Life is short, science is long; opportunity is elusive, experiment is dangerous, judgment is difficult.Hippocrates

I

Plant GenomeResearchers working on the plant genomeproject are respectful of its more celebratedsibling, the human genome project, butthey also can't help being a bit envious in agood-natured sort of way. The U.S.Department of Agriculture'sPlant Genome ResearchProgram is trying to map upto 40 different genomes at afraction of the cost it takes tomap human DNA.

"Would that we couldhave their budget," said JerryMiksche, head of the U.S.Department of Agriculture'sPlant Genome Research Pro-gram. "But then, humans getcancer. Plants don't."Still, Miksche says,the efforts cooperateclosely and share thelatest mapping tech-niques and processes.

The federal agen-cy started to developthe plant genomeproject in 1987, butfunding wasn't ap-proved until the1990 farm bill passedCongress. Then, in1991, about $14 mil-lion became avail-able, and in 1992,another $13 millionwas disbursed to 97grantees. "We really Green genes. DNA mapneed about ten timesthat amount, at least $100 million for fiveyears, to meet our goals," notes Miksche.His goal: "By 1996, I want to put genesthat improve agriculture in the hands ofcrop breeders." That means a plethora ofgenetically altered food and plant productson the horizon.

What makes the program so arduous isthat although scientists believe a typicalplant has approximately 50,000-plusgenes, fewer than a human genome, plantDNA varies widely across species, as wouldbe expected. Different pines may share90% of their genes, and grasses like wheat

and barley may be substantially similar,but there is little genetic agreementbetween corn, peanuts, and cottonwoodtrees.

Another problem has been choosingthe species to study. "Ifwe target soybeans,

then the corn peopleand other commodity

< groups go bonkers,"Miksche says. Theanswer, so far, has beento spread funding toacademic and federalresearchers in 33 states.Among the states withthe biggest contracts areCalifornia, Michigan,Iowa, North Carolina,

ping of loblolly pines may give clues to protecting forests.

Washington, and Texas.Still, the fledgling program is counting

some successes and a lot of enthusiasm.Efforts are underway to find markers forevery million nucleotides in the genomesof dozens of major crops and trees. Andthe federal repository for plant genomeinformation, the National AgriculturalLibrary, is set to officially open soon inBeltsville, Maryland.

The University of Georgia is in themiddle of a major project to map thegenome of a peanut. Researchers at theUniversity of Washington are producing

what they dub "super trees." Using theinformation they have learned from map-ping cottonwood trees, they have increasedtheir growing time to the point that theyresemble an annual harvest of plants. Theyhope to use the trees as a new source offiber for pulp and paper makers and, even-tually, for biofuels.

At Texas Tech University, scientistshave used their own information, as well asthat from the National Agricultural Library,to create new plants, such as a variety ofwheat, that are able to withstand intenseweather fluctuations-hot to cold anddrought to flooding. Texas Tech's onionscan even grow in freezing temperatures.

Perhaps one of the largest projects isthe North American Barley Genome Map-

t ping Project, involv-e ing 50 scientists in, 26 university and

federal laboratories'C in the United Statesand Canada. The

U reproductive andbreeding characteris-tics of barley makeit one of the topcrop plants used forgenetic map model-ing. The goal is toidentify as manyeconomically im-portant barley genesas possible and de-termine where theyare located amongthe plant's sevenpairs of chromo-

somes. This mapping will enable growersto produce better plants by manipulatinggenes in barley that promote high yield,malting and brewing quality, nutritionalvalue, stress hardiness, and pest resistance.

Especially promising are efforts to findgenes that will reduce the need for pesti-cides and fertilizers. Using a techniquecalled mapped-based cloning, CornellUniversity researcher Steven Tanksley hasrecently located the gene that allows toma-toes to resist a common disease producedby Pseudomonas bacteria. The next stepwill be to implant that gene in plants that

Environmental Health Perspectives40

e

cannot fight off the pathogen. Researchersat Harvard University and USDA'sAgricultural Research Center are workingon characterizing the complex genetic sys-tem that allows legumes such as soybeans,garden peas, and beans to help fix nitrogenin the soil. Enhancing the symbiosisbetween a plant and its neighboringmicroorganisms could reduce the need forfertilizers.

New techniques in gene mapping aremaking plant mapping easier. To constructgenetic maps of forest trees, NorthCarolina State University's ForestBiotechnology Research Consortium isusing a technique called random amplifiedpolymorphic DNA (RAPD) developed byDuPont. The RAPD technology allowsresearchers to duplicate very short pieces ofDNA from a loblolly pine, then comparegenetic variations between these bits andother sections. Once hundreds of thesegenetic variations are plotted and theirassociations with other sections of DNAdetermined, a genetic map emerges thatallows scientists to determine where genesfall in relation to markers. RonaldSederoff, a professor of forestry and genet-ics, said that only a year ago mapping aloblolly pine would have taken four yearsand $1 million. This spring, researchersmapped it using RAPD in 60 days, at afraction of the cost. Another techniquecalled amplified fragment length polymor-phic is also on the horizon, according toMiksche. It's much like RAPD, but evenfaster and more discriminating.

Efforts to map plant genomes havebeen aided by the agricultural industry, buttheir findings are often private, Mikschesaid. The controversy that has sprung fromone of their efforts, the famous "FlavorSaver" tomato, however, portends futurepublic debate over the safety and efficacyof genetically altered food. Miksche said heis ready for "a good public discussion," buthopes that it is "waged on scientific ratherthan emotional grounds."

A Healthy Peace in the MiddleEastMore than 50 senior scientists from acade-mic institutions and government agenciesfrom nine Middle East countries (Bahrain,Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon,Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates,and Yemen) and from the occupied territo-ries on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip,along with U.S. and Canadian scientists,met for the first time to address environ-mental health risks in the Middle East.The scientists gathered in Cairo September6-11 to attend the Environmental HealthConference for the Middle East Region.The conference was hosted by Cairo

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f iMiddle East meets West Participants of the conference represented Bahrain, Egypt, Gaza Strip, Israel,Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United States.

University and sponsored by the FogartyInternational Center of the NationalInstitutes of Health, the InternationalDevelopment Research Centre of Canada,and NIEHS.

The purpose of the conference was toidentify and seek possible interventions forenvironmental health risks that are uniqueto the individual countries in the MiddleEast or that present significantly elevatedthreats to occupational or environmentalhealth. Misuse of pesticides and other agri-cultural chemicals, disposal of solid andchemical wastes, urban air pollution, waterquality, environmental impacts of industri-alization, and the adverse effects of wind-blown dusts and intense heat were identi-fied as posing serious public health prob-lems in the region. Several participantsnoted that infectious diseases associatedwith poor sanitation, food contamination,and overcrowding remain major causes ofmorbidity and mortality in many areas ofthe Middle East.

Scientists from the Middle Eastexpressed concern and frustration aboutthe fact that the dramatic environmentalimpacts of population changes and agricul-tural, technological, and industrialadvances in the region have been identifiedand characterized by scientists but areapparently unrecognized by governmentofficials and the general public. Inresponse to this concern, participants pro-posed the formation of a committee of sci-entists who will meet regularly to addressspecific environmental and occupationalhealth risks that exist in the Middle East

and to develop strategies to reduce theserisks.

The scientists stressed that the commit-tee members would have the expertise todesign programs that protect human healthbut that would not threaten the processesof economic and industrial development orthe social, cultural, and religious values ofthe nations in the region. Because the com-mittee includes wide regional representa-tion, environmental concerns that affectseveral countries can be resolved by pro-grams that cross national borders.

The conference took place just as theintention of the Palestinian LiberationOrganization and Israel to seek a peaceaccord was announced. As news of thepotential agreement reached Cairo, it gaveadded impetus to the creation of theregional committee. As one participantpointed out on the closing day of the con-ference, "We all come from developingcountries but we are not from poor coun-tries. We each have an obligation as scien-tists to convince our governmental leadersthat our effort is an important part of thepeace process and must be maintained as aregional effort."

Browner and Babbitt Meetthe PressEPA Administrator Carol Browner andInterior Secretary Bruce Babbitt facedtough questions on the Superfund law,the Endangered Species Act, and otherissues at a meeting of environmental jour-nalists held October 22-24.

Volume 102, Number 1, January 1994 41