehrh.), growing along streams and fence-rows and in woods from eastern Canada to Texas. It is from forty to eighty feet high and identifiable by its shiny green leaves (too often a prey to caterpillars) and its close racemes of small white flowers succeeded by small, black, juicy, flattened fruit with a bitter but vinous flavor. An infusion of the dried bark (gathered preferably in the autumn) in cold water, in the proportion of one-half ounce of bark to a pint of water, enjoys a reputation both as a mild sedative suited to cases of nervous excitability and as a tonic adapted to debility and impaired digestion.

Euell Gibbons, page 63: Real old-fashioned Brandied Cherries, or Cherry Bounce, was made with uncooked rum cherries. Fill a quart jar three-fourths full of well-washed rum cherries and add 1 cup of sugar; then fill the jar to the top with commercial brandy. Seal the jar, set it away in a dark place and forget about it for at least three months. A New Englander, who thought his Brandied Rum Cherries were especially good, decided after some hesitation, to give a jar of them to his minister. He waited with much trepidation for the preacher's comment. Finally he received a little thank-you note which read: Dear Parishioner, You can't imagine how delighted I was to receive your little present. But what I appreciated even more than the gift was the spirit in which it was given.

John Lust, page 394: Medicinal Part: Bark.

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Properties and Uses: Astringent, sedative, stomachic. The bark of wild black cherry was once a favorite ingredient in cough and cold medicines. It effectiveness was attributed to a sedative action on the respiratory nerves. American Indians had many uses for wild black cherry: one tribe used a tea made from the inner bark to ease pain during labor; others used a tea of the bark for diarrhea and lung problems. A decoction of the inner bark served one tribe as an enema for hemorrhoids; and another tribe cured dysentery by drinking the juice of the ripe cherries which had been allowed to ferment for a year. CAUTION: The leaves, especially when wilted, have poisoned cattle.

1.2.2 Black Gum, Sour Gum, Tupelo (Indian name)

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. - Native

Uses: Wood

Taylor, page 77: "Sour gum was used for a corner tree in Elizabeth City County, North Carolina, in 1725 and was mentioned by William Byrd in 1733. Peter Kalm commented upon the frequency with which mistletoe was found on this species. Collinson repeatedly asked John Bartram to send specimens and seeds."

1.2.3 Black Walnut

Juglans nigra L. – Native

Uses: Edible

Syrup

Beverage

Medicinal 8,9,10

Wood

Dye

Oil

Dutton, page 55: "One of man's best friends among the forest hardwoods, it is North America's finest cabinet wood and was exported to England from Jamestown as early as 1610. Almost all colonial cradles were made of black walnut, and it is the prime wood for gunstocks, absorbing more jar or recoil than any other wood. The nut is difficult to crack, and it is a tedious to pick the oily sweet kernel from the nut's intricate walls. The kernel is used in confectionery and is a favorite flavoring for ice cream. The tree was introduced into England in 1656; one at Syon Park, probably planted about 1770, now has a girth of over 16 feet and is the second largest of its kind in Britain." 14

Van Stralen, page 95: For making dyes of various shades of gold and brown, see 18.

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Hall, page 55: When the nuts are still on the trees in the summer and before they get too hard to be cut in half with a knife, they may be pickled. In the fall, collect mature nuts from the ground. The fresh hulks contain a strong dye that is almost impossible to remove, so wear gloves. The husk can be removed in the field but it is easier to get off if the nuts are allowed to dry first. Then papery dried husks are easily pulled off and will not stain the hands. The dye from the husks is readily extracted into water by boiling; Black Walnut produces a rich brown and Butternut a purple color. These are tough nuts to crack—smashing with a hammer or rock is about the only way to get the meat out—but the flavor of the nut is excellent, particularly in baking. Oil or nut butter can be prepared by smashing the husked nuts, then boiling slowly in water. The oil and nut meats will rise to the top and can be skimmed off while the pieces of shell will settle to the bottom. The oil can be separated from the nut meats, which may then be dried and used as flour; or the nut meats can be mashed into the oil (or use a blender) to produce a rich nut butter. The sap of these trees can also be tapped in the early spring and used as a beverage or boiled down for syrup or sugar in the same manner as that of the Maple. It can also be fermented into vinegar.

Department of the Army (2009), page 107: Edible Parts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. You get the walnut meat by cracking the shell. Walnut meats are highly nutritious because of their protein and oil content. (Author's note: Don't forget to bring your Sherman Tank along so you can run over the black walnuts to crack the shells.) Other Uses: You can boil walnuts and use the juice as an antifungal agent. The husks of "green" walnuts produce a dark brown dye for clothing or camouflage. Crush the husks of "green" walnuts and sprinkle them into sluggish water or ponds for use as a fish poison. (Author's note: Also bring your plastic gloves to keep your hands from being permanently dyed dark brown.)

Lust, page 387: Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves, rind of the fruit. Properties and Uses: Bark: astringent. Leaves: detergent. Rind: herpatic. An infusion or decoction of the bark can be taken for diarrhea and to stop the production of milk. Use it also as a douche for leucorrhea and as a mouthwash for soreness in the mouth or inflamed tonsils. The leaves can be used to make a cleansing wash, and the green rind of the fruit make a good poultice to get rid of ringworm.

Kavasch, page 7, 26.

Duke, page 203: Fungal Infections: Kathi Keville, author of the Illustrated Herb Encyclopedia and Herbs for Health and Healing, a California herbalist whom I admire, recounts one impressive study showing that the fresh husk of the black walnut destroyed candida better than a commonly prescribed antifungal drug. (Author's note: see book for formula.) page 274: Hypothyroidism: In Turkish folk medicine, walnuts are used as remedies for various glandular disorders, including thyroid problems. It looks like there's something to it. In one study, the fresh juice of green walnuts doubled levels of thyroxine. A decoction of green walnuts, made by boiling them for about 20 minutes, boosted thyroxine at least 30 percent. You might get some benefit from walnuts simply by enjoying them by the handful, and you could also use walnut oil as a flavorful addition to salad dressings. But it’s the green husks that more likely to be effective, even though they are not pleasing to the palate. page 346: Overweight: You might think that nuts, which are high in fat, should be avoided by anyone who is trying to lose weight. But a study of more than 25,000 Seventh-Day Adventists showed that those who ate the most nuts were the least obese. Walnuts are our richest dietary source of serotonin, which.....helps make us feel full. Possibly the nuts produced feelings of satiety. It is important to understand, however, that Seventh-Day Adventists are vegetarians who live a much healthier lifestyle than the typical American. Its not clear that nuts would help you control your weight if you're an omnivore eating both meat and vegetables. But you might experiment to see if eating a handful of walnuts helps you control food cravings.

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page 396: Skin Problems: Commission E endorses using walnut leaves for treating mild superficial skin inflammations. Steep two teaspoons of crushed leaves in a cup of boiling water, then apply the tea when cool. Some herbalists suggest adding a handful of crushed walnut leaves to baths for treating eczema.

Erichsen-Brown, pages 70-71: 1590 Harriot Virginia 9. "There two sortes of Walnuttes both holding oyle, but the one are more plentiful than the other. When there are milles & other devices for the purpose, a commodity of them may be raised because there are infinite store...18. In many places where there are very great woods for many miles together, the third part of trees are walnut trees. The one kind is of the same taste and forme or little differing from ours of England, but they are harder and thicker shelled: the other is greater and a verie ragged and harde shelle: but the kernel great, very oylie and sweete. Besides their [Indians] eating of them after our ordinarie maner, they breake them with stones and pound them in mortars with water to make a milk of which they use to put into some sorts of their spoonmeate; also among their sodde wheat, peaze, beanes and pompions which maketh them have a farre more pleasant taste...22. Walnut trees, as I have said before very many, some have been seen excellent faire timber of foure & five fathome, & above fourscore foot straight without bough." 1612 Capt. John Smith Virginia Indians 102. "In May and June they plant their fields, and live mostly of Acornes, walnuts, and fish." 1748 Kalm September 26

th. The Indians...make a delicious meal of several kinds of walnuts, chestnuts,

mulberries...Dec. 12th. The joiners say that among the trees of this country they use chiefly the black walnut,

the wild cherry, and the curled maple. Of the black walnut...there is yet a sufficient quantity, but careless people are trying to destroy it, and some peasants even use it as a fuel...The cogs of the mill wheel and the pullies were made of the white walnut [Juglans cinerea or Butternut] because it was said to be the hardest which could be found here."

1.2.4 Eastern Red Cedar

(Juniperus virginiana L.) – Native

Uses: Medicinal

Wood

Taylor, page 71: "Long before Jefferson listed it as "useful for fabrication" it was prized for the durable quality of its aromatic wood, especially for fences and posts. From at least 1660 on, wills itemized cedar furniture. In 1699, plans for the "Capitole, now erecting in the City of Williamsburg" were revised to specify that the porches stand on cedar columns. Ships approaching the coast in the first period of colonization often were greeted by the pungent smoke of red cedars burning—with other trees—in fires set by the Indians to head game. John Bartram wrote "Col. Byrd is very prodigalle...in new Gates, gravel walk hedges and cedars finely turned...in short he hath the finest seat in Virginia." Red cedar was sent to England from North America in 1664."

Erichsen-Brown, page 31: 1749 Kalm Salem May 5

th. 301. "The red juniper is another tree which I have mentioned very frequently in the

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course of my account...The English call it red cedar, and the French Cedre rouge...Of all the woods in this country this is without exception the most durable, and withstands weathering longer than any other...The best canoes, consisting of a single piece of wood, are made of red cedar; for they last far longer than any other and are very light. In New York I have seen quite large yachts built of this wood,...The heart of this cedar is of a fine red color and whatever is made of it looks very fine, and has a very agreeable and wholesome smell. But the color fades by degrees , or the wood would be very suitable for cabinet work. I saw a parlor...wainscotted many years ago with boards of red cedar...quite faded...wood will keep its color if a thin varnish is put upon it while it is fresh...Some people put the shavings and chips of it among their linen to secure against being worm eaten...October 7

th. Montreal...I also talked to the commandent of Fort Frontenac, who informed me that on the

plain was found...red cedar and herbs, the medicinal value of which he praised most highly. Besides, he knew them well and promised to show them to me when I came there...

1.2.5 Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh.) - Native

Uses:

Wood

1.2.6 Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos L.) - Native

Uses:

Edible

Medicinal

Wood

Taylor, page 49: "...was described and illustrated in Catesby's Natural History, and there are numerous references to it in colonial times. Peter Collinson, in the Gentleman's Magazine, wrote of its importation into England; he had asked Bartram for seeds in 1736. Jefferson twice ordered seeds sent to friends in France. Some white settlers, following Indian practice, used the fruit as food and made beer from the sugary pulp."

Dutton, page 30-31: "A sweetish pulp around each seed and the triple-branched thorns for the common names. The thorns were once used in carding wool and pinning up woolsacks, but a thornless form is now commonly planted. Mark Catesby described and illustrated the honey locust in his Natural History."

Medsger, page 121: "It gets its name from the sweet pulp found in the pod between and around the seeds, which is pleasing to the taste and is generally relished by boys. Trees vary as to the quantity and quality of pulp secreted. Sometimes it is slightly astringent. On an island in a large creek near my boyhood home grew a number of native trees of this species where in autumn we boys often resorted to gather the pods, taking many home to nibble at during

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leisure moments. It is believed that the Indians used the pods and seeds."

1.2.7 Ironwood, Lever Wood (Carpinus caroliniana Walter) (Also Astrya virginica?) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal? 10

Taylor, page 50: "References are numerous. Catesby mentioned the hornbeam in his Natural History, Peter Kalm noted it in Philadelphia in 1748, and Bartram observed this tree in his travels through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, and on several occasions sent seeds to Peter Collinson."

1.2.8 Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda L.) - Native

Uses:

Wood

Medical - dental

Edible (cones (male), needles (beverage), seeds)

Other – glue, waterproofing

Department of the Army (2009), page 78: Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young male cones, which grow only in the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the bark of thin twigs. You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C. Other Uses: Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as a glue. Collect resin from the tree. If there is not enough resin on the three, cut a notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container

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and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.

Taylor, page 56: "Michaux (1746-1802) noted that three-fourths of the houses in Virginia were built of loblolly pine, which provides a better timber than scrub pine. Pine was frequently specified for construction. It was designated for the flooring of the Capitol in Williamsburg in 1700. Jefferson listed "Black or pitch pine, Pinus Taeda" as "useful for fabrication." Loblolly pine was introduced into England in 1713."

Dutton, page 45-46: "The Reverend John Clayton noticed that in the spring the pine's yellow pollen dust floated on the surface of the rainwater after heavy storms. Loblolly grew widely in the southern coastal plains where the wood was used for its abundance and diversity. When aged, the wood was used for planking, shingles, posts, and sills. John Mitchell, who considered it the most useful of all the pines, called it the "light-wood" pine because when the tree dies, the heartwood often turns hard, and, being full of resin, will burn like a torch. Poor people used it instead of candles. A friend told Mitchell that when an old ship was broken up, its oak timbers were found to have rotted, but the loblolly was perfectly sound."

1.2.9 Mockernut Hickory (Carya alba (L.) Nutt. Aka Carya tomentosa) – Native

Uses:

Edible (syrup, beverage, nuts)

Medicinal

Wood

Kavasch, page 7.

Dutton, page 23: "In his Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia (1640), William Strachey describes it growing in the Tidewater. There is evidence that the colonists grew it for its beauty as well as for the sweet, light brown nut."

Hall, see Pignut Hickory below.

1.2.10 Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra L. var. rubra) - Native

Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Wood

Medicinal 8,10 Author's note: Many of the write-ups below apply to other species of oaks as well.

Hall, page 63: Acorns can be collected in the early autumn when they fall from the trees although hoards collected by squirrels the preceding season and forgotten can sometimes be found in hollow trees at other times of year. Acorns from the White Oak group can be roasted over a slow fire or in an oven and eaten as nuts but since all acorns contain some tannin, which imparts bitterness, they are best used after further preparation has removed the tannin. Tannin is readily soluble in water and can be removed by leaching. Whole nutmeats can be freed of tannin by boiling in repeated changes of water until the water ceases to turn brown. They can then be dried by roasting and either eaten as nuts or boiled in sugar syrup for a confection. The major use of acorns is as a

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source of flour, and it was once a staple food of many American Indian tribes. To prepare acorn flour, shelled nutmeats are allowed to dry, then ground into a meal and the tannin leached out. Leaching can be accomplished by placing the meal in a cloth bag or a porous container and pouring boiling water over it, or by the slower method of immersing in running cold water for several days. In the wilderness, the easiest method is to place the bag of meal in a creek or spring and forget it for several days. After leaching, allow the flour to dry in the sun or a slow oven. It cakes when drying, making a second grinding necessary before use. It can be pressed into cakes before drying to make storage and transport easier. The resulting flour is best when blended either with cornmeal or wheat flour. Pancakes, bread, and muffins prepared from it are a rich black and have a pleasant, rather nutty, flavor.

Saunders, page 231: ...buttons of acorn cups......

Department of the Army (2009), page 72: Edible Parts: All parts are edible, but often contain large quantities of bitter substances. White Oak acorns usually have a better flavor than red oak acorns. Gather and shell the acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water for 1 to 2 days to remove the bitter substance. You can speed up this process by putting wood ashes in the water in which you soak the acorns. Boil the acorns or grind them into flour and use the flour for baking. You can use acorns that you baked until very dark as a coffee substitute. CAUTION! Tannic acid gives the acorns their bitter taste. Eating an excessive amount of acorns high in tannic acid can lead to kidney failure. Before eating acorns, leach out this chemical. Other uses: Oak wood is excellent for building or burning. (Author's note: So don't forget your hatchet and your saw.) Small oaks can be split and cut into long thin strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick and 1.2 centimeters wide) used to weave mats, baskets, or frameworks for packs, sleds, furniture, etc. Oak bark soaked in water produces a tanning solution used to preserve leather.

Kavasch, page 7.

Duke, page 168 referring to Quercus, various species: Diarrhea: Commission E recommends using one to two teaspoons of dried oak bark to make an astringent tea.

Erichsen-Brown, page 63: [Author's note: Many of these selections apply to several species of oaks, not just Northern Red Oak.] 1590 Harriot Virginia 9. "There are also three severall kindes of Berries in the forme of Oke akornes; which also by the experience and use of the inhabitants, wee finde to yeelde very good and sweete oyle...19. Acorne, of which there are five sorts...These kind of acorns they use to drie upon hurdles made of reeds with fire underneath almost after the manner as we dry malt in England. When they are to be used they first water them until they be soft & then being sod they make a good victuall, either to eat so simply or els being also pounded, to make loaves or lumpes of bread. These be also the three kinds of which, I said before, the inhabitants used to make sweet oyle. An other sort is called Sapummener which being boiled or parched doth eate and taste like unto chestnuts. They also make bread of this sort. The fifth sort is called Mangummenauk, and is the acorne of their kind of oake, the which being dried after the manner of the first sortes, and afterwards watered they boile them, & their servants or sometimes the chiefs themselves either for variety or for want of bread, doe eate them with their fish or flesh...22. Okes, there are as faire, straight, tall, and and as good timber as any cn be, and also great store, and in some places very great. 1748 Kalm New York November 1

st. 128. "The bark of the white oak was reckoned the best remedy which has

as yet been found against dysentery. It is reduced to a powder; and then taken. Some people assured me that in cases where nothing would help, this remedy had given a certain and speedy relief. The people in this place also make use of the bark (as is usually done in the English colonies) to dye wool brown, which looks like that of Bohea tea, and does not fade by being exposed to the sun...221. The millers said that the axle-trees of the mill wheels were made of white oak, that they lasted for three or four years, but that pine did not keep so well."

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1799 Lewis Mat. Med. 214. "The astringent effects of the oak bark were sufficiently known to the ancients, by whom different parts of it were used...It manifests a taste of strong astringency, accompanied with a moderate bitterness...recommended in agues, for restraining hemorrhages, alvine fluxes, and other immoderate evacuations...The bark has been supposed by some to be not less efficacious than the Peruvian bark[quinine] especially in the form of an extract; but this is believed by a very few, if any, at present, though it is not doubted but that the bark may have the power of curing some intermittents."

1.2.11 Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana L.) – Native

Uses:

Edible (fruit, beverage)

Medicinal 8,10

Taylor, page 66: "The common name is a variant of pessimin, or putchamin, the Virginia Indian name." "DeSoto ate persimmons in 1557 and references in colonial times are very numerous. Although an early traveler in Pennsylvania wrote: "The pessamins [were] harsh and choakie and furre in a man's mouth, like allam," opinions were generally favorable. The fruits, recently found to have a high vitamin C content, were eaten raw or made into persimmon beer. The plant was introduced into England in 1629."

Dutton, page 44-45: "The fruit, a glaucous orange that turns deep tawny, is very astringent until fully ripe, as William Strachey learned at Jamestown: "When not fully ripe they are harsh and choakye, and furre a Mans mouth like Allam [alum], howbeit being taken fully ripe it is a reasonable pleasant fruiet somewhat lushious. I have seen our people put them into their baked and sodden puddings." Colonists also made persimmon beer and persimmon pudding, and the Indians used the juice and dried pulp in their corncakes." 14

Medsger, page 77: "Persimmon bread was often used by the early settlers in regions where this fruit abounds. One author speaks of it as superior to gingerbread. The custom of mixing ripe persimmons with the meal in making cakes was probably learned from the Indians."

Gibbons, page 165: There is a widespread belief that persimmons are edible only after frost, or, as some say, after a hard freeze. Believing this, some friends of mine gathered a quantity of half-ripe persimmon and stored them in their home freezer. When these artificially frozen persimmons were thawed, they were just as pucker and astringent as when they were picked. It is the degree of ripeness that counts, and for this, frost is not necessary. page 169: A recent discovery points to a use of the persimmon which is not concerned with the fruit. It has been reported in the sicentifc journals that "persimmon leaves have been found to give exceptionally high values in content of vitamin C." Persimmon Tea could help fortify your family with this protective vitamin, substituting at least in part for the expensive citrus fruits. This tea proves to have a very pleasant flavor, which is surprising in something so healthful. Tea made from the green leaves is very acceptable but that from the dried leaves is even better, having a flavor

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reminiscent of sassafras. Author's note: See Euell Gibbons' book for recipes for Persimmon-Hickory Nut Bread using hickory nuts or black walnuts, for Persimmon-Nut Chiffon Pie, for a Persimmon Christmas Pudding, and molasses, beer, and vinegar.

Department of the Army (2009), page 76: Edible Parts: The leaves are a good source of vitamin C. The fruits are edible raw or baked. To make tea, dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. You can eat the roasted seeds. CAUTION: Some people are unable to digest persimmon pulp. Unripe persimmons are highly astringent and inedible.

Duke, page 425: Tonsillitis: Blackberry root and persimmon, either alone or in combination, were early American folk remedies for tonsillitis. Since both are rich in tannins, this is a rational formula.

1.2.12 Pignut Hickory (Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet) - Native

Uses:

Wood

Edible (oil, sugar or syrup, vinegar, nuts)

Hall, page 57: Hickory nuts can be gathered from the ground in late fall. They generally drop after almost all the leaves have fallen. Husks are easily pulled free and often are knocked loose when the nut hits the ground. For eating raw, roasting, cooking, and baking, the Shagbark or Shellbark is the best. The tougher shelled and less tasty nuts can be used to make flour, oil, or nut butter in the same manner as the Juglans species (see Black Walnut). In early spring, the Hickory trees can also be tapped for sap, which can be used as a beverage, boiled down for syrup or sugar, or fermented for vinegar.

Kavasch, page 7.

1.2.13 Post Oak (Quercus stellata Wangenh.) - Native

Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Wood

Medicinal 8,10

From Alan Hall, see Northern Red Oak above. White oak acorns are preferred since they have less tannin.

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1.2.14 Red Maple (Acer rubrum L.) – Native

Uses:

Edible (syrup or sugar, beverage, vinegar)

Wood

Medicinal?

Dye

Ink?

Hall, page 127: Although its importance has been diminished by the availability of cane sugar, the sap of the Maples—which flows from February to early April and, during thaws, even earlier—is a valuable sugar source. Sap flows best on warm, sunny days that have been preceded by cold, frosty nights. Trees are "tapped' by boring a 1/2 in. hole 3 in. into the trunk with a slight upward slant. A spile or spigot is fitted into the hole. Commercial spiles made from perforated metal can be obtained at hardware suppliers but equally good ones can be made by punching the pith out of 4-in. lengths of Elder (see p. 155), sharpening one end to allow sap to run into it, and cutting a notch in the other to hold pails or similar containers. Two spiles can be inserted in an average-sized tree, more in larger ones. Boiled over a fire in shallow pans, sap yields syrup; further boiling yields sugar. It takes about 3-4 gal. of sap to make a pound of sugar (a single large maple on a good day will often drip several times that amount). Sugaring is time-consuming, but the only real labor is collecting firewood; in a winter camp a fire is usually burning anyway and there are few better uses for its heat. The sap may also be drunk directly from the tree or used in cooking. If it is allowed to ferment a mild vinegar is produced.

Saunders, page 226: A dark blue dye Peter Kalm found in vogue among the Pennsylvania colonists derived from the Red Swamp Maple (Acer rubrum, L.), that charming tree whose vivid blossoms, appearing before the leaves, add so much of glory to the early spring landscapes of our Atlantic Seaboard. The bark, says Kalm, is first boiled in water and before the stuff to be dyed is put into the boiler, "some copperas such as hatmakers and shoemakers use, " is added.

Gibbons, page 117: Today, the production of maple sirup is confined to a relatively small area in northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, and it never seems to occur to anyone that it might be made elsewhere. Yet in literature I find mention of maple sirup having been made as far south as Georgia and as far west as Texas. This was in early times, before other forms of sweetening became available to the settlers. Now maple sugaring seems to be a forgotten art in these regions.

Kavasch, page 24.

Erichsen-Brown, page 80: 1748 Kalm Delaware October 6

th. 88. "The red maple, or Acer rubrum, is plentiful in these places...Out of its wood

they make plates, spinning wheels, feet for chairs and beds, and many other kinds of turnery. With the bark they dye both worsted and linen, giving it a dark blue color. For this purpose it is first boiled in water and some copperas...is added before the stuff (which is to be dyed) is put into the boiler. This bark likewise yields a good black ink...In Canada they make both syrup and sugar of its juice. There is a variety of this tree which they call the curly maple, the wood being as it were marbled within...utensils made of this wood are preferable to those of any other kind in this country, and are much dearer...The tree is therefore cut very deep before before it is felled, to see whether it has veins in every part...December 12

th. 220. The curled maple is a species of the common red maple, and likewise is

very difficult to obtain. You may cut down many trees without finding the wood which you want...1749 June 12th.

Germans of Strasburg (Staatsburg) use a yellow Agaricus or fungus, which grows on the maple tree for tinder. That

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wich is found on the red-flowering maple (Acer rubrum) is reckoned the best...20th. June 340. We lodged with a

gunsmith, who told us that...the best and most expensive stocks for his muskets were made of wild cherry, and next to these he valued most those of the red maple... 1830. Rafinesque 184. "The bark of A. rubra, red maple dies wool and flax of a brown color; the Cherokees use the inner bark boiled for sore eyes...The Birch and Hickory have a sweet sap as well as the Maples. The Indians made syrup and sugar from them all, but chiefly from [red maple, silver maple and box elder]...Sugar maple and Black maple afford the most. This sugar is equal to can sugar...We could make maple sugar in sufficient quantity for the whole use of our population, and even for exportation. But instead, the trees are wantonly destroyed or neglected. Hardly 100,000 lbs of sugar are made annually, and chiefly in remote settlements. We ought to plant and cultivate these trees instead of destroying them, or leave from 10 to 50 on each acre of cleared land. Whole forests of them have lately been planted in Germany, Hungary, and France. 1840 Gosse Quebec 71-2. ..."The bark of this tree, boiled with copperas makes a fluid intense black, which is commonly used in the village schools as ink, but it never dries properly and in damp weather the writing becomes glutinous and blots, after any length of time: it is also used in domestic dying."

1.2.15 River Birch, Black Birch (Betula nigra L.) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal?

Duke, page 452: Warts: Birch bark has been used to treat warts in places as diverse as China, Scandinavia and Michigan. It contains two compounds, betulin and betulinic acid, that have antiviral activity. Birch bark also contains salicylates, which are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of warts.

Erichsen-Brown, page 46: 1926-7 Densmore CHIPPEWA 342. Bark in decoction for pain in the stomach.

1.2.16 Sassafras, Ague Tree, Cinnamon Wood, Saxifrax

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees) - Native Uses:

Edible (beverage, seasoning)

Medicinal

Dye

Other (toothbrush)

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Dutton, page 49-50: "The Spanish in Florida, observing that the Indians used the bark of the root as a purifier and tonic and added the dried powdered leaves to thicken their broth, name it "salsafras" (from saxifrage, supposed to have similar medicinal properties). The French Huguenots in South Carolina called it sassafras. In 1574 Dr. Nicholas Monardes, the Spanish physician, claimed the root bark was a cure-all. From then on, the dried root bark sold at a very high price in Europe, and explorers along North America's Atlantic coastline kept a sharp lookout for the tree, which became the oldest commercialized crop in North America." Hariot, finding sassafras on Roanoke Island, described it as "a wood of the most sweet and pleasant smell and of rare virtues in medicine for the cure of many diseases." Jamestown lies in what was some of the best sassafras country in Virginia; sassafras was one of the first exports that Captain James Smith sent home from the settlement. Although the root bark's reputation diminished, faith in the blood purifying properties of sassafras tea has persisted, and the tea is now packaged and sold in tea bags. Sassafras is also used as a flavoring for root beer and candy sticks, and filé powder from the young leaves is an essential ingredient in gumbo dishes." 14

Medsger, page 205: "During colonial days Sassafras root was in great demand in Europe, and it became an important article of commerce. It was used for tea and flavoring and was long sold in the stores in London."

Gibbons, page 187: In 1590 there appeared the report of Thomas Hariot on Virginia, which has already been mentioned in relation to groundnuts. Hariot, in listing the valuable plants of Virginia, says: Sassafras called by the inhabitants Winauk, a kind of wood of most pleasant and sweete smel, and of most rare vertues in physic for the cure of many diseases. page 193: Did you ever chew sassafras leaves or winter buds? I often do, as I hike where this little tree grows. The young leaves have a pleasant spicy taste and a mucilaginous quality like purslane. I often add a few tender sassafras leaves to a tossed salad, if they are available. The dried and powdered leaves of sassafras are highly valued in Creole cookery. They are the basic ingredient of the delicious gumbo filet used in New Orleans to thicken and flavor the gumbos. page 193: The fragrant wood of the sassafras, especially that of the root, repels moths, just as red cedar does. A bag of sassafras chips packed with your winter clothes will protect them from these pests. A farmer in Pennsylvania assured me that mites would never bother chickens that roosted on sassafras poles.

Department of the Army (2009), page 89: Edible Parts: The young twigs and leaves are edible fresh or dried. You can add dried young twigs and leaves to soups. Dig the underground portion, peel off the bark, and let it dry. Then boil it in water to prepare sassafras tea. Other Uses: Shred the tender twigs for use as a toothbrush.

Lust, page 347: Medicinal Part: Bark. Properties and Uses: Anodyne, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant. A hot infusion of sassafras bark makes a good "blood purifier," promoting perspiration and urination. It has therefore been recommended for rheumatism, gout, arthritis, and skin problems. For the latter, as for various ulcers, combined internal and external use is recommended. The bark of the roots contains a volatile oil that has anodyne and antiseptic properties. It has been used in the past as a pain reliever and also to treat venereal disease. American Indians used an infusion of sassafras roots to bring down a fever. Sassafras tea has also had its day as a popular tonic drink.

Kavasch, page 28, 136, 153.

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Reader's Digest, page 292: ...Word of sassafras's amazing curative powers reached Europe, and for a time it became a major colonial export, second only to tobacco. The Europeans also discovered sassafras tea, and it soon became a fashionable beverage. A growing (but unjustified) reputation as a cure for syphilis cost sassafras its respectability, however, and as a result, its economic importance. An oil extracted from the tree remained in use as an antiseptic for dentistry and as a flavoring for toothpastes, root beer, and chewing gum until the early 1960's. At that time, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration declared that the chemical compound safrole, found in the oil of the root bark, was a potential carcinogen. Sassafras root bark was long considered a virtual cure-all, but only its effectiveness in relieving intestinal gas and as a diuretic have been substantiated.

Erichsen-Brown, page 103: 1590 Harriot Virginia 9. "Sassafras, called by the inhabitants Winauk, a kinde of wood of most pleasant and sweet smel: and of most rare vertues in phisick for the cure of many diseases. It is found by experience to bee farre better and of more uses than the wood which is call Guaiacum [the cure for syphilis at that time]...For the description and manner of using and the manifold vertues thereof, I referre you to the booke of Monardus, translated and entitled in English, The joyful newes from the West Indies." [Sassafras included by Harriot in the list of Marchantable commodities found in Virginia]. 1612 Capt. John Smith Virginia 92. "There are also some Cedars and Saxafras trees. They also yield gummes in a small proportion of themselves. We tried conclusions to extract it out of the wood, but nature afforded more then our arts...93. There is also Pellitory of Spaine, Sasafrage, and divers other simples." [Sassafras root was gathered on the Massachusetts and Virginia coasts for export to England from 1602 onwards. As well, ships bringing supplies to the colonies returned loaded with sassafras.] 1687 John Clayton Virginia 8. "The oyl of sassafras leaves may be deservedly considered too, for they will almost entirely dissolve into an oyle...11. And first the Sassafras tree, whose root is well enough known. It shoots forth its blossoms in March, which are yellow and grow in little bunches like grape-flowers. And which when gathered and picked from the husky bud, make a curious preserve. Most Sassafras trees blossom, few bear berrys, but those that do are generally very thick, they are shaped much like those of Dulcamara, but are black of colour and very aromatic, I take them to have considerable virtues." 1748 Kalm Philadelphia October 1

st. 78. "The Sassafras trees...The people here gather its flowers and use

them instead for tea. But the wood itself is of no use in husbandry...The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dyeing worsted a fine lasting orange color, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine instead of alum in dyeing, and boil the dye in a fine brass boiler, because ion an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a color. Mr. Bartram told me that a woman in Virginia had successfully employed the berries of the sassafras to cure a severe pain in one of her feet, which she had had for three years in such a degree that it almost hindered her from walking. She was advised to boil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts of her foot with the oil which by this means would be gotten from the berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three more times, though as often as she made use thereof if it always had the same effect. However she was entirely freed from the pain and recovered completely...179. Some people peel the root and boil the peel with the beer, which they may be brewing, because they believe it wholesome. The peel is put into brandy, either while it is distilling or after it is made. An old Swede remembered that his mother cured many people of the dropsy with a decoction of the root of sassafras in water drunk every morning. At the same time she used to cup the patient on the feet. The old man assured me he had often seen people cured by this means, who had been brought to his mother wrapped up in sheets...Several of the Swedes wash and scour the vessels in which they intend to keep cider, beer, or brandy with water in which the sassafras root or its peel has been boiled, which they think renders all those liquors more wholesome. Some people have their bedposts made of sassafras wood to expel the bed bugs, for its strong scent it is said, prevents vermin from settling in them...Some Englishmen related, that some years ago it had been customary in London, to drink a kind of tea of the flowers of sassafras, because it was looked upon as very healthful, but upon recollecting that the same potion was much used against the venereal disease, it was soon left off, lest those who used it should be looked upon as infected with that disease.

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1931 Grieve 716. "Oil of Sassafras is chiefly used for flavouring purposes, particularly to conceal the flavor of opium when given to children...A teaspoonful of the oil produced dilated pupils, stupor and collapse in a young man...Its use has caused abortion in several cases. Dr. Shelby of Huntsville stated that it would both prevent and remove the injurious effects of tobacco...The oil can produced marked narcotic poisoning, and death by causing widespread fatty degeneration of the heart, liver, and kidneys, or, in a larger dose, by great depression of the circulation, followed by a centric paralysis of respiration."

1.2.17 Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea Münch.) – Native

Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Wood

Medicinal 8,10

Taylor, page 73: "...It was repeatedly noted by John Bartram in his travels in the southeastern colonies, and was introduced into England in 1691. In 1745, Launcelot Lee of England wrote Thomas Lee of Virginia asking for seeds of several trees, including the "scarlet oak." "

From Alan Hall, see Northern Red Oak above. White oak acorns are preferred since they have less tannin.

1.2.18 Southern Red Oak (Quercus falcata Michx.) – Native

Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Wood

Medicinal 8,10

Dutton, page 41: "There seems to be no satisfactory answer as to why this oak was called "Spanish" oak, but that was the name William Penn and William Byrd II knoew it by. Falcata comes from falco, a falcon, the sickle-shaped leaves being likened to a falcon's curved talons."

From Alan Hall, see Northern Red Oak above. White oak acorns are preferred since they have less tannin.

1.2.19 Spicebush, Spicewood, Wild Allspice, Feverbush

Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume - Native

Also Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees Uses:

Beverage

Seasoning

Medicinal 10

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Medsger, page 207: "The leaves, twigs, bark, and berries of spicebush have a strong aromatic odor and taste. In earlier days it was used in medicines, but it is doubtful if the plant has any particular virtue in that respect. It is used for tea, however, especially in the South. During the Civil War, it was much used as a substitute for tea both by the solders and by their friends at home. They used the leaves as well as twigs and bark. The pioneers used it in colonizing the American wilderness. Andre Michaux, the French botanist, in through the American wilderness wrote in his journal February 9, 1796, after stopping at a settler's cabin: "I had supped the previous evening on tea made from the shrub called Spicewood. A handful of young twigs or branches is set to boil and after it has boiled at least a quarter of an hour, sugar is added and it is drunk like tea. I was told that milk makes it much more agreeable to the taste. This beverage restores strength, and it had that effect for I was very tired when I arrived." I have made tea from both twigs and bark of the spicebush and find that when sugar and cream are added, it makes quite a pleasant drink. However, I prefer sassafras or wintergreen. It is claimed that at the time of the American Revolution the berries were dried, powdered, and used as a substitute for allspice." 16

Kavasch, page 136.

Duke, page 464: Yeast Infections: Studying 54 plant species for antimicrobial effects, American scientists found that an extract of spicebush bark strongly inhibited Candida albicans. Throughout Appalachia, spicebush tea has long been a favorite, proving once again the wisdom of much folk medicine.

Reader's Digest, page 305: The prime medicinal use of spicebush has been as a febrifuge, or agent that reduces fever. Folk healers still use the shrub for this purpose and they also recommend it for colds and as a tonic. There is very little scientific data available to validate these claims. Since colonial times, the berries have served cooks as a substitute for allspice. The leaves make a refreshing tea, and in spring the blossoms can be added for extra sweetness.

1.2.20 Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.) - Native

Uses:

Chewing Gum

Wood

Medicinal 8,10

Taylor, page 82-83: "The resinous, fragrant sap, which flows in quantity from the trees south of North Carolina, is used in censers in Central America. Catesby's Natural History includes the "Liquid Ambar" which at first he called "Styrax aceris folio." Peter Kalm remarked on the use of sweet gum for furniture and cart wheels, and Jefferson listed it as "useful for fabrication." When William Byrd was running the Dividing Line between Virginia and North Carolina he dispensed "Sweet Gumm," a member of the witch-hazel family, Hamamelidaceae, as a specific for dysentery." 12

Dutton, page 51-52: "Bishop Compton grew the tree from seeds sent by Bannister (1681), who listed it as Styrax folio Aceris. In

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Virginia, he wrote, "it is called the sweet gumme. It weeps when wounded a white resinous gumme, of a pleasant savour, and some say very balsamick." He also sent some gum for the apothecaries to study." 14

Medsger, page 227: "When the tree is injured, a pleasantly scented balsamic sap follows, which, when it hardens, forms a resin or gum. This gum, copal-balsam or copalm, is sometimes used as a substitute for storax. The storax of commerce comes from two other species of Liquidambar growing in southeastern Asia. According to Willard N. Clute, the resinous gum that our species produces is sometimes used as chewing gum."

Lust, page 374: Medicinal Parts: Balsam, bark. Properties and Uses: Antiseptic, astringent, expectorant. The balsam from the sweet gum tree has antiseptic properties which have made it an effective external medication for wounds and for skin problems. For external use, it is usually make into an ointment with lard and oil. American Indians used a decoction of leaves or roots as a wash to treat injuries. For coughs and respiratory congestion due to colds, the gum can be taken to promote expectoration. The bark of sweet gum has been used to relieve diarrhea and dysentery.

Kavasch, page 171: ...is the source of the exuded resin gum copal, which is a pleasant chewing gum.

Reader's Digest, page 315: Indians of the southern United States reportedly made a preparation of the balsam to treat fevers and wounds. In some areas the pioneers made an extract of the bark and leaves to cure diarrhea, but in the South they chewed the leave for this purpose. In the Appalachians, people dipped the twigs in whiskey and nibbled them to clean their teeth. Mixed with tallow or lard, the balsam served as an ointment for hemorrhoids and for ringworm of the scalp and other skin infections. The balsam alone was believed to be a cure for herpes and skin inflammations. Dried balsam, called storax, is currently listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia. Guatemala and Honduras are the main sources of storax, which, besides its medicinal applications, is used to flavor soft drinks, tobacco, candy, and chewing gum and to scent perfumes. Several parts of sweet gum have had medicinal uses, the most important part eing the balsam, called storax, whose chief applications are as an expectorant and an antiseptic. The food industry uses the balsam as a flavoring.

1.2.21 Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) - Native

Uses:

Sap (marginal)

Medicinal 8,10

Wood

Dutton, page 52-53: "Peter Kalm noted that the "Virginia maple" was "planted about the houses and in gardens to afford a pleasant shade." Jefferson wrote to Martha Randolph from Philadelphia in July, 1793: "I never before knew the full value of trees. My house is embosomed in high plane trees, with good grass below, and under them I breakfast, dine, write, read, and receive my company." "The sycamore of the primeval forest was a colossus; huge in girth, many trees often became hollow. Chimney swifts—swallows they were called—came in many thousands to roost in these hollow trees. Early explorers recorded, too, that the sycamore's fruit was a favorite food of the now extinct Carolina parakeet." "The American plane was known in England by 1636..."

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1.2.22 Tulip Poplar, Tulip Tree, Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) – Native

Uses:

Medicinal 8,10

Wood

Dye 10

Taylor, page 88: "Records of this native tree are early and numerous: in his Natural History of Virginia, William Byrd wrote "Everyone has some of these trees in his gardens and around the house, for ornament and pleasure." Indians and early settlers in Virginia made dugouts of this tree, as noted by Peter Kalm, who also said the Delaware Swedes called it "Canoe tree." The bark of the roots was used in the treatment of fevers, especially malaria."

Dutton, page 53-54: "William Byrd observed that "everyone has some of these trees in his gardens and around the house for ornament and pleasure." Old tulip trees still exist between his house, Westover, and the James River, and there are also some on the front of Carter's Grove. Describing Nomini Hall, his employer's plantation house, Philip Fithian wrote: "Due East of the Great House are two Rows of tall, flourishing, beautiful, Poplars, beginning on a Line drawn from the School to the Wash-House; these Rows are something wider than the House, and are about 300 yards Long, at the Easternmost end of which is the great Road leading through Westmoreland to Richmond. These Rows of Poplars form an extremely pleasant avenue, and at the Road, through them, the House appears most romantic, at the same time that it does truly elegant."

Erichsen-Brown, page 107: 1590 Harriot Virginia Indians 23. "Rakiock, a kind of trees so called that are sweet wood of which the inhabitants that were neere unto us doe commonly make their boats or Canoes of the form of trowes, [troughs] only with the helpe of fire, harchets of stones, and shells; we have known some so great being made in that sort of one tree that they have carried well xx men at once, besides much baggage: the timber being great, tal, straight, soft, light, & yet tough enough I think (besides other uses) to be fit for masts o ships." 1612 Capt. John Smith Virginia Indians 103. "Their fishing is much in boats. These they make of one tree by bowing [burning] and scratching away the coles with stone and shells till they have made it in the forme of a Trough. Some of them are an elne deep, and 40 or 50 foot in length, and some will beare 40 men, but the most ordinary are smaller, and will beare 10, 20, or 30, according to their bignes." 1687 Clayton Virginia Indians 11. "They use much the young buds of the Populus sive Tulippa arbor, a vast large tree extraordinary spacious, bearing flowers about April much like Tulips, its leaves are large, smooth and well shaped, which together with the flowers, render the tree exceeding beautifull to behold. It bears its seeds coniferous, and is an excellent opener of Obstructions." 1748 Kalm October the 19

th. Philadelphia 108. Its wood is used here for canoes, boards, planks, bowls,

dishes, spoons, doorposts, and all sort of joiners' work. I have seen a barn of considerable size whose walls

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and roof were made of a single tree of this kind, split into boards. Some joiners reckon this wood better than oak, because the latter frequently is warped, while the former is not, and can easily be worked...It is certain that it contracts enough in hot weather to occasion great cracks in the boards, and in wet weather it swells so as to be near bursting...The bark...is divisible into very thing layers, whih are very tough like bast, though I have never seen it employed as such. The leaves when crushed and applied to the forehead are said to be a remedy for headache. When horses are plagued with worms, the bark is pounded and given to them in dry form. Many people believe its roots to be as efficacious against the fever as the Jesuits' bark. ...November 642. "Leaves held to be a remedy for gout."

1.2.23 Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.) - Native

Uses:

Wood

Medical - dental

Edible (cones (male), needles (beverage), seeds)

Other – glue, waterproofing

Taylor, page 91: "Peter Kalm referred to a pine with "double leaves and oblong cone...The English to distinguish it, call it the Jersey pine." Schoepf wrote of "the Rosemary-Pine, so called, which has but two needles and short ones," and added "It is difficult to get a clear notion of the many names, varieties and sub-varieties of this region [North Carolina]." Thomas Jefferson listed "Yellow pine. Pinus virginica" as "useful for fabrication." "

Dutton, page 46: "...chiefly used as good fuel." 14

Department of the Army (2009), page 78: Edible Parts: The seeds of all species are edible. You can collect the young male cones, which grow only in the spring, as a survival food. Boil or bake the young cones. The bark of young twigs is edible. Peel off the bark of thin twigs. You can chew the juicy inner bark; it is rich in sugar and vitamins. Eat the seeds raw or cooked. Green pine needle tea is high in vitamin C. Other Uses: Use the resin to waterproof articles. Also use it as a glue. Collect resin from the tree. If there is not enough resin on the three, cut a notch in the bark so more sap will seep out. Put the resin in a container and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is or add a small amount of ash dust to strengthen it. Use it immediately. You can use hardened pine resin as an emergency dental filling.

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1.2.24 White Oak

(Quercus alba L.) - Native Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Wood

Medicinal 8,10

Smoking Material (bark and root)

Taylor, page 94: "From the Indians the early colonists learned to boil and eat the large acorns. Sometimes oil was skimmed off and used as liniment "to supple their joints." The white oak, closest to the English oak, was mentioned by almost all the early plantsmen. It provided a valuable source of timber for houses, shipbuilding, furniture, and cooperage. Whole communities came to depend upon the bark for tanning leather, and it also, as reported by Peter Kalm, "was reckoned the best remedy which had as yet been found against the dysentery."

Dutton, page 41: "The large acorn was a staple food for the Indians, and some colonists rubbed themselves with the oil they extracted to help them "supple their joints." Peter Kalm said that the bark "was reckoned the best remedy which had yet been found against the dysentery." It was also used in tanning leather and in shipbuilding and pipemaking—a "pipe" being a cask for wine and other liquids. Staves of white oak were sent to France and to the West Indies to be made into casks for wine and rum. It is the best all-around fireplace wood." 14

Medsger, page 111-112: "The Indians usually ground the acorns of the various species [of oak] until the mass was in the form of flour or meal. This was placed in water for a day to soak out the tannin and other bitter substances. The water was then drained off and the material was molded in the form of cakes or loaves or mixed with other food. Sometimes the acorns were roasted before they were ground into meal."

Alan Hall, see Northern Red Oak above. White oak acorns are preferred since they have less tannin.

Lust, page 295: Medicinal Part: Bark. Properties and Uses: Astringent, tonic. An infusion of white oak bark can be used internally or externally (as enema or douche) for hemorrhoids and other rectal problems, menstrual problems and blood in the urine. Used internally and externally at the same time, white oak bark makes a good medication for varicose veins. The tea has also been used to stop internal hemorrhage, reduce fever, and wash sores and skin irritations. For mouth and throat irritations, use it as a gargle or mouthwash. Note: The barks of red oak (Quercus rubra) and black oak (Quercus tinctoria) can be substituted for white oak bark for external uses.

Kavasch, page 155, 165.

Reader's Digest, page 331: The wood is close-grained, hard, and tough, and that is why it came to be preferred for timber, furniture, and flooring. For centuries, too, white oak was essential in ship construction—from the gun deck of the famous frigate Constitution to the keels of the World War II minesweepers and patrol boats. North American colonists also used this native species for barrel making because the wood held liquids, including the all-important rum. In Indian medicine it was brewed into a tea for treating diarrhea and bleeding hemorrhoids. Modern herbals still specify white oak as an astringent, recommending its external use for wounds, open sores, and hemorrhoids and for poison oak and insect bites. Uses: Scientists state that white oak bark's use is valid as an external astringent, causing the capillaries and

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skin to constrict and thereby stopping minor bleeding. Its usefulness as an external hemostatic, or agent that arrests more serious bleeding, may be valid but has not been proved.

1.2.25 Willow Oak (Quercus phellos L.) - Native

Uses:

Edible (nutmeat, flour, confection)

Dutton, page 42: "In colonial days the willow oak was regarded as "a strong and comely tree." Thomas Jefferson wrote: "The Phellos, or willow oak combines great irregularity with beauty." 14

From Alan Hall, see Northern Red Oak above.

1. Smaller Trees and Shrubs

1.1 Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium L.) – Native

Uses:

Medicinal 8,10

Dutton, page 78: "Collinson, writing to Bartram in 1739, thanked him heartily for the black haws: "I wish I had a plant that bears Fruit of this Tree, the Berries are a pretty Fruite to Eat by some are call'd Indian Sweetmeat being as I am told a Usuall present from the Indians to their Guests."

Medsger, page 86: "The fruit of the black haw was a favorite with the writer and his companions during boyhood. We knew all the bushes for a mile around. Some bore large pulpy fruits, and those we visited every year." page 87: "One author states that the berries "become edible after being touched by the frost." But frost is not necessary. In the southern part of their range they are often ripe and sweet long before the first frost appears."

Castleman, page 91: Native American women drank a decoction of black haw bark for menstrual crams, childbirth recovery, and menopausal discomforts, but especially to prevent miscarriage. Later, Southern white women and their black slaves adopted these uses as well. Before the Civil War, many slave owners forced slave women to take black haw to prevent them from ending their pregnancies with abortion-inducing herbs. Slaves were a valuable asset, and slaveholders wanted the women to bear as many children as possible. The women were often raped by plantation owners or foremen, and many attempted to terminate the resulting pregnancies as a quiet protest against slavery. A popular abortion-inducing herb was cotton root, which was readily available to slaves on Southern plantations...... page 92: Therapeutic Uses: Menstrual cramps, Miscarriage, Fever and pain (including headache and arthritis). The aspirin-like chemical in black haw may reduce fever and relieve pain.

Ody, page 113: A potent muscle relaxant, black haw root bark has a very specific action on the uterus and is one of the best remedies for menstrual pain. It can be helpful for pain and bleeding after childbirth and for heavy menstrual bleeding linked to menopausal syndrome. It can also help to reduce high blood pressure and relieve cramp.

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Dig up the root in fall and strip off the bark.

Duke, page 326: Menstrual Cramps: The bark contains at least four substances that help relax the uterus. Two (aesculetin and scopoletin) also help relieve muscle spasms. With so much folklore and science to recommend it, black haw would be one of the first remedies that I'd suggest to my daughter if she came to me complaining of cramps. page 361: Pregnancy and Delivery.

Reader's Digest, page. 106: Research indicates that a bark decoction probably acts as a uterine sedative (an agent that relaxes uterine muscles and hence alleviates menstrual cramps), but they doubt it can prevent abortion or miscarriage.

1.2 Black Raspberry, Black-cap, Thimbleberry

Rubus occidentalis L. – Native Uses:

Edible (berries)

Medicinal

Medsger, page 25: "The black raspberry grows much farther south than the red species. This fruit was very valuable to the early settlers and is much sought after today."

Gibbons, page 184: Found from Quebec to Ontario and south to Georgia and Missouri, this berry was much appreciated by the pioneers and also by the Indians who preceded them. page 210: Berry-leaf Tea is probably the most effective home remedy for diarrhea but, aside from its medicinal uses, it is also a pleasant beverage and wholesome in reasonable quantities. It contains tannin (as does Oriental tea) and has a pleasant aroma; the flavor differs slightly according to which species is used but all of them make an acceptable substitute for tea. page 210: Gather the leaves while the plant is in flower and dry them as directed with other tea materials. One word of warning: be sure these leaves are thoroughly dry before you use them as tea, for, as the leaves wilt, they develop a poison which is driven off or altered in composition as the leaves get thoroughly dry. There have been cases of livestock being poisoned by wilted berry leaves, but when these leaves are contained in fully dry, cured hay they cause no ill effects.

Department of the Army (2009), page 31 (Rubus species): Edible Parts: The fruits and peeled young shoots are edible. Flavor varies greatly. Other Uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea made by brewing the dried root bark of the blackberry bush. (Author's note: No mention of any problem with wilted leaves as mentioned by Gibbons

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above.)

Duke, page 167: Diarrhea: [Author's note: Duke refers here to Rubus, various species] Commission E, the body of scientists that advises the German government about herbs, suggest making an astringent tea with two teaspoons of blackberry leaf. Oddly, it does not mention raspberry leaf, which is a close botanical relative that is also high in tannin. I've used both and found them effective. page 425: Tonsillitis [Author's note: Duke refers to Rubus, various species] Blackberry root and persimmon, either alone or in combination, were early American folk remedies for tonsillitis. Since both are rich in tannins, this is a rational formula.

1.3 Blueberry, Highbush (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) – Native

(Note: Could it also be Vaccinium fuscatum Aiton instead?) Uses:

Edible

Department of the Army (2009), page 33: Edible parts: Their fruits are edible raw.

Duke, page 336: MS: These berries contain compounds known as oligomeric procyanidins (OPCs). The biochemistry of OPCs is complicated, but there's good evidence to show that they help prevent the breakdown of certain tissues, such as the myelin sheaths that surround the nerve fibers. OPCs also have anti-inflammatory activity that might help relieve MS symptoms. This sounds like a good reason to eat more blueberries.

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1.4 Bristly Dewberry, Swamp Dewberry (Rubus hispidus L.) - Native

Uses:

Dye

Medicinal

Department of the Army (2009), page 31 (Rubus species): Edible Parts: The fruits and peeled young shoots are edible. Flavor varies greatly. Other Uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea, drink a tea made by brewing the dried root bark of the blackberry bush. [Author's note: No mention of any problem with wilted leaves as mentioned by Gibbons for Black Raspberry above.]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_hispidus A dull blue dye can be created from its berries. It also can be used as an astringent. The berries are rather bitter for culinary use, and so this plant is generally not cultivated.

1.5 Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal?

Taylor, page 27: First recorded in cultivation in 1727, coralberry was sent to England in 1730. John Bartram listed "Symphoricarpos orbiculatus" in his catalogue, and John Clayton believed the powdered root, taken internally, to be "an infallible remedy against intermittent fever." He refers to malaria, which was such a scourge to early settlers in Virginia.

Dutton, page 65: "It was generally believed that a concoction made of the powdered root was, as Clayton said, "an infallible remedy against intermittent malarial fever."

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1.6 Devil's Walkingstick (Aralia spinosa L.) – Native

Uses:

Medicinal

Poisonous (large amount of berries) Caution: Handling roots can cause dermatitis.

1.7 Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida L.) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal

Chewing Sticks

Wood 11

Dye

"Twigs used as "chewing sticks" – forerunners of modern toothbrushes. An 1830 herbal reported that the Indians and captive Africans in Virginia were remarkable for the whiteness of their teeth, and attributed to the use of Dogwood chewing sticks. Once chewed for a few minutes, the tough fibers at the ends of twigs split into a fine soft "brush". Warning: As with hard toothbrushes, Dogwood chewing sticks can cause receding gums." 8

http://www.biol.vt.edu/digital_atlas/index.php?do=plant&plant=285&search=Cornus+florida: Since the 1980's, rampant infection of this species by the dogwood anthracnose fungus (Discula destructiva) has probably resulted in the mortality of millions of individuals in all parts of Virginia. The ecological consequences of this calamity are potentially severe, for Cornus florida is (or was) the dominant understory species in many natural communities, as well as one of the most important sources of food for songbirds and other wildlife. Plants growing in sunny, open habitats are less prone to this fungus than those growing in humid forest understories."

Taylor, page 37: This species, which is native to the eastern United States, was well-known to the colonists, who used the frayed twigs as toothbrushes. William Byrd thought the bark a specific for malaria; when he ran the Dividing Line between Virginia and North Carolina he wrote: "Our chief medicine was Dogwood bark, which we used instead of that of Peru. "As "Cornus mas virginiana," Catesby described flowering dogwood in his Natural History and reported finding,

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in Virginia, a dogwood with "Flowers of rose-colour." He sent both pink and white dogwood to Fairchild in London in 1731.

Millspaugh, page 280 [71]: "A peculiar feature in the blossoming of this species is the great regularity in time of appearance of its short-lived blossoms; so characteristic is this that the Indians always planted their corn when the blossoms appeared." "...its wood is nevertheless quite valuable, on account of its great density and susceptibility of polish. It has been used for every purpose generally filled by the European Boxwood, such as engravers' blocks, cog-wheels, forks, spoons, rules, etc. etc. The twigs have long been used as a dentifrice; of this use Barton says: "The young branches stripped of their bark, and rubbed with their ends against the teeth, render them extremely white. The Creole negroes, who inhabit Norfolk, in Virginia, in great numbers, are in constant practice of using dogwood twigs in cleansing their teeth; the striking whiteness of these, which I have frequently observed, is a proof of the efficacy of this practice. The application of the juice of these twigs to the gums, is also useful in preserving them hard and sound." The bark of the root afforded the aborigines a scarlet pigment." "The previous medicinal use of dogwood bark dates from the discovery of this country, as it was then used by the Indians..." "The bark has proven tonic, astringent, and slightly stimulating; being a stomachic tonic and anti-periodic, said to possess an action very like that of Peruvian bark, and differing from the latter only in quantity of action. Eberle states that 35 grains equal 30 grains of cinchona bark, and Barton says, "It may be asserted with entire safety, that as yet ther has not been discovered within the limits of the United States any vegetable so effectually to answer the purpose of Peruvian bark in the management of intermittent fever [malaria] as Cornus florida."

Dutton, page 19-20: "Dogwood is a prime wood on account of its hardness and shock-resistant quality: strong, light, wearing smooth with use, tool handles, maul and mallet heads, and weavers' shuttles were made of it. Even up to the end of the nineteenth century, many a toothbrush was made from the frayed twigs. William Byrd II considered the bark a preventive against malaria. In his Histories of the Dividing Line betwixt Virginia and North Carolina Byrd wrote, "Our chief medicine was Dogwood bark, which we used instead of that of Peru." " 14

Saunders, page 205: The bark is tonic, mildly stimulant and anti-intermittent, and many physicians have recognized its worth as a remedy in intermittent fevers, inferior only to Peruvian bark (author's note: also known as Jesuit Bark or Jesuit's Bark, comes from several species in the genus Cinchona, used to treat malaria. It is the source for quinine). A decoction is made of the dried bark of either the tree itself or the root, the latter being the stronger. (The fresh bark is said to be cathartic.) page 225: A red dye was also got, according to Porcher, from the fibrous roots of the Flowering Dogwood...

Lust, page 175: Medicinal Part: Bark. Properties and Uses: Astringent, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic. Dogwood bark is best used as an ointment for ague and similar complaints. It was sometimes used as a substitute when Peruvian bark could not be obtained.

Kavasch, page 148. The sturdy twigs were also carefully chewed in order to fashion natural paintbrushes.

Reader's Digest, page 165: One early native [of Virginia], George Washington, noted in his diary in 1785 that "a circle of dogwood" had been planted "close to the cherry near the south garden house". Thomas Jefferson, another famous Virginian, known for his impeccable taste and appreciation of beautiful things, planted dogwood near his cherished home,

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Monticello. Once widely used to break a fever and as a substitute for quinine in treating intermittent, or recurring, fevers such as malaria, dogwood bark tea is now regarded chiefly as an appetite stimulant. There is no evidence that any of these uses are effective.

Erichsen-Brown, page 141: 1748 Kalm Philadelphia Nov. 30

th. 196. "Several people peeled the roots of the Cornus florida, or dogwood,

and gave this peel to the patients; and some people, who could not be cured [of ague] by the Jesuits' bark [cinchona], recovered by the help of this."

1.8 Mapleleaf Viburnum, Arrow-Wood (Viburnum acerifolium L.) – Native

Uses:

None found so far.

Erichsen-Brown, page 149: 1830 Rafinesque 274. "Leaves applied to inflamed tumors by the Indians." 1926-27 Densmore CHIPPEWA 344. The inner bark in a decoction drunk for cramps... 1923 H. Smith MENOMINI 28. "The inner bark of this bush yields a tea which is drunk for cramps or colic."

[Author's note. It was known that V. dentatum was used by the Indians for arrows. I suspect that this species may also have been used for this purpose, hence the common name Arrow-wood.]

1.9 Mimosa or Silktree (Albizia julibrissin Durazz.) - Introduced

Uses:

None found so far.

Taylor, page 59: "Its introduction into South Carolina at the end of the eighteenth century is attributed to Andre Michaux." 12 "The genus was named for Albizzi, a well-born Italian naturalist who is said to have introduced the species into Italy; julibrissin is a Persian local name. Mimosa is not hardy much farther north than Washington, D.C., but is a common escape in the southern states."

1. Vines

1.1 Cat Greenbrier (Smilax glauca Walter) – Native

Uses:

Medicinal

Hall, page 53: The young shoots and branches of all species can be used as a salad green and potherb. They can be collected from spring into late summer but become less common as growth begins to slow with the onset of fall. The leaves, stems, and tendrils can also be used only as far back on the branch as they are most crisp and tender and can be pinched off with the fingers. As a potherb very little cooking is required. The roots of Catbriers contain a substitute for gelatin. The tuberous roots of S. tamnoides and S. Bona-nox are best for this purpose. They should be crushed by pounding and then washed in water. Allow the sediment to settle, pour off the water, and let the sediment dry. The result is a fine red powder. About 1/8 cup of this powder boiled in 1 pint of water and cooled will form a reddish jelly with a bland taste reminiscent of sarsaparilla. The powder mixed with flour can be used to make pancakes or added to soups and stews as a thickener; it can also be mixed with hot water and sugar, cooled, and used as a beverage. The roots of other species do not release sufficient gelatin, but chopped, boiled, and mixed with sugar, they produce a flavored liquid; boiled with Sassafras root bark, sugar, and yeast, and allowed to ferment in the bottle, they make a good root beer.

Kavasch, page 27: Catbrier (Smilax spp.) is a widely distributed perennial climbing vine. Its pounded roots yield a fine gelatin with a mild taste similar to that of wild sarsaparilla.

1.2 Chinese Yam (Dioscorea oppositifolia L.) – Introduced

Uses:

Not listed in the Peterson Guides. [Author's note. Not sure how the properties of D. oppositifolia compare with the native species.]

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Department of the Army (2009), page 124 (refers to Dioscorea species, not just oppositifolia): Edible Parts: Boil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.

Ody, page 52: The Chinese yam, shan yao, is an important tonic herb in Chinese medicine. Its main action is on the kidneys, lungs, and stomach, and it is included in remedies for asthma, menopausal syndrome, urinary disorders, and weak kidney energies.

1.3 Common Periwinkle? (Vinca minor L.) - Introduced

Uses:

Medicinal

Taylor, page 65: The ultimate meaning is uncertain, but vinca perhaps comes from vincere, "to conquer," and suggests the crowding out of other plants; minor, "smaller," distinguishes this species from V. major, with larger leaves and flowers, reddish-lavender to blue. V. minor has been so long cultivated in England that it is considered native there, but it is from the continent. Pliny mentions its cultivation in Rome in the first century. In 1771 Jefferson included this member of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae in his plans for the improvement of his garden at Monticello.

Lust, page 305: Medicinal Part: The herb. Properties and Uses: Astringent, sedative. Periwinkle makes a good remedy for diarrhea, excessive menstruation and hemorrhage. To stop bleeding in the mouth and nose and also to help toothache, chew the herb. Periwinkle tea can be used for nervous conditions, hysteria, and fits.

Reader's Digest, page 235: Over the years, herbalists have classified lesser periwinkle as a hemostatic, or agent that stops the flow of blood. Pharmacologists have substantiated this claim and have also found that the plant contains substances that reduce blood pressure. The Lesser periwinkle has been declared "unsafe" by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

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1.4 Coral Greenbrier

(Smilax walteri Pursh) – Native Uses:

None found so far. See Smilax glauca.

Kavasch, page 27: Catbrier (Smilax spp.) is a widely distributed perennial climbing vine. Its pounded roots yield a fine gelatin with a mild taste similar to that of wild sarsaparilla.

1.5 English Ivy (Hedera helix L.) - Introduced

Uses:

Medicinal 10

Taylor, page 34: Peter Kalm noted English ivy growing on a building in Philadelphia. Jefferson grew it at Monticello, and Washington mentions it in his diary of 1785.

Dutton, page 85: "Native to Europe and Britain, the ivy reached the American colonies early, and former uses of the work "ivy" for mountain laurel and other plants have confused early references (see mountain laurel)."

Lust, page 183: Medicinal Part: Leaves. Properties and Uses: Antispasmodic, exanthematous. English ivy is primarily for external use as a wash for sores, burns, cuts, dandruff, and other skin problems. CAUTION: The leaves may cause dermatitis in sensitive people. A cold extract may be tried as a remedy for bilious complaints and chronic catarrhal problems. Small doses are said to dilate the blood vessels and large doses to constrict them. CAUTION: English ivy is also said to break down red blood corpuscles by releasing their hemoglobin.

Duke, page 96:

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Ivy is also useful for treating bronchitis and other respiratory problems, according to Commission E (German equivalent to FDA). page 306: Laryngitis: Ivy is an old folk remedy for whooping cough. Commission E suggests taking a pinch of dried ivy (0.3 gram) to relieve inflammatory conditions of the respiratory tract, including laryngitis. Ivy has expectorant action, and it helps minimize bronchial secretions that can cause cough and throat irritation. page 96: Skin Problems: Compounds known as saponins, which are found in ivy leaves, are active against several bacteria and fungi that cause skin problems. Commission E endorses using ivy to treat bronchitis, which is an indication of the herb's safety. Ivy has an extensive folkloric reputation for treating dermatitis. If I had a skin problem, I would chop some leaves in a blender and apply the paste directly to the affected area. page 464: Yeast Infections: Ivy leaves are active against candida and quite a few bacteria. Commission E endorses using 0.3 gram (that's just a pinch of dried herb) for various chronic inflammatory conditions, and that seems like a reasonable dose for fighting yeast infections as well. You can steep the herb in hot water for about 10 to 15 minutes and drink the tea.

Reader's Digest, page 169: One old folk belief holds that if you put a piece of ivy under your pillow, you will see your truelove's face in your dreams; yet another warns that more ivy than holly in your Christmas decorations will bring bad luck during the year to come. The plant also had many associations with drink. It was sacred to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine. Revelers at ancient Athenian drinking parties wore ivy wreaths—the equivalent of modern party hats. In England, in Elizabethan times, a bush of ivy or a painting on one was a commonplace tavern sign. Poultices made from leaves may be applied to cuts, sores, and skin eruptions. A tincture of the bark resin and a tea prepared from the fresh leaves were once given internally for a variety of problems but are no longer recommended.

1.6 Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) - Introduced

Uses:

Medicinal 8

Ody, page 76: Today, Chinese honeysuckle (L. japonica, or jin yin) is more likely to be used medicinally (than Woodbine or European honeysuckle). This was first listed in the Tang Ben Cao written in A.D. 659, and is one of the most important Chinese herbs for clearing heat and poisons from the body.

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Actions: antibacterial, reduces blood pressure, anti-inflammatory, mild diuretic, antispasmodic. "I know of no better cure for the asthma than this..." Nicholas Culpeper, 1653.

Duke, page 137: When I feel a cold or flu coming on, I mix honeysuckle and forsythia with lemon balm tea, which also has antiviral action. I find a hot tea combination of the three herbs especially nice just before bed. page 357: Pneumonia Chinese herbalists suggest honeysuckle for treating pneumonia, bronchitis, flu and colds, but they use the flowers in a preparation taken by injection. I don't recommend injecting this herb, but can take it orally. (Author's note: See page 357 for instructions.) page 404: Sore Throat. page 424: Tonsillitis. page 434: Tuberculosis.

1.7 Muscadine Grape (Vitis rotundifolia Michx.) – Native

Uses:

Edible Warning: Do not confuse with Canada Moonseed which is considered toxic and can be found in parts of the Northern Neck.

Dutton, page 84: "Captain John Smith saw in and around Jamestown (1607-1609) a great abundance of vines that in some places "climbe to toppes of the highest trees." And Robert Beverley, in his History and Present State of Virginia (1705) wrote of grape vines growing wild in an "incredible Plenty and Variety." "This is the vine that so amazed Barlow and Amadas [English sea captains sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh to reconnoiter the North Carolina coastline in 1584]." Many varieties of the Muscadine have since been selected and propagated, some of which bear purple grapes, while others are bronze like the scuppernong [found on Roanoke Island]. Scuppernong wine is a wine of the South."

Medsger, page 57: "The fruit is pleasant to eat and excellent for jellies and pies. A good grape syrup may be made from it." 16

Department of the Army (2009), page 118 (refers to Vitis species, not just rotundifolia): Edible Parts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. Grapes are rich in natural sugars and, for that reason, are much sought after as a source of energy-giving wild food. None are poisonous. Other Uses: You can obtain water from severed grape vine stems. Cut off the vine at the bottom and place the

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cut end in a container. Make a slant-wise cut into the vine about 1.8 meters upon the hanging part. This cut will allow water to flow from the bottom end. As water diminishes in volume, make additional cuts further down the vine. CAUTION: To avoid poisoning, do not eat grapelike fruits with only a single seed (moonseed). [Author's note: Moonseed, Menispermum canadense L. - common moonseed, has been identified in all counties of the Northern Neck except Northumberland.]

Kavasch, page 133.

1.8 Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal (but certainly not recommended)

Dye (but certainly not recommended)

Millspaugh, page 38: "...introduced into England as a plant in 1640; but was not used as a medicine until 1798, when Du Fresnoy, a physician at Valenciennes, had brought to his notice a young man who had been cured of an herpetic eruption (dartre) on his wrist, of six years' standing, on being accidentally poisoned by this plant." 13

Erichsen-Brown, page 110-111: 1748 Kalm Philadelphia September the 20

th. 43. "Poisonous trees. A species of Rhus...here called the

'poison tree' by both English and Swedes...October 9th. 94. Poison Ivy...I also know that of two sisters, one

could handle the tree without being affected by its poison, and the other immediately felt it as soon as the exhalation of the tree came near her." 1788 Dufresnoy France transl. The Properties of the plant called Rhus Radicans, its utility and the success obtained with it in curing skin diseases and the paralysis of the lower limbs. [Cited Coulter 1973:64]. 1791 Lewis Mat. Med. Ed. Aitkin 255. "This tree is a native of America though it has been introduced into England ever since the year 1640. People can be poisoned by the smell when the tree is cut down, by the smoke of the tree being burnt, by handling any part of it. Blindness can ensue but it goes off in a few days. Sallal [Gaultheria shallon] oil and cream rubbed upon the parts, expedites the removal of its effects. The juice is used to dye linen black. Dr. Alderson has found goo effects of its use in paralysis...and it is probable that this medicine may produce good effects in other cases of nervous affections." 1817-20 Bigelow 24. "Dr. Thomas Horsefield writing of...various unsuccessful experiments with a view to ascertain the nature of this colouring principle, and the means of fixing it on stuffs. He found that the juice expressed from the pounded leaves, did not produce the black colour, and hat strong decoctions of the plant, impregnated with various chemical mordants, produced nothing more than a dull yellow, brownish or fawn colour..."

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1.9 Trumpet Creeper (Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. ex Bureau) - Native

Uses:

None found so far, but hummers love the flowers.

Taylor, page 87: "As Tecoma radicans, trumpet creeper was sent to England as early as 1640. Colonel William Byrd, writing of a visit to a village of Nottoway Indians in 1728, spoke of an Indian princess who "poisoned herself like an Old Roman with the Root of the Trumpet Plant." Listed by Catesby, Bartram, and Walter as "Bignonia radicans," trumpet creeper belongs to the bignonia family, Bignoniaceae."

Dutton, page 86: "In his Natural History Catesby shows a hummingbird in flight beside a flowering spray. He observed that hummingbirds delighted to feed on the flowers, occasionally thrusting themselves so far into the flower that they were caught within it."

1.10 Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.) – Native

also Ampelopsis quinquefolia Uses:

Medicinal Warning: Berries poisonous if eaten in quantity.

Dutton, page 86-87: "Virginia creeper reached England about 1629 and was first known as the Virginia vine."

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1.10 Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia L.) - Native

Uses: Medicinal 8,10

Warning: Highly Toxic. 8,9

Taylor, page 61: The genus was named by Linnaeus for his pupil, Peter Kalm, who traveled in America 1748-51; latifolia means "broad leaves." Kalm reported that it was called spoonwood by Swedish colonists because the Indians made spoons from the wood of plants sufficiently large for this purpose. There are numerous other records in colonial times. Though Mark Catesby tried also, Peter Collinson first successfully introduced mountain laurel into England in 1734 and had it blooming by 1740. Jefferson wrote John Bartram the Younger for plants to send to France.

Millspaugh, page 404-406 [103] "The wood when dry is hard and dense, somewhat like that of box (Buxus), and is used for the manufacture of household implements, such as ladles, spoons, forks, etc.; for handles of small tools, and for cog-wheels and the like." "Laurel leaves have always been deemed poisonous, especially by the Indians and the laity. Catesby says: "Deer feed upon its green leaves with impunity; yet when cattle and sheep, by severe winters deprived of better food, feed on the leaves of this plant, a great many of them die annually." And Kalm gives the following: "The leaves are poison to some animals, and food for others; experience has taught the people, that when sheep eat of these leaves, they either die immediately, or fall very sick, and recover with great difficulty." He further adds that these leaves form a winter food for stags, and if killed during the time of feeding and the entrails given to dogs to eat, they "become quite stupid, and as it were, intoxicated, and often fall so sick that they seem to be at the point of death; but the people who have eaten the venison have not felt the least inconvenience."

Dutton, page 70-71: "The Indians made spoons and trowels from the wood of the root, which is soft and easily worked when newly dug and becomes hard and smooth when dry. Kalm, for whom Linnaeus named the plant, took an Indian-made spoon of mountain laurel home with him as a souvenir of his American travels. Mountain laurel was on occasion referred to in correspondence as ivy. This led to some confusion in interpreting what plant was intended. In writing to Custis, Collinson referred to the shrub, "by some Improperly called Ivy." In a letter to John Bartram he said: "In a few days will the glorious Mountain Laurel, or great Chamaerhododendron appear with its charming cluster of flowers."

Lust, page 282: Medicinal Part: Leaves. Properties and Uses: Astringent, sedative. In proper doses, mountain laurel has sedative properties and has also been used to ease the pain of neuralgia. For external use, it can be made into an ointment for skin problems. American Indians drank a decoction of the leaves to commit suicide. CAUTION: The leaves, twigs, flowers, and pollen grains contain a toxic substance which can cause death if taken in sufficient doses. Children have been poisoned by making tea from the leaves or sucking on the flowers.

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Erichsen-Brown, page 197: 1830 Rafinesque 17. ".....Elliot states that the negroes of Carolina use it...in a strong wash to cure the itch of men and dogs; it smarts but it cures effectually. It has been used in psora and other cutaneous affections. It is stated to have been used in syphilis, but how is not told, probably in sores and ulcers. The brown powder of the seeds and leaves are errhine. Their tincture is powerful and dangerous; a few drops killed a rattlesnake."

1.11 Privet, Chinese (Ligustrum sinense Lour.) - Introduced

Uses:

None Found so far. Not sure if it can be used in the same manner as the native Privet, L. vulgare.

1.12 Redbud, Judas Tree (Cercis canadensis L.) - Native

Uses:

Edible

Medicinal

Dye

Taylor, page 70: "This member of the large bean family, Leguminosae, was noted by many early travelers and reached England in 1730. Catesby illustrated it in his Natural History and Peter Kalm, in Philadelphia, wrote in 1749 of "cercis Canadensis, the Sallod tree." The flowers were occasionally eaten in salads, and the buds pickled by the French in Canada." 12

Dutton, page 47-48: "The name "redbud" for the American species was in use in North Carolina by 1700."

1.13 Rose, Multiflora Rose? – Rosa species - ?

Uses:

Edible

Beverage

Medicinal

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Department of the Army (2009), page 122: Edible Parts: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency, you can peel and eat the young shoots. You can boil fresh, young leaves in water to make a tea. After the flower petals fall, eat the rose hips; the pulp is highly nutritious and an excellent source of vitamin C. Crush or grind dried rose hips to make flour. CAUTION: Eat only the outer portion of the fruit as the seeds of some species are quite prickly and can cause internal distress.

Kavasch, page 136.

1.14 Strawberry Bush, Bursting-Heart (Euonymus americanus L.) – Native

Uses:

Medicinal Warning: Fruit, seeds, and bark may be poisonous.

Lust, page 386. Medicinally it is equivalent to wahoo (Euonymus atropurpureus). (Author's note: The information below is from the wahoo entry in Lust's book.) Medicinal Part: Bark. Properties and Uses: Cardiac, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, tonic. Wahoo ws a popular diuretic drug during the nineteenth century. It was als recommended for chest and lung congestion, indigestion, and fever. After the discovery early in this century that wahoo has a digitalis-like effect on the heart, it also became popular as a cardiac drug. CAUTION: The leaves and fruit of wahoo can cause various symptoms of poisoning, such as nausea, cold sweat, and prostration. (Author's note: Wahoo is also called Arrow-wood, bitter ash, burning bush, Indian arrow, and spindle tree. It has been identified in King George county but, so far, in none of the other counties of the Northern Neck.)

Dutton, page 74: "The shrub is grown as an ornamental in Williamsburg and is common in the woods nearby."

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1.15 Smooth Sumac (Rhus glabra L.) - Native

Uses:

Edible (beverage)

Medicinal 8,10 (sore throat)

Dye

Smoking Warning: Do not confuse with Poison Sumac which has white berries.

Millspaugh, page 136 [36]: An infusion of the berries of this species is said to furnish an unequalled black dye for wool. The berries, when dried, form an article of trade in Canada, known as sacacomi, this, when smoked as a substitute for tobacco, is said to antidote the habit.... A cold infusion of the berries is often used as a cooling drink in fevers; it is also claimed to be of benefit in diabetes and strangury. The bark of the root is claimed to form an antiseptic dressing for ulcers and open wounds; while an infusion of the same is considered an excellent astringent for use in aphthous and mercurial sore mouths, diarrhea, dysentery, gonorrhea, and leucorrhoea, and to be anti-syphilitic...

Hall, page 123: The hairs on the berries of Sumac fruiting clusters are rich in malic acid—the same acid found in apples—which can be extracted to make a cool refreshing beverage similar to lemonade. The berries of Smooth Sumac and Dwarf Sumac are more acidic than those of Staghorn Sumac but all can be used. Preparation is simple. Collect the entire ripe fruit cluster, preferably before heavy rains, which will wash away some of the acid. Bruise the berries slightly by rubbing the cluster through the hand and soak the berries in cold water until the solution is a pleasant pink color. (While hot water is faster, it leaches tannic acid from the berries and stems, leaving an unpleasant, bitter flavor.) Pour the mixture through a cloth or fine sieve to remove the berries, add sugar to taste, and chill. It may also be served hot like tea. Boiled Sumac berries are sometimes used as a remedy for sore throats.

Van Stralen, page 100-101: For making dyes of beige and gray, see source 18.

Lust, page 370: Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves, fruit. Properties and Uses: Astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, refrigerant, tonic. A tea made from sumac bark or leaves is good as a gargle for sore throat and as a remedy for diarrhea and leucorrhea. A tea of leaves and berries can be used for urinary problems, particularly inflammation of the bladder. Berry tea or syrup is useful for fever and also for sores and irritations of the mucous membranes. North American Indians chewed the root to cure mouth sores and took a decoction of the root and branches for gonorrhea, reportedly with good results. One tribe made a wet dressing of the fresh leaves and fruit to relieve the irritation of poison ivy, and they used a decoction of the fruit as a wash to stop bleeding after childbirth.

Kavasch, page 137. Also: page 165: The fuzzy red berries, harvested in the autumn, were cured by drying and were enjoyed alone as a healthful smoke or in mixtures of the dried sumac leaves and roots. Called "Kinikah" by the Plains Indians, sumac was

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also smoked along with dried tobacco leaves. According to the Historical Dictionary of 1813, sumac berries became so esteemed in Europe for smoking that they were preferred to the bets cured Virginia tobacco.

Erichsen-Brown, page 106: 1748 Kalm Philadelphia September 19

th. 42. "The sumach...Rhus glabra...Its fruit or berries are red. They are

made use of for dyeing [they] afford a color like their own...The branches boiled with the berries yield a black ink-like tincture. The boys eat the berries, there being no danger of falling ill after the repast, but they are very sour."

1.16 St. Andrew's Cross (Hypericum hypericoides (L.) Crantz) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal

1.17 Sweet Pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia L.) - Native

Uses:

None found so far.

Taylor, page 83: "A species native from Maine to Florida, sweet pepperbush first reached England in 1731. Bartram included "Clethra or Sweet Spiraea," among the seeds he sent his English patrons. Peter Collinson wrote him, "to my great loss, some prying, knowing people, looked into the cases, and...took...the Spiraea Alni folio." Jefferson listed "Clethra" as one of the "shrubs not exceeding 10 feet in height."

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1.18 Wax Myrtle (Morella cerifera (L.) Small) (Also Myrica cerifera) - Native

Uses:

Seasoning

Candles

Medicinal 8,10

Hutchins, page 15: Medicinal Part: root bark. Bodily Influence: Astringent, stimulant, tonic. Uses: Bayberry is considered one of the most useful in the medical herbal practice. It has had popular respect for generations. The greek physician Galen mentions the berries as wonderfully helping all colds and rheumatic distillations from the brain to the eyes, lungs, and other parts. Dr. P. O. Brown tells us "the wax possesses mild astringent with narcotic properties." See "A Handbook of Native American Herbs" for more details.

Taylor, page 92: "Wax myrtle was introduced into England in 1699 and was described at length in Robert Beverley's History of Virginia. John Bartram sent seeds each year over a long period to his English patrons. There are numerous references by early botanists to this member of the sweet-gale family, Myricaceae...."

"Robert Beverley wrote in his History and Present Sate of Virginia (1705): At the Mouth of their Rivers, all along upon the Sea and Bay, and near many of their Creeks and Swamps, grows the Myrtle, bearing a berry, of which they make a hard brittle wax, of a curious green Colour, which by refining becomes almost transparent. Of this they make Candles, which are never greasie to the Touch, nor melt with lying in the hottest Weather. Neither does the Snuff of these ever offend the Smell, like that of a Tallow candle; but, instead of being disagreeable, if an Accident puts a Candle out, it yields a pleasant Fragrancy to all that are in the Room; insomuch, that nice People often put them out, on purpose to have the incense of the expiring Snuff."

Dutton, page 62-63: William Byrd II said that because of the color, transparency, and fragrance of the wax, bayberry candles "sold at expensive prices." Virginia was exporting myrtle wax candles by 1752, and in 1771 Williamsburg merchants were selling candlesticks designed to hold the half-ounce green wax candles."

Lust, page 391: Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves, wax. Properties and Uses: Astringent, tonic. The bark, leaves, and wax from the fruit have been made into astringent teas, gargles, and douches for diarrhea, hemorrhages, sore throat, poultices for wounds, cuts, and bruises. The was was said to be highly effective against dysentery. One tribe of American Indians took a decoction of the stems and leaves for fever. Powdered wax myrtle can be used as a snuff for nasal congestion. Wax myrtle tea has also been recommended for jaundice and scrofula.

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Castleman, page 76: ...white settlers adopted the plant and drank bayberry wax in hot water "as a certain cure for the most violent cases of dysentery," according to a medical account from 1722. page 77: Therapeutic uses: Diarrhea, fever.

1.19 Winterberry, Inkberry, Fever Bush, Black Alder (Ilex verticillata (L.) A. Gray) - Native

Uses:

Medicinal 13

Taylor, page 81: "This shrub first reached England in 1736; it was among the one hundred and fifty kinds of seeds which John Bartram was requested to gather and send to Peter Collinson and other patrons in England. In 1758, Dr. Garden [1728-1791] also sent "Aquifolium fruct. Verticillat...a much prettier tree than Mr. Catesby's Dahoon holly." "

Millspaugh, page 415-418 [106] "This is another of the growing list of plants handed down to us by the aborigines, who used the bark both internally and externally as a tonic, astringent, and antiseptic, and is probably as well known to domestic practice as any indigenous shrub. In intermittent fever it has often proved as generally applicable as Peruvian Bark, and in such low typhoid forms associated with diarrhea and I later stages, where ulceration and hemorrhage are present, it is a very valuable agent. In general debilitated conditions of the system after long fevers, and where the body is depleted by exhausting discharges, it is also very useful, as well as in gangrenous affections and jaundice. Certain forms of chronic herpetic eruptions and ulcers are also benefited by its use as an external application. The berries are purgative and vermifuge, forming one of the pleasantest adjuvants in children's remedies, for the expulsion of lumbrici. Shoepf [1752-1800] first noted the plant as having the above field of utility, and also mentioned its usefulness in anasarca."

Saunders, page 164: Two other species of Ilex growing wild throughout a greater part of the length of our Atlantic seaboard possess leaves that have been similarly used as substitutes for Chinese tea. One is I. glabra, Gray, popularly known as Inkberry, a rather low-growing shrub of sandy soils near the coast, with shiny, wedge-shaped, evergreen leaves, and ink-black berries; the other, I. verticillata Gray, a much taller shrub, with deciduous foliage, and bright red berries clustered around the stems and persisting in winter. The latter species is called in common speech Black Alder or Winter-berry and frequents swampy ground as far west as the Mississippi.

Lust, page 228: Medicinal Parts: Bark, fruit. Properties and Uses: Bark: Astringent, bitter, febrifuge, tonic. Berries: cathartic, vermifuge. The bark is sometimes mixed with goldenseal to make an infusion for dyspepsia. A decoction of bark is also good for external use as a wash for skin irritations and eruptions. Mixed with cedar apples, the berries have been used to make a medicine for worms. CAUTION: The berries in sufficient quantity can cause poisoning.

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Erichsen-Brown, page 190: 1749 Kalm Quebec October the 14

th. 563. "The inkberry grew as a rule here in the woods in level and

somewhat low-lying places. The branches are now full of red berries which I tasted and found rather bitter. A man who accompanied me told me the same; he called the shrub bois de marquee, but did not know any use for it." [In France, wood used to tally purchases in a store was called a 'marque'.] 1778 Carver 510. "The Fever Bush...bears a reddish berry of spicy flavor. ... A decoction of the buds or wood is an excellent febrifuge, and from this valuable property it received its name. It is an ancient Indian remedy for all inflammatory complaints, and likewise much esteemed on the same account by the inhabitants of the interior parts of the colonies."

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BIBLIOGRAPHY (as of 1/15/11) Angier, Bradford. "Field Guide to Medicinal Wild Plants", Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA, 1978. Army, Department of the. "The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants", Skyhorse Publishing, New York, New York, 2009. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record, Plants and Gardens, "Dye Plants and Dyeing—a Handbook", Vol. 20, No. 3, 1964. Brown, Tom Jr., "Tom Brown's Field Guide: Wild Edible and Medicinal Plants", Berkley Books, New York. 1985. Carney, Judith A. and Richard Nicholas Rosomoff, "In the Shadow of Slavery: Africa's Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World", University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2009. Castleman, Michael. "The New Healing Herbs: The Classic Guide to Nature's Best Medicines Featuring the Top 100 Time-Tested Herbs", Rodale Inc., 2001. Colonial Dames of America, "Herb Lore of Colonial America", Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, 1970. Coon, Nelson. "Using Wayside Plants", Hearthside Press Inc. New York, New York. 1969. Duke, James A. "The Green Pharmacy", Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA, 1997. Dutton, Joan Parry. "Plants of Colonial Williamsburg", Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1979. Erichsen-Brown, Charlotte. "Medicinal and Other Uses of North American Plants: A Historical Survey with Special Reference to the Eastern Indian Tribes", Dover Publications, Inc. New York, New York. 1979. Foster, Steven and James A. Duke, "Peterson Field Guides: Eastern/Central Medicinal Plants", Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, New York, 1990. Gibbons, Euell, "Stalking the Wild Asparagus", David McKay Company, Inc., New York, New York, 1962. Hall, Allan, "The Wild Food Trailguide", Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, New York, 1973. Hutchins, Alma R., "A Handbook of Native American Herbs", Shambahla Press, Boston MA, 1992. Kavasch, Barrie. "Native Harvests: Recipes and Botanicals of the American Indians", First Vintage Books Edition, Random House Inc. New York, New York, 1979. Leighton, Ann. "Early American Gardens; For Meate or Medicine", University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA, 1970. Lust, John, "The Herb Book", Bantam Books, New York, New York, 1974. Medsger, Oliver Perry, "Edible Wild Plants", Macmillan Company, New York, New York, 1939. Meyer, Joseph E., "The Herbalist", Copyright by Clarence Meyer. Eighth printing: 1971.

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Millspaugh, Charles F., "American Medicinal Plants", Dover Publications, Inc. New York, New York, 1892 (originally). Copyright by Dover in 1974. Ody, Penelope, "The Complete Medicinal Herbal", DK Publishing, Inc., New York, New York, 1993. Peterson, Lee Allen, "Peterson Field Guides: Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America", Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, New York, 1977. Reader's Digest. "Magic and Medicine of Plants", the Reader's Digest Association, Inc. Pleasantville, New York, 1986. Runyon, Linda, "The Essential Wild Food Survival Guide", Wild Food Company, Shiloh, New Jersey, 2002. Saunders, Charles Francis, "Edible and Useful Plants of the United States and Canada", Dover Publications Inc., New York, New York, 1920. Savitt, Todd, "Fevers, Agues, and Cures: Medical Life in Old Virginia", Virginia Historical Society, 1990. Swerdlow, Joel L. "Nature's Medicine: Plants that Heal", National Geographic, Washington, DC, 2000. Van Stralen, Trudy. "Indigo, Madder, and Marigold: a Portfolio of Colors and Natural Dyes", Interweave Press, Loveland, Colorado, 1993. Taylor, Raymond L. "Plants of Colonial Days", Dover Publications, Inc. Mineola, New York. 1959. Weaver, William Woys (translator and editor), "Sauer's Herbal Cures: America's First Book of Botanic Healing 1762-1778", Routledge, New York, New York, 2001.