planet earth summer 2010

Gases to gases n Scanning the horizon n Hunting the last ice sheet n Bugs, bogs and gravity

Experiment Earth?

www.planetearth.nerc.ac.uk Summer2010

Editors: Adele Rackley, 01793 411604, [email protected] Tom Marshall, 01793 442593, [email protected]

Science writer: Tamera Jones, 01793 411561, [email protected] Design and production: Candy Sorrell, [email protected]

Available as an e-magazine at: www.nerc.ac.uk/publications/planetearth/

ISSN: 1479-2605

NERC scientists: we want to hear from youPlanet Earth is always looking for interesting NERC-funded science for articles and news stories. If you want to see your research in the magazine, contact the editors to discuss. Please don’t send in unsolicited articles as we can’t promise to publish them. We look forward to hearing from you.

Planet Earth is the quarterly magazine of the Natural Environment Research Council. It aims to interest a broad readership in the work of NERC. It describes new research programmes, work in progress and completed projects funded by NERC or carried out by NERC staff. Some of this work may not yet have been peer-reviewed. The views expressed in the articles are those of the authors and not necessarily those of NERC unless explicitly stated. Let us know what you think about Planet Earth. Contact the editors for details.

Front cover: Oliver Burston/Photolibrary.com

12 Giants of the Rewa Head Anacondas and giant otters – experiencing Guyana’s biodiversity up close!

15 Scanning the horizon Fifteen things to keep an eye on in environmental science.

18 COVER STORY Experiment Earth? Finding out what the public thinks of plans for geoengineering.

20 From the sea to the sky Clouds, trace gases and sea-spray – unravelling the climate’s complexities.

22 L’Aquila earthquake: one year on Responding rapidly to disaster.

24 Gases to gases Isoprene – the many effects of a neglected gas.

26 Hunting the last ice sheet Scotland’s underwater landscape gives up its secrets.

28 Bugs, bogs and gravity: a new look at methane Using satellites to understand wetlands’ greenhouse gas emissions.

30 Adapting to a changing climate What can Earth science tell us about the climate?

32 Marine Biological Association 125 years on A century and a quarter of shedding light on the oceans.

Contents FEATURES

Planet EarthSummer 2010

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Planet Earth Summer 2010 1

BEYOND CLIMATE CHANGE

Biodiversity counts

TheUNhasdeclared2010tobetheInternationalYearofBiodiversity–aninvitationtocelebratethe

varietyoflifeonEarth,tovalueandunderstanditand,crucially,safeguardit.Thereareclearsignsthathumanactivityisdamagingbiodiversity,butwhyisthisimportant,andwhatcanwedoaboutit?

Biodiversitymightsoundlikeanabstractterm,butitsimplymeansthevarietyofplantandanimalspeciesonourplanet,anditembraceseveryecosystemfromanurbanbackyardtothedeepocean.Wehumansarebothpartofthatdiversityanddependentonit.Oneimportantfocusofthisinternationalyearistounderstandtherelationshipbetweenbiodiversityandthehealthofourecosystems.Werelyonthenaturalenvironmentforarangeofwhatareknownas‘ecosystemservices’:food,fuelandcleanwaterareobviousones,butjustasimportantarethingslikeregulationofourclimate,protectionfromnatural

hazards,breakdownofwasteand,notleast,aestheticenjoyment.

Wereapundeniablebenefitsfromtheservicesourecosystemprovides,buttheseareunderthreatasweslowlyconvertnaturalecosystemstohuman-dominatedones.Thejury’sstilloutonhowfarthewaywecurrentlymanageourecosystemsisdamagingbiodiversityandwhatlong-termeffectsthismighthave,butthereisrealconcernthatthedamagewillnotbeeasytorecoverfrom.

TheseissuesledNERCtomakebiodiversityoneofitssevenresearchthemes.Understandingthemisvitalifwearetocontinuetoenjoyandbenefitfromenvironmentalservices.Itisalsoneededtosolvemanyofthechallengeswecurrentlyface:foodsecurity,renewableenergy,environmentalprotection,climatechangeandpovertyalleviation.

AspartoftheLivingWithEnvironmentalChangeinitiativeaUKNationalEcosystemAssessment(UKNEA)hasbeenlaunched,co-chairedbyProfessors

AlanThorpe Chief Executive, NERC

RobertWatsonatDefraandSteveAlbonoftheMacaulayInstitute–seewww.lwec.org.uk/activities/neaformoreinformation.UKNEAinvolvesmanygovernment,academic,NGOandprivatesectorinstitutionsandwilllookatthestateandvalueoftheUK’schangingnaturalenvironmentandecosystemservicesinterrestrial,freshwaterandmarineenvironments.AndanewresearchprogrammewithinNERC’sbiodiversitythemeaimstoprovidethebasicscientificknowledgethatwillultimatelyunderpinpolicyonthemanagementofUKecosystems.

Furtherafield,asyouwillreadinthiseditionof Planet Earth,NERCissupportingresearcherslikeRobPickleswhoseworkinGuyanaishighlightingtherichnessofbiodiversityintheSouthAmericanrainforest,andtheparticularchallengesfacedbygovernmentstryingtobalancedevelopmentwithconservation.

Butvaluingandnurturingbiodiversityarenotonlythepreserveofthescientific

community.Thisyear,22May–InternationalDayforBiologicalDiversity–sawthelaunchofaseriesofBioBlitzeventsaroundtheUK.ManyNERC-fundedscientistsaretakingpartinthesespecialfieldsurveys,wherethepublicandnatureexpertsworktogethertorecordasnapshotoftheplantandanimalspeciesinanareaoveracontinuous24-hourperiod.

OtherNERC-supportedinitiativestakingplacethisyearincludethebiggest-eversurveyofUKladybirds.Schoolchildrenwillworkwithscientiststogatherdataabouttheseinsects,includinghowtheinvasiveharlequinladybirdisspreadingacrossthecountryandhownativespeciesareresponding.

Whilemanypathstoprotectingthehealthofourecosystemsareincremental,thequestionsandchallengesfacingbiodiversityareundeniablylarge,andlarge-scalesolutionsareneeded.NERCisinthevanguardofinternationaleffortstofocusonbiodiversityatatimewhenthepressuresonlifeonEartharehuge.

Mark Bow

ler/NPL

2Planet EarthSummer 2010

NewsDAILY UPDATED NEWS www.planetearth.nerc.ac.uk

ThEExTINCTIONofthedinosaursandhalfofallspeciesonEarthwascausedbya15km-wideasteroidslammingintotheplanetandnotbymassivevolcaniceruptions.

Apanelof41internationalexpertscametothisconclusionafterreviewing30years’worthofdataonthesubject.TheirresultsarepublishedinScience.

Theso-calledCretaceous-Tertiary(K-T)massextinction

event,whichhappenedaround65millionyearsago,wipedoutdinosaurs,bird-likepterosaurs,largemarinereptilesandtwo-thirdsofallspeciesonEarth,ultimatelypavingthewayformammalstorisetodominance.

Scientistsfirstsuggested30yearsagothatanasteroidwasbehindthemassextinction,afterdiscoveringchemicalelementsoriginatingfrommeteoritesinrocksdatingfromthetransitionbetweenthe

Asteroid strike, not volcanoes, spelt the end for the dinosaurs

CretaceousandTertiary,sampledallovertheworld.Thisideagotfurthersupportwhenresearchersthenfounda200km-wideimpactcrateratChicxulubinMexico’sYucatánPeninsula.

TheasteroidisbelievedtohavehittheEarthwithaforceabilliontimesmorepowerfulthantheatombombathiroshima–enoughtoblastmaterialintotheatmosphereatseveralkilometresasecondandspreaddustallover

theworld.‘Theimpactwouldhavehadcatastrophiceffectsincludingextendeddarkness,globalcooling,acidrainandmassiveearthquakes,’saysDrPeterSchultefromtheUniversityofErlangeninGermany,leadauthorofthestudy.

Evenso,somescientistsarguethatvolcanicactivityinIndia,whichlastedaround1.5millionyears,wasthecause.Theseeruptionsspewedaround1.1millionsquarekilometresofbasaltlavaacrosstheDeccanTraps,whichwouldhavecooledtheatmosphereandcausedsevereacidrain,spellingtheendformuchoflifeonEarthatthetime.

Togettothebottomoftheconundrum,thescientistssiftedthroughawealthofinformationthatpalaeontologists,geochemists,climatemodellers,geophysicistsandsedimentologistshavebuiltupsurroundingtheK-Textinctionoverthelast30years.Themostcompellingpieceofevidencetosupporttheasteroidtheorywasanabundanceofiridiumingeologicalsamplesfromaroundtheworld,depositedattheexacttimeoftheextinction.IridiumisrareintheEarth’scrust,butcommoninasteroids.

Notonlythis,butmorethan350samplesfromtheK-Tboundaryfromaroundtheworldshowadistinctivedistributionpattern,withtheamountofejectedmaterialrelatedtothedistancefromtheChicxulubcrateratwhichthesamplewastaken.

‘Itisclearthatourpaperdoesnotbringdiscussionstoanend,butwemadeaverystrongcasebuiltonmanyscientificdisciplinesfortheChicxulubimpactastheultimatecausefortheK-Tmassextinction,’saysSchulte.

Peter Arnold Im

ages/Photolibrary.com


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sincethe1990s,thereisincreasingevidenceofasecondgenerationofbeesactiveduringwinter.

Therecouldbeseveralreasons.‘Warmerwintersareanimportantfactor,’saysDrThomasIngs,anecologistfromQueenMary,UniversityofLondon.‘Buttheavailabilityoffoodthroughoutthewinter,intheformofexotic,winter-floweringplantsingardens,iscrucial.’

Toseewhetherthebeesweregettingenoughfood,Ingsandhis

colleagueRalphStelzersetupseveralcolonieson

theroofoftheirdepartmentatQueenMary.

Theyusedautomatic

BUMBLEBEEScannowbeseenallyearround,especiallyinsouthernEnglandwherewinter-flowering,non-nativeplantsinurbangardensprovidethefoodtheyneedtosurvivethecoldBritishwinter.

BumblebeecoloniesinBritaincollapseattheendofthesummer,whentheoldqueendiesandherdaughtersgointohibernationbeforestartingtheirownnestsinthespring.But

BOWERBIRDSarebetterknownfortheirelaboratematingarenas,buttheyarealsoaccomplishedvocalmimics.Nowscientistshavediscoveredthattheylearntheirrepertoiredirectlyfromotherbirdspecies,notfromtheirbowerbirdneighbours.

Littleisknownaboutwhybowerbirdsmimicothercallsorhowtheylearnandexpandtheirvocalrepertoire.‘Dotheylearnsoundsfromotherbowerbirdsordotheylearnthemdirectlyfromthespeciesbeingmimicked?’wonderedLauraKelley,abiologistbasedattheUniversityofEdinburgh.

AspartofherPhDproject,KelleytravelledtoQueenslandinAustraliatorecordthesoundsproducedbymalespottedbowerbirdslivingintheTauntonNationalPark.Shevisitedtheterritoriesof19malebowerbirdsandrecordedtheircallstogether

Bowerbirds copy calls from other species, not neighbourswithnoisesfromthesurroundingarea.Backinthelab,Kelleyidentifiedwhichspeciestheyweretryingtocopy.Shealsoanalysedeachcall’sspectrogram–‘thevisualrepresentationofasound’.

Althoughthebowerbird’sowncallisanunimpressivehissingsound,theexamplesKelleyanalysedwereabletomimic14differentspeciesofbird,includingraptorsandsongbirds.Thebowerbirds’mimeticportfoliovariedacrossthepark.Malesweremorelikelytosharethecontentoftheirrepertoirewithneighboursthanwithotherbowerbirdslocatedfurtherafield.‘Thissuggeststhatthebirdsarecopyingthesoundsoftheirlocalenvironment,’saysKelley,whopublishedtheresultsinBiology Letters.

Thebowerbirds’interpretationofthepiedbutcherbirdcallisagoodexample.Eachindividualcopiedthebutcherbirds’callinaslightlydifferentway.‘Since

butcherbirdshavesmallterritories,itseemslikelythateachbowerbirdmimickedthecallofalocalbutcherbird,’suggestsKelley.Ontheotherhand,bowerbirdsacrosstheparkproducedafairlysimilarrenditionofthewhistlingkite.Thisisprobablybecausekiteshavelargeterritoriesandtheircall

islikelytobeheardbymanydifferentbowerbirds.

Butwestilldon’tknowwhetherthebirdsarecopyingcallstowardoffpredatorsorpotentialrivals,orperhapstoattractfemales.‘Westillneedtoknowhowbowerbirdsusethismimicry,’Kelleyexplains.

Michael Fogden/OSF

radio-frequencyidentification(RFID)technologytotagindividualbeesandmonitortheircomingsandgoingsaroundthecolony.Theyalsoweighedeachbeebeforeandafterforagingtripstoseehowmuchpollenandnectartheywerecollecting.‘Wefoundthatthebeeswerecomingbackwithagoodloadofnectarinashorttime,’saysIngs.Evidentlythereisenoughwinterfoodtokeepahealthybumblebeecolonygoing.

Veryfewnativeplantsflowerduringwinter,sowherearethebeesgettingtheirnectarandpollenfrom?Tofindout,Ings’colleagueMarcCarltonpaidweeklyvisitstoKewGardens,wherehespottedbumblebeesfeedingonimportedevergreenshrubssuchasthe

popularmahoniaandotherwinter-floweringplantslikestrawberrytreesorhoneysuckles.

Ingssays:‘WinteractivebumblebeecoloniesarewidespreadinsouthernEngland,butactivityisrestrictedtourbanareaswherethereareplentyofexoticfloweringplantsinparksandourgardens.’

Anotherpossibleexplanationforsurgingbeeactivityduringwintersmaybeinterbreedingbetweenlocalbumblebeesandothersubspecies,importedfromwarmerclimatestopollinatetomatoandstrawberrycrops.SomeMediterraneanbumblebeesareknowntoproduceactivecoloniesduringthewinter,andtheymaybepassingthisabilityontotheirBritishcousins.

Bees brave British winters



WhENtheplumeofashspewingfromIceland’sEyjafjallajökullvolcanobroughtEurope’saviationindustrytoahaltinApril,NERCscientists,pilotsandtechniciansswungintoaction.

TheBAe-146atmosphericresearchaircraftthatNERCmaintainsalongsidetheMetOfficeviatheFacilityforAirborneAtmosphericMeasurementswasgroundedforarefit,butthenecessaryinstrumentswerequicklymovedontoNERC’sotherresearchaircraft,theDornier228operatedbytheAirborneResearch&SurveyFacilityoutofGloucesterairport.

TheDornier,whichisnormallyusedforremotesensingworkatcomparativelylowaltitudes,wasswiftlyairborneandflyingouttotheplume’sexpectedlocation.

Overthenextfewdaysitmaderepeatedflightsaroundtheplumetogatherinformationonwhereitwasandhowitwasbehaving,whileusingitssophisticatedsensorstokeepitselfoutofdanger.

MeanwhiletechniciansworkedroundtheclocktobringtheBAE-146outofrefittohelpwiththetask.Thisisbiggerandbetter-suitedtohigh-altituderesearchflightsthantheDornier;onceitcouldflyagain,researchersusedbothaircrafttoprobetheashplumesimultaneouslyfromaboveandbelow.

ThisinformationprovidedvitalsupportforgovernmentandaviationindustrydecisionsaboutreopeningUKairspace.

Meanwhile,researchersattheNationalCentreforAtmosphericScienceprovidedguidanceandadviceontheplume’slikelymovementandeffects.

ThisimageshowstheplumeovertheUKon15April.ItwastakenbyNASA’sTerrasatelliteandpreparedfromdatareceivedattheNERC-fundedSatelliteReceivingStationinDundee.

Volcanic ash cloud hits UK



NewsMALARIAparasitesthataresensitivetoanti-malarialdrugscouldevolveandcausemoreseriousillnessinpeoplewhodon’tgettreatedwithdrugs,researchershavediscovered.

Scientistsfoundthatstressingdrug-sensitivePlasmodium falciparumparasitesbyexposingthemtolowlevelsofanti-malarialdrugsmakesthemchangetheirbehaviour.Ratherthanputtingtheirenergyintodevelopingspecialisedforms,whichcanbetransmittedtootherpeoplebymosquitoes,theparasitesreplicatewithintheirexistinghosts.

‘It’sthisreplicationstageoftheparasite’slifecyclethatcausestheclassicfeverandchillssymptomsofmalaria,’explainsDrSarahReecefromtheUniversityofEdinburgh,wholedtheresearch.

herteamthinkthischangeinbehaviouristheparasite’sattempttoimproveitsoverallchancesofsurvival.Ittakesmoreenergytodevelopthespecialisedtransmissionformoftheparasiteneededtospreadthedisease,sostickingtoasimplereplication–‘safetyinnumbers’–approachtosurvivalislikelytoservetheparasitewell.

Allcreatureshavetodecidehowtospendtheirlimitedenergy

Malaria parasites resist drugs by changing lifecycleresources;bothsurvivalandreproductionareimportantifyouwanttospreadyourgenes.Malariaparasiteshavetofindtherightbalanceofreplicatingandtransmissibleformstomakesurethattheynotonlysurvivewithintheircurrenthosts,butcanalsospreadtonewones.

Thenewstudy,publishedinProceedings of the Royal Society B,showsforthefirsttimethatexposingdrug-sensitivestrainsofthehumanmalariaparasitetolowdosesofanti-malarialdrugsupsetsthatbalance.‘Wethinkthatparasitessensitivetodrugsinvestintheirsurvivalandfuturetransmissionbydivertingresourcesfromreproductiontoreplicationwhenexposedtodrugs,’saysReece.

‘Itmaybethattheparasitesaren’trespondingdirectlytodrugs,butareadjustingtheirreproductioninresponsetochangesintheirnumbers.There’ssomeevidencetosuggesttheparasitecountstoensurethere’sanoptimumnumberwithinahost,’sheadds.

Thefindingswillhaveimplicationsforunderstandingandpredictingthespreadofanti-malarialdrugresistance,andtheresearchershopethiswillhelpinformdisease-controlstrategies.

YOUNGguppieswithanOliverTwistlifestylegrowintointrepidadults.Researchershavefoundthatfishfedatrandomintervalsarebolderandmoreinquisitivethanthoserearedwithapredictablesupplyoffood.

Because‘guppiesrearedinunpredictableenvironmentscannotrelyonregularfoodsupplies,’saysDrBenChapman,abehaviouralecologistfromtheUniversityofLeeds,‘theybenefitmorefromtakingrisksandactivelyseekforagingopportunities.’

sametimeeachday;theotherwasgivenfoodatrandomtimes.Whenthefishwere56daysold,theteamtestedtheirbehaviourinthreeexperiments,describedinBehavioural Ecology.Theguppiesraisedwithanunpredictablefoodsupplyweremorelikelytoexploreafishtanksetupasamazeandspentlesstimetakingrefuge.Theyalsospentlesstimewithshoalmates;asshoalingfishfindsafetyinnumberstheamountoftimespentoutofthegroupcanbeusedasameasureofanindividual’swillingnesstotakerisks.

Chapmanwantedtofindoutwhysomeguppiesarebolderthanothers.‘Therearetwomainexplanations,notmutuallyexclusive–youeitherhaveboldgenes,orthebehaviourisshapedbytheenvironment,’heexplains.heandhiscolleaguesinvestigatedtheroleofearlyexperienceinthedevelopmentofboldnessinguppies,whichliveinriversteemingwithdangerouspredatorsontheCaribbeanislandofTrinidad.

Theteamrearedtwogroupsofthefish.Onewasfedatthe

Athirdexperimentrevealedthat,whiletheymightbebold,theguppieswerenotsuicidal.Abird-shapedmodelwasusedtocreatethethreatofalurkingpredatoroverthefishtank.‘Thisprovokedaverypowerfulresponse,’saysChapman.‘Theguppiesimmediatelyfroze,waitingforthedangertogoaway.’Thistime,however,therewasnodifferencebetweenthetwogroups.Whilesomeofthefisharemoremotivatedtotakerisks,‘theirmainimperativeisstilltosurvive,’saysChapman.

Unreliable diet makes young guppies bolder

Sinclair Stamm

ers



INAPRILtheEuropeanSpaceAgencylauncheditsicemissionCryoSat-2fromtheBaikonurcosmodromeinKazakhstan.Thelong-awaitedsatellitewillmeasureboththeshapeandthicknessofpolaricewithunprecedentedaccuracy.

ThepolesarewarmingupfasterthananyotherregiononEarth.Arcticseaiceisboththinningandreceding,Antarcticicesheetsareeitherdisintegratingoratriskofcollapseandglaciersareretreating.Butscientistsdon’tyetknowhowmeltingpolariceaffectsoceancirculationpatterns,sealevelandtheglobalclimate.CryoSat-2’smissionhasbeendesignedtohelpthemanswerthesequestions.

Theaimistomeasurethefreeboard–thepartoftheicethatsitsabovethewaterline.Thesatellitewilluseanaltimetertofirepulsesofmicrowaveenergydownattheiceandrecordhowlongittakesforthepulsestoreturn.Scientistswillbeabletocalculatehowthicktheiceistothenearestcentimetre,bymeasuringthedifferencebetweenthetimeittakesfortheechoestoreturnfromthetopoficefloesandfromthewaterincracksintheice.

Launchdaywastense,notleastforCryoSat-2’schiefscientist,ProfessorDuncanWinghamfromtheCentreforPolarObservationandModellingatUniversityCollegeLondon.hefirstproposedthesatellitein1999,butCryoSat-1crashedintothenorthernArcticOceanjustafterlift-off.heimmediatelysettoworkpersuadingESAthatthemissionwasworthwhileenoughtotryagain,andwithinfourmonthsplanswereinplaceforCryoSat-2.‘We’reexceptionallyproudofthisachievement,’hesays.

CryoSat-2’sabilitytomonitorchangesatthepoleswillsurpasstheabilitiesofearlierESAsatellites–itsradarhasbeenspecificallydesignedforthetaskanditsorbitwillcovermuchmoreoftheArcticandAntarcticathanhaspreviouslybeenpossible.

WhENitcomestocontrollingtheaggressivecreepingthistle,carefulgrazingmanagementismoreeffectivethanherbicides,sayscientistsfromtheCentreforEcology&hydrology(CEh).

Thecreepingthistle(Cirsium arvense)isatall,fast-growingweednativetoBritainandnorthernEuropeangrasslandswhich,ifleftunchecked,cansmotherothergrassspeciesandhindergrazing.Althoughit’spartoftheBritishflora(andshouldnotbeconfusedwiththespearthistle,Scotland’snationalflower)thecreepingthistlehasspreaddramaticallyandisnowconsideredaprobleminruralgrasslandsmanagedfornatureconservation.

Thereasonbehindthisspikeofthistlegrowthisprobablytherecentmovetolessintensivegrasslandmanagement,whichreducestheamountoffertilisersusedandlowersgrazingdensity.Thisisgoodfortheecosystemasawholebutitgivesthecreepingthistleaperfectenvironmenttospread.

‘Untilnowpeoplethoughtthattheonlywaytocontrolitwastouseherbicides,’saysProfessorJamesBullock,anecologistbasedattheCEhinWallingford.Butincreasingtheuseofherbicidesisnotideal.Soin2000BullockandCEhcolleaguesatNorthWykeResearchbegantotestdifferentcontrolmethodsattwosites–alowlandpastureinBuckinghamshiregrazedbysheepandcattle,anduplandgrasslandinPowysmostlyoccupiedbysheep.

Thetreatmentsvariedfromplottoplotandincludeddifferentintensities

Herbicides are not always the best solution

ofgrazing,togetherwiththeuseofherbicides,mowingorcombinationsofboth.‘Wefoundthat,asexpected,herbicidesdiddecreasetheabundanceoftheweedandthatcuttinghadlittleeffect,’saysBullock.

Butthemostimportantcontrolmethodturnedouttobethelevelofgrazing.Bullockexplains:‘Thelargestdeclineswereobservedinareaswithlenientgrazinginspringorautumn,’thatis,plotswhereanimalsgrazedlightlyandthegrasswasmaintainedatamoderatelytallheight.highgrassmeanstroubleforthethistlebecauseitsyearlyshootswon’tgrowaswellifthey’reshadedbyotherplants.Incontrast,wherecattleandsheepgrazedmoreheavilythegrassisshortandthecreepingthistleisabletocolonisetherelativelyopenareas.

‘Lenientgrazingcontrolsthecreepingthistleasmuchasherbicides,withtheadvantageofbeingalong-termandenvironmentally-sustainablesolution,’addsBullock.‘Weshowthatmakingtheecosystemlessfriendlytotheweedscanbejustasefficient[aschemicals]inthelongrun.’

Successful launch for ESA’s CryoSat-2 ice mission

ESA/S.Corvaja



News

PALAEONTOLOGISTShavescanneda310-million-year-oldcockroachfossilwiththesamex-raytechnologyusedinhospitalstosearchfortumours,anddiscoveredsomeintimatedetailsabouttheseancientcreepycrawlies.

Archimylacris eggintoni was3cmlongandlived310millionyearsagoinwhatisnowtheMidlands,atatimewhenthisregionwasneartheEquatorandcoveredbytropicalrainforest.‘It’sanancestorofmoderncockroachesandprayingmantisesthatlivedbeforethesplitofthetwogroups,’explainsRussellGarwood,apalaeontologyPhDstudentbasedatImperialCollegeLondon.

Thefossilisembeddedin

hardlumpsofironcarbonate.‘Theonlythingweknewaboutitwaswhatthecreaturelookedlikefromabove,’Garwoodsays.

Garwoodisnostrangertothiskindofproblem:backinAugust2009heuncoveredminutedetailsofancientspider-likecreatures,usingtheNaturalhistoryMuseum’sCT-scannertobuilda3Dimageofthefossils.Nowhehasappliedthesameprincipletotheroaches.Thex-raysrevealedpreciousdetailsaboutthewings,mandibles,legsandtheantennaethat‘wereneverseenbeforeinfossilroachesfromthisage,’saysGarwood.

Archimylacris eggintoni probablyatedecayingmatter,perhapsdeadleaveslyingaroundtheforestfloor.Withoneofitsantennaeparalleltothebodyandtheotheratahigh

MarineeffectsofvolcanicashScientists from the National Oceanography Centre in Southampton led an expedition to the North Atlantic in May, on board RRS Discovery, to investigate the effects of the recent volcanic eruptions on the biology of the seas around Iceland. The North Atlantic is thought to be lacking in iron, an important nutrient for microscopic phytoplankton which absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The team hopes to reveal whether the volcanic ash has supplied extra iron to the area, which could have important consequences for the carbon cycle.

GoingagainsttheflowPowerful and potentially deadly seaward-flowing rip currents are a major hazard to bathers. Under a new NERC-funded study, scientists from the University of Plymouth will work with the Royal National Lifeboat Institution to monitor the currents, under a range of wave and tide conditions at Perranporth beach on the north Cornwall coast. The results will feed into a model that aims to forecast when and where potentially dangerous rip currents will occur around the UK. The results will give rescuers a better chance to save lives, with less danger to themselves.

Andthewinneris...NERC training fellow Craig Barrie has won an award for his PhD work at the University of Liverpool. The paper – ‘On the growth of colloform textures: a case study of sphalerite from the Galmoy ore body, Ireland’ – of which Craig is primary author, won ‘Best Paper of the Year published by a young author in the Journal of the Geological Society in 2009’.

In briefX-rays reveal ancient roach’s secret life

angle,itcouldprobablysweeptheminarc-likemovementslikemoderncockroachesdo.

Itslegswerelongandthinandwerearticulatedinfivedifferentplacesneartheend.Thisprovidedextraspeedandallowedtheroachtorunveryfastoverirregularterrain.Italsohadclawsthatwouldprobablyhavehelpeditclimbtreestolayitseggsorescapefrompredators.

Thankstotheuseofx-raytechnology‘thisisnowoneofthebestknownroachfossilsfromthisageandwecanmakeeducatedguessesabouthowitlived,’saysGarwood.Knowingaprehistoriccockroachhadclawsandcouldtravelatspeedmightbeabittoomuchdetailforsome.



hEAT-LOVINGbacteriaquicklycolonisedtheshatteredrockandboilingwaterleftbehindwhenahugemeteoritesmashedintoaremotepartofwhatisnowDevonIslandinCanada’sfrozennorth,scientistshaveshown.

ThediscoverycouldhelpinthesearchforancientlifeonMars,andsuggestsfuturemissionsthereshouldtakealookatmeteoriteimpactcraterstoseeiftheycontainchemicaltracesthatcanonlybemadebylivingthings.

Whenitstrucksome39millionyearsago,ameteoriteasmuchastwokilometresacrossleftbehindthe‘haughtonimpactstructure’–a23km-widecraterfilledwithamassofsmashedrock,or‘breccia’.Theforceofitsimpactalsoheateduptheearth,andscaldingwatercirculatedaroundthenewly-formedundergroundfracturesandvoidsinwhatgeologistscalla‘hydrothermalsystem’.

Thatsystemlastedfor10,000yearsbeforefinallycoolingdown.Bythattime,heat-lovingbacteria

GLOBALsealevelislikelytorisebyanywherebetween0.6and1.6metresbytheendofthecentury,sayscientists.Increasedlevelsofatmosphericcarbondioxide(CO2)andothergreenhousegaseswouldberesponsiblefor95percentofthisrise.

Initsmostrecentreport,in2007,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)estimatedthatsealevelwouldrisebybetween18and59centimetresthiscentury.

‘Butthisestimateisveryconservative.TheIPCClookedatindividualcontributionstosea-levelrisefromthermalexpansionoftheoceansandglaciermelt.Weknowthere’smoretosea-levelrisethanthat,’explainsDrSvetlanaJevrejevafromtheNationalOceanographyCentre.

InapaperpublishedinGeophysical Research Letters,Jevrejevaandhercolleaguesdescribehowtheyusedastatisticalmodeltolookatthecumulativeeffectsofbothnaturalchangesandman-madechangeson21st-centurysea-levelrise.‘Ourmodeluses300years’ofsea-levelobservationsfromsitesacrosstheworld.Weusedittoreproducepastsealevelandbecauseit’ssuchagoodmatch,we’reconfidentwecanuseittoestimatefuturesea-levelrise,’shesays.

Duringthe20thcenturysealevelroseby18centimetres,and25percentofthisrisewasdowntonaturalfactors,suchastheSunwarminguptheoceansoremissionsfromvolcaniceruptionscoolingtheatmosphere.Incontrast,Jevrejevaandherteamfoundthatsea-levelriseinthe21stcenturywillbedominatedbyman-madechangesinatmosphericgreenhousegases.Naturalfactorswouldberesponsibleforonly5percentoftherise.

Microbes could point to ancient life on Mars

CO2 to blame for major sea level rise by 2100

alreadyfoundintheEarth’scrusthadtakenupresidence,makingtheirlivingbyturningnaturalsulphateinthehydrothermalwatersintosulphides,intheformofironpyriteandmarcasite–aprocessknownasbacterialsulphatereduction.

‘Theimpactwouldhavefracturedandheateduptherock,allowinghotwatertobegincirculatingandmakingconditionsmorefavourableforthesebacteria,’explainsProfessorJohnParnell,ageologistattheUniversityofAberdeenandleadauthorofthepaper,publishedinGeology.

MicroscopiclasersulphurisotopeanalysisattheNERCIsotopeCommunitySupportFacility(ICSF),attheScottishUniversitiesEnvironmentalResearchCentreinEastKilbride,providedthekeyevidencethatthesulphidesinthehydrothermalsystemwereproducedbybacterialactivity.Thenumberofneutronsinatomsofanelementvariesnaturally,producingcharacteristicdifferencesinmassbetweenthesedifferent‘isotopes’ofthesameelement.Thebacteriain

questionpreferlightersulphur,withanatomicweightof32,totheheaviersulphur34,eachatomofwhichhastwoextraneutrons.Boththeseisotopesoccurinnaturalsulphur-bearingminerals.Thesulphidesinthehydrothermalsystemoftheimpactcraterweresomarkedlyenrichedinsulphur32comparedtothestartingsulphatethatbacterialreductionhadtobeinvolved.

‘There’slittlechancethesesulphidescouldhavebeenproducedbyanon-biologicalprocess,’saysco-authorDrAdrianBoyce,whomanagestheICSF.‘Theisotopicdifferencesbetweenthestartingsulphatesandtheeventualsulphidesarejusttoogreat.’

ThefindingssuggesttracesoflifeonMarscouldbefoundfromthechemicalsignatureleftbylong-deadorganisms.Boyceexplainsit’spossibletoproduceminiaturisedinstrumentscapableofisotopicanalysisinthefield,sofutureMarslanderscouldbeabletoinvestigatetheplanet’ssulphur-bearingminerals.

Photo by Martin Lipm

an reproduced with perm

ission from the Canadian M

useum of N

ature, Ottaw

a, CanadaThe Haughton crater.



News

ChEMICALanalysisofteethfromdecapitatedbodiesinanancientburialpitatRidgewayhillinDorsethasrevealedthatthevictimswereVikings.Theyhadallsufferedwoundsinflictedbyasharpweapontotheirskulls,jawsandupperspines,andsomealsohadtheirlimbshackedoff.

‘I’mnotawareofmanyotherburialsitesinthiscountrywiththislevelofslaughter,’saysDrJaneEvans,headofscience-basedarchaeologyattheNERCIsotopeGeosciencesLaboratory(NIGL)inKeyworth,Nottingham.WhileVikingsarerenownedfortheirrapingandpillaging,‘herewe’vegotrealevidencethatitwastheotherwayround,’saysEvans.

‘AngloSaxonsroundeduptheseVikingsandexecutedthem.’

AtfirstarchaeologiststhoughtthevictimswereIronAgepeopleslaughteredbyinvadingRomans.Butafterusingcarbon-14todatetheremainstobetweenAD910andAD1030–theexacttimeoftheVikinginvasions–OxfordArchaeologyaskedEvansandhercolleagueCarolynChenery,alsofromNIGL,tofurtheranalysethevictims.EvansandCheneryusedisotopicanalysisontenofthe51victimstofindoutwhatpartoftheworldtheycamefromandwhatsortoffoodtheygrewupon.

Isotopesaredifferentformsofthesamechemicalelement,withslightlydifferentatomicweights.

Decapitated bodies in Dorset were VikingsProportionsofdifferentisotopesofthesameelementsvaryaroundtheworld,andscientistscanusethesedifferencestounearthawealthofinformationonsubjectslikepeople’sorigins.Becauseourmoderndietsincludefoodfromallovertheworldit’snotpossibletousethesameapproachtoworkoutwherepeoplecomefromtoday.Butinthiscase,asEvansexplains,‘isotopesfromlocaldrinkingwaterandfoodarefixedintotheenamelanddentineofgrowingteeth.Thismeanswecanfigureoutwhatsortoffoodpeopleateandwherethey’relikelytohaveeatenthisfood.’

Bothstrontiumandoxygenisotopesrevealedthattheburialpit

Both images–Oxford A

rchaeology

victimsgrewupincountrieswithamuchcolderclimatethanBritain’s.‘It’stheonlysitewherewe’vedoneisotopicanalysisanddemonstratedthatthevictimsareallfromoutsideBritain,’saysEvans.

Surprisingly,theisotopicanalysisrevealedthatthemencamefromalloverScandinavia–oneindividualwastracedtonorthoftheArcticCircle.‘Thegroupcouldhavebeenanarmydrawnfromalargearea,’suggestsEvans.Otherinjuries,suchasacuttothepelvis,blowstothechestandstomach,aswellasdefensiveinjuriestothehands,arealsoconsistentwithamajorslaughter.



IT’SNOTjustmaleswhoareknownfortheirpromiscuity;femalesarejustasbad.Butitturnsoutthatthere’saverygoodreasonforthis:promiscuousfemalescouldbeessentialforsomespecies’survival.

Previousapproachestounderstandingthisbehaviourhaveignoredanybenefitstothewholespecies.Nowsomeresearchersthinktheexistenceofachromosomecalledthesex-ratiodistorter,whichcausespopulationstohavemorefemalesthanmales,couldpreventextinction.

‘Thesex-ratiodistorterisasetofgenescarriedonthexchromosomethatviolatestheassumptionofequalinheritance,’explainsProfessorNinaWedellfromtheUniversityofExeter.ThesegenesmakesurethatallspermcarryingaYchromosomearekilledandthatonlyfemaleoffspringarepossible.‘Wefiguredthatiffemalesarelimitedtoonemateandthatmatecarriesthesex-ratiodistorter,maleswoulddisappear.Withnomales,thepopulationshouldeventuallydieout,’saysWedell.

Totestthisidea,WedellandcolleaguesfromtheUniversityofLiverpooldescribeinCurrent Biologyhowtheybred48groupsofthefruitflyDrosophila pseudoobscura,knowntocarrythesex-ratiodistorterchromosome.

Theydividedthegroupsintofourset-ups;inthefirst,femaleswerelimitedtomatingwithjustonemale,whileintheotherthreethefemalescouldmatewithuptosixmales.

Theresearchersfoundthatingroupswherethefemalesmatedwithmultiplemales,thefrequencyofthesex-ratiodistorterchromosomefellrapidly;somuchsothatbygenerationnine,thesex-ratiodistorterchromosomewasmuchrarerinpromiscuousfemalesthanintheotherfemales.

Butinthe‘monogamous’group,bythefifteenthgenerationthereweremorefemalesthanmalesand40percentofthesepopulationshadgoneextinctbecausethemalesjustdiedout.Incontrast,all36promiscuouspopulationssurvived.

‘Theextinctionofpopulationslimitedtoonematingwasclearlydowntothesex-ratiobias,whichresultsfromthesex-ratiodistorterchromosome.Multiplematingbyfemalesreducesthefrequencyofthesex-linkeddistorterandislikelytodosoformanyotherselfishgeneticelements,’saysWedell.‘So,thevulnerabilityofmonogamouspopulationstoextinctionbysex-ratiodistortersmayprovideagenerallyoverlookedexplanationforwhypromiscuityissoprevalent.’

Promiscuous females save species from extinction BioBlitzintheYearofBiodiversity

May saw the start of the 2010 BioBlitz season. A bioblitz is a field survey where scientists and the public race against the clock to tickle, tease and net as many species as they can find. They run for at least 24 hours so nocturnal species don’t miss out, and produce a valuable scientific snapshot of an area’s biodiversity. Bioblitzing is great fun and anyone can take part – you can even organise your own – and as 2010 is the Year of Biodiversity it’s a great time to get involved. There are more events through July and August: to find one near you visit: www.bnhc.org.uk/home/bioblitz

Statue‘DNAfinger-printed’The British Geological Survey has traced stone from a statue of Robert Burns, now in Australia, to its original source in Scotland. When vandals damaged the 1830s statue, the National Trust of Australia sent samples from the monument to BGS in Edinburgh. Scientists carried out microscopic studies to ‘fingerprint’ the stone, which turned out to be from near Stirling. The probable original source is now a landfill site, but a near-match was found from Old Drumhead quarry nearby; the owners donated stone for the repairs.

ScienceofthebuiltenvironmentThe high-profile ‘Transition to a Low Carbon Economy’ conference saw NERC joining forces with the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Centre to show how environmental, physical and engineering sciences can combine to address the challenges of climate change in the urban environment. Among the subjects covered in their session, the extreme effects of heat in towns and cities – the urban heat island effect – was hotly debated; the challenge is to retrofit existing housing stock to address overheating in the summer as well as energy efficiency. For more on the built environment, listen to the Planet Earth online podcast at http://planetearth.nerc.ac.uk/multimedia/story.aspx?id=736

Carboncapture–andreuse?Scientists from the British Geological Survey will be part of a major new study to investigate techniques for carbon capture and storage (CCS) based on mineralisation. This promising new area of carbon sequestration involves converting CO2 into usable materials – a practical alternative to the more common approach of capturing the gas for storage underground. Certain minerals can react with CO2 to produce a solid carbonate product, which can be stored, used as an aggregate or turned into products such as bricks.

In brief



News

ANEWREVIEWoftheeffectsofecotourismonwesternlowlandgorillashasshownthatthepresenceoftouristsandresearchteamsdisturbstheanimalsandrecommendstheincreaseoftheminimumobservationdistancetotenmetres.

EcotourismhasbecomeanimportantsourceofincomeforremoteAfricancommunitieslivingwithinthenaturalhabitatsoffamousanimalspecies.Gorillatourisminparticularhasboomedwiththestrongmarketdemand,providingjobsandbusinessopportunitiesforlocalpeopleinseveralAfricancountries.Temptingforeigntouriststoenjoynaturalparkshasalsobecomeastrongmotivationforgovernmentstoinvestinconservation,whilethepresenceofresearchers,touristsandtourisminfrastructurecanworkasastrongdeterrenttopoachers.

Ecotourisminvolvesacertainamountofriskforthegorillas,whichareknowntobevulnerable

tohumandiseases.Theirimmunesystemisnotashardenedasours,andthecommunicationofsomethingastrivialasacommoncoldfromahumanmayhavethepotentialtothreatenthehealthofanentirefamilygroup.Toprotectthegorillas,authoritieshavepreviouslyestablishedaminimumdistanceofsevenmetrestopreventdiseasetransmission.Butisthisenough?MichelleKlailova,aPhDstudentattheUniversityofStirling,studiedagroupofgorillassettledatBaihokou,CentralAfricanRepublic,todocumenttheirbehaviourinresponsetohumanpresence.

KlailovaandherresearchgroupfollowedonesilverbackmalenamedMakumbaforoneyearandrecordedhisvocalisations,dailyactivitiesandinteractionswithhis12familymembers.Shecomparedthesewiththesizeandtypeofthehumangroup–whichincludedlocaltrackers,scientistsandoftentourists–anditsdistancefrom

Wild gorillas are affected by ecotourism

thegorillas.KlailovafoundthatthesizeofthegroupdidhaveaneffectonMakumbaandhisfamily.Asthenumbersincreased,thegorillasspentlesstimefeedingandinsteadengagedinunfocused,mixedbehaviours.‘Ashumansmovecloserhesacrificespartofhisfeedingtimetomonitorus,andthiscannotbegood,’saysKlailova.

Theseven-metreminimumdistanceisbasedondiseasetransmissionrisk.IntheirAmerican Journal of Primatology paper,Klailovaandherteamrecommend‘anincreaseoftheminimumobservationdistance

Guenter Guni/istockphoto.com

SCIENTISTShavefoundasimplebutfunctioningcommunityofbacteriaandmicro-organismsthrivinginthelakesandsoilsoftheDufekMassifregioninAntarctica.ThesearethesouthernmostterrestrialandaquaticecosystemseverdescribedonEarth,lessthan800kmfromtheSouthPole.

BritishAntarcticSurveybiologistDrDominichodgsonledascientificexpeditiontothesiteinDecember2003.‘Ouraimwastodoabitoftraditionaldescriptivesciencetofindoutwhatisthere,andcombinethiswithsomeofthelatesttechniquesinmolecularbiology,’hesays.

totenmetres,toincorporatethepsychologicalstressorsofclosehumancontact.’Ideally,thedistanceshouldbeover18metres,atwhichthegorillasstopreactingtohumansbut,saysKlailova,‘thisisnotarealisticgoalindenseforests.’Andshebelievesit’simportanttokeeptheimpactofhumanproximityinperspective.‘humanfactorsexplainonly10percentoftheoverallvarianceintheresults,whichmeanstherearemanyotherimportant,butyetundetermined,non-humanfactorsthatareaffectingthegorillas’behaviour,’shesays.

Life at the South PoleTheteamcollectedsamplesofthe

waterandthematsofblue-greenalgaeinthelakesandsoils.‘Inthelakesthematsaresurprisinglyabundantcoveringmostofthelakefloors,whereasonthesoilsthematslooklikedriedlettuce;theygrowverylargetherebecausetherearenograzerseatingthem,’sayshodgson.Theyalsophotographedafewpinhead-sizedlichens,sosmallandrarethatsamplingwasimpossible.

Theteamdidn’tfindanyevidenceoftheroundwormsorarthropods(invertebrateswithexternalskeletons,likecrabs)commoninotherAntarcticecosystems,andidentifiedonlyonediatomshell–atypeof

phytoplankon–whichwaslikelybroughttothelakebythewind.Theyfoundsixspeciesofblue-greenalgae(cyanobacteria),onetypeofgreenalgaeand32differentbacteria.Theonlyanimalslivingintheareaaresomesmallaquaticcreaturescalledrotifersandthreespeciesoftardigrade,agroupofmicroscopicinvertebratescommoninaquaticenvironments.Andthat’sit.

‘Thelistisincrediblylimitedanditfitsonanormalsheetofpaper,’sayshodgson,whoreportedthefindingsinPolar Science.‘Ifyouwouldapplythesameanalyticmethodstosamplesfromanywhereelse,youwouldgetpagesandpageslistinghundredsofspecies.’

hodgsonsaysthatthecommunityfoundinthelakesandsoilsoftheDufekMassifisafunctionalecosystem,butsays‘thisisassimpleasecosystemsget.’

TheDufekMassifhasaharshclimateandisisolatedbyitsremotelocation,whichprobablyexplainsitsextremelackofbiodiversity.GeneticanalysisrevealedthattheDufekMassif ’sblue-greenalgaearesimilartothoseinotherextremeenvironments.Butthelocaltardigradespecies,thelichenandsomebacteriaaren’tfoundanywhereelse.ThediscoveryoftheseendemicspeciessuggeststhatAntarcticamaynotbeasbarrenaswethought.


Rob Pickles travelled to a remote stretch of Guyanese rainforest in search of the rare giant otter. He explains how the range of living things he found there surpassed his wildest hopes.

Giants of theRewa Head

Giantanacondasarenotthesortofbeaststosufferfoolsgladly.Anythingthatcanturnyouintoaloose,wetbagofshatteredbone

deservestobetreatedwithagreatdealofrespect,whichwaswhyweapproachedthisparticularpolishedblackcoilofmuscleandsinewwithsometrepidation.

‘ThatisaBIGcamoodieBoy!’Kevingrinnedbroadly.Ashsizedupthesnakewithaprofessionaleyeandthoughtitlookedcatchable.‘Let’sjusthopeshedoesn’tmusk;ifshemuskswe’llstinkofanacondaforweeks.Ryol,you’retailman’.Ryolgrumbledsomethingaboutalwaysbeingtailmanandperpetuallycoveredinmuskandhavingonlyjustwashedhisclothestotopitall,butresignedhimselftohisrole.

Theanacondareactedtotheweightoffourgrownmenonherwithsomedispleasureandwrithedwithshockingstrength.RyolhauledonhertailforallhewasworthandNiallclampedtightbehindtheheadashermouthopened

withahuskyhissthatsmeltofrottenmeatandexposedrowsofsharpteeth.Thejawswerebound,eyescovered,andbitbybitthefightlefther.Wehadalengthofropeintheboatandmeasuredherfromnosetotail,comingoutwithafinallengthofjustover5.5mwithagirthofnearly70cm.

Itwasahugesnake,aleviathanfromanotherage,butwherewewerethiswasn’tanaberration;we’dalreadyseenfiveothersofsimilarproportions.WewereontheRewaheadinGuyana’sinterior,rightintheheartoftheGuianaShield,ahuge,ancientdomeofrock.TheShieldspansVenezuela,theGuianasandpartofnorthernBrazil,andonitsbackliesthelargestsingletractofrainforestanywhereintheworld,withscoresofendemicspeciesfoundnowhereelse.TheRewariveritselfisadeviltonavigate,cutmidwayalongitslengthbyastringofcataractsandfallsrequiringheavyportageworktoreachitsheadwaters.

WhatinitiallybroughtustothemiddleofGuyanawasthespeciesonwhichmyPhD

Top to bottom: giant otter, tapir and dwarf caiman.


GIANTS OF THE REWA HEAD

wasbased,thegiantotter.Abold,gregarious,sinuouscreaturelongerthanamanistall.Thegiantotterwasdecimatedbythepelthuntingofthelastcentury,andalthoughpopulationshavebeguntorecoveritisstillclassifiedasendangered.Whatwedidn’tknowwashowgeneticallydifferentiatedpopulationswere,orwheremigrationoccurred,ifatall.IwasinterestedtoseewhetheranymigrationwasoccurringamongtheGuyaneseottersandthoseoftheOrinocoandAmazonianPeru.TofindoutIneededotterDNA,andtogetthatIhadtofindthepacks,locatetheirlatrinesandscoopuptheirsteamingfreshspraint.

ItwastheRewahead’suncompromisingnature,overwhichwesweatedbucketswith

Anything which can turn you into a loose, wet bag of shattered bone deserves to be treated with a great deal of respect.

theportaging,whichhadpreventedthehuntersfromnavigatingtotheheadwaters.Anditwasupherethatanenclaveofgiantotterssurvivedthepopulationcrash,andwhereI’dbeentoldyoucouldwitnesswildlifeflourishinginanalmostpre-Columbusstate.Afterhearingthosetales,IproposedatripwithgoodfriendandfellowbiologistNiallMcCann.Werealisedthatbasicsurveyworkwasurgentlyneededintheregion,andwereluckyenoughtobeputintouchwithamanwhoknewtheinterioranditswildlifelikethebackofhishand.Ashleyhollandhadbeenworkingoutthereforyearsandheandhisteam–Ryol,NandoandKevin–knewthewaysoftheriversandtheportagelines,wereadeptatcatchingcaimanand

anacondas,andcouldalsoweaveamightyfinebasket.

Wetimedourtriptocoincidewiththedryseason,butthatyeartheweathergodshadn’tbeenappeasedanditrained,heavilyandfrequently.Therivercameup,hammockpostssquelchedandcamedownandthekitchenwasalmostwashedaway.BothKevinandAshwerenailedby‘mosquitoworm’andhadtopepperthemselveswithpatchesofgaffertapetosuffocatetheburrowingmaggots.It’sfairtosayconditionswerenotideal,butduringourbrief22-dayspellintheRewaheadwehadencounterswithwildlifethattropicalbiologistscanspendyearsinthefieldwaitingfor.

ThereisnohumandisturbanceattheRewa


head,butpeopledidoncecomehere–theareaisnot‘pristine’inthesensethatithasneverseenman’shand.Balatableedersmadethearduousjourneyuphereinthe1970stotaplatexfromtherubbertrees,andintheforesttherottingremainsofacompressorandpipesareallthatsurvivefromanabandonedgold-dredgingventure.Butthefallsareabarriertoallbutthebravest,andnowtheonlypeopletogoaboveCoronaFallsareAshandtheoddintrepidtwitcher.

Asthereisnohumanhuntingpressure,gamespeciesliketapir,pacaandcurassowareabundantandunafraidofhumans.Andwiththeabundantgamecomesahealthypredatorpopulation.Inourcameratrapsweregularlyrecordedfourspeciesofbigcatincludingpuma,whileontheriverweglimpsedjaguarthreetimesduringtheexpedition.Wesawseveraltapirsbearingrake-marksontheirflanksthattoldofnarrowescapesfromjaguarorpumaattacks,andattheentrancetoapacadenwesawthefootprintsoftheenigmaticbushdog.

Crucially,wealsofoundfivepacksofgiantottersandmanagedtocollectthesamplesIneeded.WhatIfoundinthegeneticswasthatfarfrombeingisolated,thegiantottersseemedtouseseasonalbreakdownsbetweendrainagebasins,whenfloodplainsbecomeblurredtogether,tohopfromone

tributarytoanother.TheOrinoco,itseems,isasortofmelting

potbetweentheotterpopulationsofGuyanaandnorthernPeru.Identifyingwheretheseroutesofmigrationoccurisnowthenextchallenge,toensurewedirectconservationeffortattherightspotstokeepthepopulationsincontactwitheachother.

Otters and tapirs and snakes, oh my!SowhyistheRewaheadsospecial?Firstly,ithashighdiversityofspecies,includingthreatenedandcharismaticrainforestanimals.Overtheexpeditionwerecordedthepresenceof33medium-to-largemammalspecies,andthetotalbirdcountfortheareareached251from

ThankfullyPresidentJagdeohasrealisedthatGuyana’sforestsshouldbeworthmorestandingthanfelled,andhasofferedthemupasaglobalcarbonsink.Guyanapossessessomeofthemostcarbon-richforestsinSouthAmericawhich,coupledwiththehighspeciesdiversityandthenumberofplantsandanimalsfoundonlyintheGuiananShield,maketheseforestsanextremelyvaluableresource–notjusttoafewconservationists,buttotheinternationalcommunityandtheGuyanannation.

Therearesignsthemessageisgettingthrough.LastyearNorwayboldlypledged$250milliontohelppreserveGuyana’sforeststhroughtheUN’sReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandDegradation(REDD)initiative.ItishopedthatothernationswillfollowNorway’sleadandhelpmakeGuyanaamodelofhowglobalcarbonoffsettingcanpreventtheremorselesscreepofdredgers,drillersandchainsaws.

WearejuststartingtoscratchthesurfaceofthespeciesrichnessoftheRupununiBasin,ofwhichtheRewaisatributary.Currentlytheregion’stallyofvertebratespeciesstandsatover1400,withvery

littleresearchyetconductedonthefish,reptileandamphibiancommunities.Withfurtherexplorationthisfigureiscertaintorise,andthissmallcorneroftheGuiananShield,comprisinglowlandrainforest,savannahandauniqueCaribbean-drainingriverbasin,lookslikelytobeoneofthemostspecies-richregionsintheworld.Conservationorganisationshaverecentlybegunlookinginearnestanditseemsthatthespotlighthas,allofasudden,fallenonGuyana.

MoreiNforMATioNRob Pickles is a PhD student at the Institute of Zoology and the University of Kent, studying the population genetics of the giant otter. Email: [email protected]

mistnets,cameratrapsanddriftsurveys.Theseincludedbeautiessuchasthespangledcotinga,crimsontopaz,andpurple-throatedfruitcrow,tenspeciesendemictotheGuiananShield,and16speciesofraptor,includingtheawesomeandthreatenedharpyandcrestedeagles.

Thelistof‘giants’and‘largest’speciesfoundintheRewaheadalsomakesimpressivereading:alongwiththegiantotter,largestsnake(anaconda)andlargesteagle(harpy),wefoundthegoliathbird-eatingspider,giantanteaterandgiantarmadillo.Moreimportantly,14ofthespeciesrecordedarelistedasgloballythreatened,yethereseveralseemtobeabundant.Weencounteredtapirsseveraltimesduringthedriftsurveys,andtheywerethesecondmostcommonspeciesinthecameratraps.

Secondly,thearea’ssituationisexceptional.ThefallshavegiventheRewaheadadegreeofnaturalprotectionfromencroachmentthathaspreservedtheareasofar.ItalsositsplumbetweenConservationInternational’sUpperEssequiboConcessionandtheproposedKanukuMountainsProtectedArea,forminganaturallinkbetweenthetwoareasandtogetherspanningmostofthewidthofsouthernGuyana.

Thirdly,andmostimportantly,theregion’svaluablenaturalresourcesmeanitisbynomeanscertaintheRewaheadwillremaininitspresentunsulliedstate.Gold,oilandtimberareallfoundthere,andtheRewaheaditselflieswithinaloggingconcession,withfellingearmarkedtobeginwithinthenextfewyears.

We’vejustenteredthe‘YearofBiodiversity’,andalthoughCopenhagendidn’tdeliverwhatwashoped,thereisarealisationthatattitudesmustchange,andpolicywithit,tomakeiteconomicallyworthwhileforpoorcountriestopreservetheirnaturalheritageratherthanexploitit.GuyanaisthepoorestcountryinSouthAmerica,soitisunderenormouspressuretouseitsnaturalresourcesforeconomicgrowth.

GIANTS OF THE REWA HEAD

Left to right: anteater, puma, ocelot, jaguarundi and margay.

Whenconservationscientistsmeet,theytendtofocusonpracticalproblemsintheenvironmentright

now,andwhatwecoulddoaboutthem.Butwhenagroupofexpertsfromconservationorganisations,universitiesandgovernmentsallovertheworldandfromarangeofdisciplinesmetinCambridgelatelastyear,theyweren’ttalkingaboutanythingsoconcrete.

Instead,theyweretryingtoimaginewhatthenextbigproblemsandopportunitiesmightbe.Bytheendofthemeetingtheyhadsettledon15issuesthattheythinkweshouldkeepaneyeon.Theyrangefromthepossibleside-effectsofreleasingparticlesintotheupperatmospheretocombatclimatechangetowhateffecttinyparticlesofgerm-killingsilvercouldhavewhentheygetintothesewagesystem.

Theideaisn’ttopredictthefuture,buttohighlightareasthatmaybecomeimportantinthecomingyears.Notallofthemwill.Butifevenafewdo,BillSutherland,whoorganisedtheevent,hopesthinkingaboutthemaheadoftimewillmeanwe’rebetterpreparedtodeal

Scanning the horizon

Many of our current environmental problems could have been avoided with a little forethought. Releasing alien species into new environments, introducing new chemicals without proper testing – the list goes on. And too often, we get to grips with problems only after they’ve become serious. Bill Sutherland plans to change this. He tells Tom Marshall how.

withthembeforetheygetoutofhand.Aprofessorofconservationbiologyat

CambridgeUniversity,Sutherland’spreviousprojectsincludecollaboratingwithUKandglobalpolicy-makerstoidentifythekeyresearchquestionsthatneedanswers,anddevelopingevidence-basedconservation(seePlanet Earth Autumn2008,pp28-9).Butidentifyingthebigrisksatthemomentisalongwayfromenvisagingwhatthingscouldbelikeinadecade’stime.

Sutherlandthinksthescientificcommunityneedstospendmoretimethinkingaboutawiderangeoffutureissuesinordertobesensiblyprepared.‘Ithasstruckmeforsometimethatwe’renotlookingforwardsufficiently,’hesays.‘Thismeanswegettakenbysurprisebyproblemswereallyshouldhaveforeseen.Anexampleisbiofuels,whichwereenthusiasticallyadoptedwithoutcarefullyconsideringtheconsequences.’

Theideabehindbiofuelsinvolvesgrowingplantslikeoilpalmsasanenergysource.Itwaschampionedaroundthemiddleofthelastdecadeasawaytoreduceourdependency



onfossilfuels.ButSutherlandsaystheconservationandecologicalcommunitiesweren’tproperlypreparedtopredicttheireffects.

Aggressivetargetsforincreasingbiofuelusehavemeantlargeswathesofalready-vulnerableecosystemsliketropicalrainforestshavebeendestroyedtomakewayforenergycropplantations.Thisecologicalhavocmayoutweighanybenefitfromburningfewerfossilfuels.Thisconsequencewasunintended,buthardlyunforeseeable.‘Wefailedtoanticipatethesocial,economic,climatechangeandecologicalconsequencesofactivelypromotingbiofuels,’Sutherlandexplains.

‘Weoftenonlystartthinkingseriouslyaboutenvironmentalconsequenceswhenthere’salreadyaproblem,andbythenit’smuchhardertodosomethingaboutit,’headds.‘Asitis,we’veadoptedbiofuelswidelyandnowwe’retryingtocatchuponthebasicresearch.Thisisthewrongwayround!’

Aswellaschoosingtheissuestofocuson,thegroupalsodiscussedhowpolicy-makersandconservationistscouldrespond.Insomecasesactionmaybeneededrightnow;inothers,allthat’scalledforatthemomentisresearchtoestablishwhethertherisksarereal,howserioustheyareandhowwecoulddealwiththem.Inyetothersituationsitmaybesensiblejusttowaitandseehowtheydevelop.

SutherlandandtheotherparticipantsintheexercisepresentedtheirresultstoSecretaryofStateforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairshilaryBennjusthoursaftertheendoftheworkshop–policy-makerengagementinaction!

‘Someoftheissueshewasalreadyfamiliarwith,butmanyhe’dneverheardof,’Sutherlandsays.‘Thiswasexactlywhatwe’dbeenaimingfor–alistofissuesthatarenotgenerallyknowntomostacademicsandpolicy-makers.We’llcertainlyhavemissedsomethings,butwehopethiskindofexercisewillhelpalertpolicy-makersandconservationpractitionerstoissuestheymightotherwisemiss,andweplantorepeatthisexerciseannually.’

MoreiNforMATioNBill Sutherland is Miriam Rothschild Professor of Conservation Biology in the Department of Zoology at the University of Cambridge.

furTherreADiNGSutherland et al, A horizon scan of global conservation issues in 2010, Trends in Ecology & Evolution.www.download.cell.com/images/Edimages/Trends/EcologyEvolution/PIIS0169534709003206.pdf

Just one word: microplastics

Over the past four decades, global production of plastics has increased twenty-five-fold, and only about 5 per cent of this material has been recycled. Much of the rest has been released into the great outdoors. And as most plastics take a long time to decay, a lot of it’s still there, making up between 60 and 80 per cent of all litter.

Eventually it tends to get washed out to sea, where it is now accumulating in vast stretches of water like the so-called Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Wind and waves gradually break plastic objects down into tiny granules, and these particles of ‘microplastic’ find their way into sand and mud all over the world.

We still don’t know what this build-up of plastic particles will do to wildlife, but there’s a serious risk it will prove toxic. Even if plastic granules themselves aren’t harmful to living things near them, we know they can absorb other pollutants from sea water and pass them on to organisms like sea anemones which live by filtering edible particles out of the water, as well as to fish, birds and other large marine animals that mistake plastic fragments for morsels of food. There’s no sign of the rate of plastic pollution dropping, and scientists don’t know how it could eventually affect the wider environment.

Growing our own meat

Meat may be tasty, but farming animals to produce it causes all kinds of environmental trouble – and that’s even before you get into ethical considerations and questions of how it affects people’s health. In response, several groups are trying to grow synthetic meat in vats in the lab.

The idea is to take muscle cells from an animal and grow them on a frame that regularly stretches and manipulates them to ‘exercise’ the cells. Eventually we could be tucking into tasty sirloin steaks that have never been near a cow.

A Dutch sausage maker has developed a way to turn pig stem cells into muscle fibres in a fortnight, though so far the meat produced would cost tens of thousands of dollars per kilo. Progress is accelerating, and there’s a $1m reward for the first to sell tasty synthetic chicken meat to the public by mid-2012. If the technology becomes widespread, it could greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from livestock and ease pressure on farmland and fish stocks. But if the number of animals grown for meat dropped quickly, how might other parts of the ecosystem respond? And what are the medical and ethical implications?

Ashley Cooper/SpecialistStock

Michael Staudt / VISUM

/Still Pictures


SCANNING THE HORIZON

Artificial life

Breakthroughs in molecular biology and genetics over the last few years have transformed our understanding of how living things work. In the lab, scientists can now take genetic material from bacteria and combine it with yeast cells to create a new life form that can then live and reproduce on its own.

The ability to create bespoke genetic blueprints for new living things isn’t far off. Craig Venter (below), a pioneer in genomics and artificial life (see Planet Earth Autumn 2009, pp18-19), envisages an explosion of brand new living things designed to meet our needs, whether cleaning up pollution or producing chemicals on demand. He recently hit the headlines by announcing the creation of what he describes as the first synthetic life form – a bacterial cell controlled by DNA that was built in the lab.

Thousands of people breed plants or animals at the moment – what might happen when they gain the ability to design genomes to make their own bespoke organisms? How could these new creatures affect natural ecosystems? And how can we stop this miraculous technology being put to malicious uses?

Microplastic pollution: what could tiny plastic particles do to the environment?

Stratospheric aerosols: some scientists want to shoot fine particles into the upper atmosphere to scatter sunlight and slow global warming. But there could be unexpected consequences.

Artificial life: designing our own microbes could let us make chemical compounds on demand, or engineer our own life forms for any number of other purposes. But the new era of bespoke life will also carry profound risks.

Nanosilver in waste water: tiny silver particles designed to kill bacteria are one of nanotechnology’s first mass-market applications. But could they harm natural microbial communities?

Biochar: turning woody biomass into charcoal could let us harvest its energy while keeping its carbon content in solid form, to be returned to the soil and stored there for long periods. But more work is needed on what effects it could have once it’s there.

Mobile-sensing technologies: will mobile sensors and apps become a vital tool for monitoring environmental change?

Deoxygenation of the oceans: global warming tampers with ocean chemistry, and the amount of dissolved oxygen is falling. How could this affect marine ecosystems that are already under pressure from overfishing, ocean acidification and changing temperatures?

Changes in denitrifying bacteria: is global warming affecting the behaviour of bacteria specialised in dealing with nitrogen?

High-latitude volcanism: ice sheets cover many volcanoes near the poles. As they retreat, will the volcanoes get more active? And could this itself accelerate climate change?

Synthetic meat: growing meat in a petri-dish could solve many problems – but what are the economic, ethical and environmental implications?

Invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish are causing havoc in the Caribbean, but could exploiting them for food ultimately benefit endangered edible fish species?

Trans-Arctic dispersal and colonisation: Arctic ice separates the Atlantic from the Pacific – what if it melts?

Large-scale international land acquisitions: countries are buying farmland abroad to secure their food supplies in future. What will the cost be for local environments and economies?

Assisted colonisation: could moving plants and animals to new, more suitable habitats help them cope with climate change? Or is this tantamount to ‘ecological roulette’?

Impact of REDD: The UN’s Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries programme (REDD) aims to cut carbon emissions from deforestation. But some fear it could protect forests at the expense of other habitats like savannahs and wetlands.

The fifteen issues


Experiment Earth?Geoengineering, which aims to slow down or reverse climate change, is a hot topic. But what do people really think of it? Peter Hurrell describes NERC’s recent efforts to find out.

‘Doesgeoengineeringhaveaparttoplayintacklingclimatechange?’Withthatquestion,NERC’spublicdialogueongeoengineeringgot

underwayinBirmingham.FortwoSaturdaysinearlyMarch,30membersofthepublicgaveuptheirtimetodiscussgeoengineeringtechnologiesandtheirhopesandfearsshouldthesetechnologiesbeadopted.

Geoengineeringisthenamegiventoagroupofideasthataimtocounterorreversetheeffectsofclimatechange.Althoughreducinggreenhousegasemissionsisthebestwaytotackleclimatechange,itisimportanttounderstandwhatotheroptionsareavailable.Manyofthesuggestedgeoengineeringideasarequitecontentious–deliberatelytryingtochangetheenvironmentonwhichwealldependcouldhaveseriousunexpectedconsequences.Sobeforewethinkaboutinvestinginresearchintothesetechnologies,

Oliver Burston/Photolibrary.com


ExPERIMENT EARTH?

NERChasbeenaskingthepublicwhattheythinkoftheideassomescientistshaveproposed.

Therearetwobroadkindsofgeoengineering.ThefirstkindseekstoremoveCO2fromtheatmosphere,eitherbyusingartificialdevicesto‘scrub’CO2fromtheair,orbyenhancingnaturalprocessesthatdoso–forinstance,byfertilisingtheoceanssothatplanktongrowfasterandabsorbmorecarbon.ThesecondtypeaimstoreflectmoresunlightbackintospacetoreducethetemperatureoftheEarth–atechnologycalledsolar-radiationmanagement.Bothcategorieshavetheirdrawbacks,andwestillneedtodoalotofresearchtounderstandwhateffectstheymighthaveiftheyweredeployedglobally.

Public perceptionsAsyoucanimagine,theideaofdeliberatelychangingourenvironmenttotackleclimatechangeissomethinglotsofpeoplehaveanopinionabout.Theseviewpointsarevalidhopesandfearsthatthescientificcommunityshouldbelisteningto.Buthowdidwecapturesuchdiverseopinions?

Wewentoutandspoketopeople.WorkingwithSciencewise-ERC(ExpertResource

Centre),whichsupportspublicdialogueacrossgovernment,wecommissionedateamofcontractorsledbyIpsosMoritorunthreesetsofdialogueworkshops.Wealsoinvolvedscientists,ethicistsandenvironmentalandhumanitariancharitiessuchasGreenpeaceandCAFODindesigningtheevents,tohelpourparticipantsthinkaboutgeoengineeringfromasmanydifferentanglesaspossible.

ThefirsteventswereheldinBirmingham,andrepeatedinCardiffandCornwall.Ineachlocation,thirtymembersofthepublicwereinvitedtoattendtwoworkshops,whichwere

separatedbyaweekinwhichparticipantshadachancetodotheirownresearchintothesubjectandthinkaboutwhattheyhadheard.

Atthefirsteventsineachcity,participantsweregivensomebackgroundaboutclimatechangetosetthecontext.Theythenlearnedaboutninegeoengineeringideas,frompaintingroofswhitetoaddingirontonutrient-starvedareasoftheocean,andsomeoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach.Thesecondeventsgavethemfourpossiblescenariostoillustratehowgeoengineeringcouldbeusedinfuture.Theytalkedaboutsomeoftheissuesraisedbythescenarios,suchastheirsocialandenvironmentalimpact,andanypoliticaloreconomicimplications.

SowhatdidwelearnfromthepeopleattheBirminghamworkshops?Theyfeltitwasimportanttotacklethecausesofclimatechangeratherthanthesymptoms,sopreferredideastoremovesomeCO2fromtheatmosphereoverthoseaimedatreducingglobaltemperaturebyreflectingsunlightbackintospace.Theyalsopreferredmore‘natural’solutions:afforestation(plantingtrees)andbiochar(usingorganicmattertoproducecarbon-richcharcoal,thenburyingit)weretheirfavouritegeoengineeringideas.

Peoplewerealsoworriedaboutthesafetyofsomeoftheideas:wouldcapturedCO2leakoutofundergroundstorage?Couldsulphateparticlespumpedintotheupperatmospheredamageourhealth?Whateffectwouldlimingtheoceanshaveonmarinelife?ItisimportantforNERCtotakesuchconcernsintoaccountwhenconsideringfutureresearchpriorities.

Active listeningIt’snogoodaskingthepublictheirviewsifwe

aren’tlisteningor,moreimportantly,can’tactonwhattheysay.TomakesureNERCcanrespondtoparticipants’views,thedialogueprocesshasinvolvedoneofourthemeleaders,aNERCdirector,andrepresentativesfromgovernmentdepartmentsandagencies,allofwhomcaninfluencethedirectionoffutureresearchinthisarea.

Asthisarticlewasbeingwritten,wewerepreparingforafinaldialogueeventattheNationalOceanographyCentreinSouthampton.Participantsfromtheearlierworkshopshavebeeninvitedtocomealong

andtalkaboutwhatemergedfromthedialoguewithNERC.OurchiefexecutiveandotherNERCstaffandscientistswillbetheretodiscuss

geoengineeringresearchwiththepublicandexploretheirconcernsaboutboththeresearchanddeploymentofgeoengineering.Thiswillgivethepublicachancetointeractwithseniordecisionmakers,sotheywillknowtheirviewsarebeingheard.

Theresultsofalloftheworkshopsandthefinaleventwillbeanalysedandcombinedwithothercommentsreceivedthroughaweb-basedsurveyandopenaccesseventsatsciencecentres.ThesewillbeusedtoproduceafinalreportandrecommendationsforNERC,whichwillbeusedwhenwearethinkingabouthowwewillsupportgeoengineeringresearchinfuture,andhowthisresearchshouldbedirected,conductedandcommunicated.

Publicdialogueisanexcellentwaytofindoutnotjustwhatpeoplethink,butwhytheythinkit.Runningseveralday-longworkshopsgaveusplentyoftimetodigdeepintopeople’smotivationsandbeliefs,andtodiscussagreatdealofinformationaboutgeoengineering.ThewholeexercisehasalsobeenanexcellentlearningexperienceforNERCasitwasthefirsttimewehavedoneanythinglikethis.

Itwasgreattoseesomanypeopletalkingopenlyaboutenvironmentalscienceandwhatitmeanstothem,theirfamiliesandtheirwayoflife.Noteveryconversationwaspositive–climatechangeandgeoengineeringarenotalwayspositivesubjects–buttheimportantthingisthatconversationswerehappening.ThechallengenowisforNERCtolistentowhatpeoplehadtosay,andtomakesurewebuildontheresults.

MoreiNforMATioNPeter Hurrell is a member of the NERC Knowledge Exchange team. Email: [email protected]

People were worried about the safety of some of the ideas.


From the sea to the skyIt is a truth universally acknowledged in environmental science that it is much easier to propose an exciting new hypothesis than it is to prove it. Ken Carslaw and colleagues from the Institute for Climate and Atmospheric Science in Leeds set out to test the 23-year old CLAW hypothesis – and came up with some surprising results.


IfyouwantedtoidentifyonetheorythatlaunchedEarthsystemscienceasamajorsubjectofthe21stcenturyitwouldbeCLAW.Thehypothesistakesitsnamefrom

Charlson,Lovelock(ofGaiafame),AndreaeandWarren,whose1987papersuggestedthatphytoplanktoncouldhelpregulateEarth’sclimate.Phytoplankton–single-celledalgae–emitagascalleddimethylsulphide(DMS)andtheauthorssuggestedthatDMSformstinynewparticles(oraerosol)intheatmospherewhichcontrolsclimatebyaffectingtheamountofsunlightreflectedbyclouds.NewaerosolparticlesfromDMShavethepotentialtoincreasecloudreflectivitybecausetheyareeffectivecloudcondensationnuclei(CCN)–theycanincreasethenumberofclouddrops.

ButconfirmingCLAWasanimportantclimateregulationmechanismhasprovedincrediblychallenging.About1800articleshavebeenwrittenonthesubject,involvingstudiesofplanktonbiology,gaschemistry,aerosolphysics,oceanography,shipcruisesandsatelliteobservations,computermodelstudiesandlong-termmeasurements.

MeasurementstakenatCapeGrimattheremotenorth-westernpointofTasmaniaappearedtoprovidecompellingsupportforthehypothesis.TheyshowedthataerosolandDMSvariedinunisonovertheseasonsastheabundanceofplanktonvaried.WealsoknowthatDMSreactsintheairtoformsulphuricacidvapour,whichcanrapidlyjoinupwithwatermoleculestomakenewaerosol.Butwhatwedidn’tknowwashowsensitiveglobalCCNaretochangesintheemissionofDMSfromtheocean.

Totestthehypothesisweusedanewandadvancedglobalmodelofaerosols.Abitlikeaweatherforecastmodel,itusesrapidlychangingweatherpatternstotransportaerosolsaroundtheworlduntiltheyareremovedbyrainafewdays,weeks,orevenmonthslater.Ourchallengewastosimulatetheaerosolfromphytoplanktoningreatdetailonaglobalscale.

WhenweputseasonallyvaryingemissionsofDMSintothemodelitpredictedanalmostidenticalseasonalcycleofaerosoltothatobservedatCapeGrim.CCNconcentrationswereabout60percentlowerinthewinter,whenseawaterDMSconcentrationswereaboutfivetimeslowerthaninsummer.

DoesthismeanwehadconfirmedCLAW?Notexactly:wehadsimulatedrealitybutnottestedthehypothesis.SowetriedturningofftheDMSemissions.WeexpectedsummertimeCCNtofallbelowthewintertimelevels,becauselowersummerwindspeedsmeantfewerparticleswouldbecomingfromseaspray.Butwegotsurprisingresults:inmanypartsofthesouthernhemispheresummertimeCCNremainedhigherthaninwintertime.ItturnedoutthatevenwithoutDMSlotsofaerosolwascomingfromdistantcontinentalregions–fromvolcanicandpollutantsulphursources–andthisaerosolalsopeakedinthesummer.

ThemodelwastellingusthatinthemodernatmosphereCCNarenotassensitivetochangesinDMSastheseasonalvariationatCapeGrimwouldsuggest.Andwhenwetestedtheeffectof

higherDMSproductioninawarmerclimatewefoundonlyafractionofapercentchangeinCCNinthesouthernhemisphere–notenoughtoaffectclimatesignificantly.

BeforewedismissCLAWit’sworthrememberingthatclimatechangethrowsupsurprises,andwemayyetseelargechangesinphytoplanktonthatare

notpredictedbycurrentmodels.Forexample,disappearingArcticsummersea-icewillcreatenewDMSsources,whichcouldbepivotalinaregionwhereotheraerosolsourcesareextremelysmall.

Withallthisinterestinparticlesproducedindirectlybyphytoplankton,youmightbewonderingwhywe’renotpayingmoreattentiontotheaerosolwecanactuallyseecomingofftheoceansasseaspray–doesn’tthishaveamoredirecteffectonclimatechange?Theanswerwouldbeyes,iftheamountofsea-sprayaerosolchangedovertimeandcausedcloudstogetbrighterordimmer.Asanyonewhohasstoodonawindybeachwillknow,themostobviousthingthatcontrolsseasprayisthewindspeed.

Toworkouthowbiganeffectwindspeedmighthavewelookedatdatafromthesouthernhemisphere,wherewindspeedhasincreasedbyabout7percentacrossawidebeltofthe

If you wanted to identify one theory that launched Earth system science as a major subject of the 21st century it would be CLAW.

southernoceanssincethe1980s.Whenwefedthesewindsintoouraerosolmodelwecalculateda22percentincreaseinCCNbetween50and65°S,andtheclimate-coolingeffectofthisextraseasprayturnedouttobefarlargerthananythingwecalculatedduetoDMS.Infact,thecoolingseemstobelargeenoughtocanceloutmuchofthewarmingcausedbyrisingCO2sincethe1980s,atleastoverlargepartsofthesouthernhemisphere.WenowthinkthatevensmallchangesinwindspeedaroundtheworldwillbeamoreimportantclimateregulatorthanCLAW.

Butbiologyisnotdoneyet.Anothermajorshiftinourunderstandinginthelastfewyearsisthediscoverythatalargefractionoftheseasprayisnotjustsalt,butalsomarinelifeandtheorganicsubstancesitproduces.Ateaspoonofsurfaceseawatertypicallycontainsathousandmicroscopicanimals,ahundredthousandmicroscopicplants,amillionbacteriaandmorethanabillionviruses.Thelevelofbiologicalactivityinwatercanbemeasuredbytheamountofchlorophyllpresent–morechlorophyllindicatesgreateractivity.Byusingsatellitemeasurementsofoceanchlorophyll,andglobalmodels,weworkedoutthattheworld’soceansemitawhopping8milliontonsoforganicmaterialperyear,comparabletothemassoforganicmaterialemittedintotheatmospherefromfossil-fuelburning.Insummer,whenthebiologyismostactive,organicmaterialcanbemoreimportantthansaltinformingthesmallCCNparticlesthatmostaffectclouds.

Organicsea-sprayparticlesareanewlydiscoveredandverydirectlinkbetweenmarinelifeandourclimate,andawholenewareaofmarineresearchisnowunderwaytopindowntheclimateeffects–theessenceofCLAWliveson.

Sothenexttimeyougodowntothesea,keepinmindthatwindydaysatthebeachmaybehelpingtokeepourclimatecool.

MoreiNforMATioNProfessor Ken Carslaw, Dr Dominick Spracklen and PhD student Matthew Woodhouse work at the Institute for Climate and Atmospheric Science in the School of Earth and Environment at the University of Leeds. More information about their global modelling research is available at www.researchpages.net/glomap.

Much of the work described above was supported through the UK Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS), a NERC research programme that has involved more than 100 researchers from around 20 different laboratories. www.solas-int.org.

FROM THE SEA TO THE SKY


L’Aquila earthquake: one year onWhen a powerful earthquake struck Italy’s Abruzzo region last year, UK Earth scientists were on the scene quickly to help authorities understand what had happened. Richard Phillips describes what they found.

AP/Press Association Images

Max W

ilkinsonRichard Phillips


L’AqUILA EARTHqUAKE: ONE YEAR ON

At3.32amon6April2009,amagnitudeMw6.3earthquakehitthemountainousregionofAbruzzoincentralItaly.Anevent

thatlastedjustafewsecondswouldresultinafinaldeathtollof307,with70,000peoplemadehomelessandmuchofthehistoricmedievaltownofL’Aquilaandthevillagesarounditdamagedordestroyed.Ineconomicterms,thisbriefeventcostItalyanestimated€4billion.

Unfortunately,thepeopleofItalyarenostrangerstosuchnaturalhazards;sincethemid-14thcenturyitisestimatedthattherehavebeenaround300,000earthquake-relatedfatalitiesthroughoutthecountry.InAbruzzoalone,earthquakeshavekilledupto40,000peoplesinceaneventin1703thatrazedL’Aquila,followedbyadevastatingquakenearAvezzanoin1915.Despitethesedistressingfigures,largemagnitudeearthquakesarerelativelyinfrequentinItaly.Giventhis,whatcanItaliancivilauthoritiesdotoreducethelong-termearthquakeriskintheircountry,andhowcantheylimitthecostofreconstruction?Toanswerthesequestions,itisusefultoexaminewhathappenedinL’Aquila.

Initial responseFivehoursafterthemainearthquake,agroupofUKscientistsbeganpreparingtoheadouttoAbruzzo.InclosecollaborationwithItalianscientists,weaimedtohelpfindthegroundruptureproducedbytheearthquakeandtomonitoranysubsequentchangeingrounddeformationusingadvancedlasertechnology.

Coordinationofthereliefeffortwasimpressiveandrapid.Withinashorttime,theauthoritieshaddeployed12,000rescueandsupportworkersfromacrossthecountry.‘Tentcities’surroundedthemaintowns,emergencyplansfortheconstructionofnewhousingwererapidlyinitiatedand,acrosstheregion,hundredsofgeologistsandgeophysicistswereworkingtoanswerthequestionsofwhat,whyandwherenext?

Watchingsuchawfuleventsontelevisiondoesnotquiteprepareonefortherealityofthesituation.Althoughthelocalpeopleweregenerallycalmandwerecopingasbesttheycould,thetensionanddistresswerepalpable.IwasparticularlystruckbyaquestionaskedofmebyamemberofstaffatahotelwhereIhadpreviouslystayed.Seeingusatwork,sheapproachedandaskeddirectly,‘Whydidn’tyoutellus?WhyL’Aquila?’Thesewereimportantquestions,andonesIcouldnoteasilyanswer.Itmaybethatpreciseearthquakepredictionissimplynotpossible,

butwhydidtheearthquakehappenhereandhowcanwemitigatetheeffectsoffutureevents?

Why L’Aquila?TheAbruzzoregionliesatthecentreoftheApenninemountainchain.ThisjaggedspineofItalyrunsfromthenorthwestdowntoCalabriainthesouth.TheApenninesexistduetothecontinuedcollisionbetweentheEurasianandAfricanplates.Overthelasttwomillionyearsthough,theApennineshaveessentiallybeenpulledapartbyasetofcomplextectonicevents.Theongoingresultisasystemofactivefaultsrunningparalleltotherangeandwhichareresponsiblefortheregion’searthquakes.Manyoftheseeventsarerecordedinprominentchangesinlandlevelalongfaultlines.Theselinearfeatures,calledbedrockscarps,arecommonaroundL’Aquilasignifyingalonghistoryofseismicactivity:sincethe14thcentury,thetownhasbeenhitbyeightmajorevents.Theworstoccurredin1703,killinganestimated5000peopleanddevastatingthetown.

Fewscientistsweresurprisedbysuchaneventinthisregion,butsomewerepuzzledbythelocationofthegroundrupture.Noneoftheobviousbedrockscarpsappearedtohavebeenaffectedandmuchattentionwasplacedonscouringlocalfaultsforthesignatureofafreshearthquakerupture.WiththehelpofsatelliteremotesensingprovidedbytheUniversityofOxfordandtheIstitutoNazionalediGeofisicaeVulcanologia,attentionreturnedtoafaultnearthevillageofPaganica,eastofL’Aquila.

Initially,surfaceevidenceoftheearthquakewaslimitedtogroundcracks,sometimesjustafewmillimetreswidethatsnakedthroughthevillageandacrossfields.Followingmoredetailedinvestigation,geologistsdiscoveredgroundrupturesdisplayingupto15cmofverticalmovement.Despitethelackofdramaticsurfacerupture,thisfaultwasresponsibleforthedevastationinsurroundingtowns,ofwhichL’AquilaandthevillageofOnnafaredtheworst.

One year onWhatbecameevidentfollowingtheL’Aquilaeventisthattheearthquakerupturedalmostentirelythroughgravel-richsoil.ThenearbyvillageofOnnawasworsthitbecauseitisbuiltonthissoftsubsurface,whichamplifiesgroundshaking.Usinglasertechnology,termedLiDAR,orLightDetectionandRanging,theUKconsortiumwasabletoperiodicallymonitortherupture’sdevelopmentoverthefourmonthsfollowingtheevent.Following

formationoftheoriginalrupture,afurther1.5cmofverticalmovementwasrecordedover124daysaftertheearthquake.

Thissmalldisplacementmayseeminconsequential,butitisenoughtoconcernengineers.Thiswasexemplifiedbythedecisiontorecommissionaruptured40-inch-diameterhigh-pressurewaterpipe,supplyingdrinkingwatertotheL’Aquilavalley.Followingtheearthquake,continuedmovementacrossthefaultresultedinthepiperupturingforasecondtime.Sucheventsclearlyhampereffortstomitigatefurtherdamageduringanyreliefeffort.

Awayfromthefault,however,reconstructioncouldcontinueunhinderedbycontinuedgroundmovement.Withineightmonths,4500newdwellingshadbeendesigned,plannedandbuiltoneightsites,providingaccommodationfor12,000displacedpeople.Eachdwellingfollowedstrictbuildingregulationstoensurethattheywouldwithstandsimilarearthquakes.Theseregulationswerestronglyenforcedbecause,despiteabuildingcodeinplacesince1981,newbuildingssuchasthemainhospitalandauniversityhousingblockhadbeenseverelydamagedduringtheearthquake.

Shouldwerelyonasimilarpost-eventreliefeffortnexttime?Clearly,theanswerhastobeno;theeconomicandhumancostistoohighandcouldbesignificantlyreduced.Governmentsneedtoensurethattheyemploydetailedlong-termseismichazardassessmentsbeforedefining,andenforcing,strictbuildingcodes.Andforthosewholiveintectonicallyactiveregionsacomprehensiveeducationprogrammeisneeded,tomakesurethatthepublicisawareandpreparedforfuturehazards.SuchassessmentandmitigationplansarealreadyinplaceinItaly,JapanandCalifornia;weshouldensurethatpoorercountries,suchashaiti,receivethesupporttheyneedtodothesame.

MoreiNforMATioNDr Richard Phillips is a lecturer in the Institute of Geophysics and Tectonics, School of Earth and Environment, at the University of Leeds. Email: [email protected]

The UK LiDAR survey team included: Dr Ken McCaffrey and Max Wilkinson (University of Durham), Dr Gerald Roberts (UCL-Birkbeck), Professor Patience Cowie (University of Edinburgh) and Dr Richard Phillips (University of Leeds).

furTherreADiNGWalters, RJ, Elliott, JR, D’Agostino, N, England, PC, Hunstad, I, Jackson, JA, Parsons, B, Phillips, RJ, Roberts, G (2009). The 2009 L’Aquila earthquake (central Italy): a source mechanism and implications for seismic hazard, Geophysical Research Letters, 36, doi:10.1029/2009GL039337.


Gases to gasesIsoprene produced at sea has profound effects on our climate and on ocean ecosystems, but until recently it’s received limited attention. Dan Exton explains how this neglected gas is at last getting the notice it deserves.

Photolibrary.com


GASES TO GASES

Forhundredsofmillionsofyears,photosynthesis–theprocessplantsusetoturnsunlightintoenergy–hasplayedakeyroleincontrollingourclimate.In

fact,thegasesexchangedwiththeatmosphereduringphotosynthesisarefundamentalforlifeonEarth.Theevolutionoflifewasstimulatedbyabuild-upofoxygenintheatmosphere,whiletheremovalofcarbondioxidehelpedmaintaintheplanet’stemperature.Oftenoverlooked,though,arethenumeroustracegasesinvolvedinthisprocess,whichhavemajoreffectsonclimatebecauseoftheirreactivity.

Overthepastfewdecades,interestinthesetracegaseshasgrownenormously,withscientistsinvestigatingtherolestheyplayinregulatingclimate,andthebenefitsorganismsgetfromproducingthem.Thisinterestspansbothterrestrialandmarinesciences.

Terrestrialscientistshavefocusedonthehydrocarbonisoprene,whichisthemostabundanttracegasproducedbyvascularplantsliketreesandgrasses.Emissionsofisoprenetotheatmosphereareroughlyequaltothoseofmethane,apowerfulgreenhousegas(seepp28-9).Oceanscientistshavefocusedonthesulphurcompounddimethylsulphide(DMS),themainsourcesofwhicharemarineplanktonandseaweeds.

ButwhileDMSisalmostexclusivelyproducedinthemarineenvironment,isopreneismadebymanyorganismsthatphotosynthesisebothonlandandatsea.Yetfewstudieshavebeencarriedoutonisopreneintheworld’soceans.

Isopreneisparticularlyimportantbecauseithassignificanteffectsontheclimate.Beinghighlyvolatile,itoxidisesrapidlyintheatmosphere.Itspresenceleadstoanincreaseofozoneintheloweratmosphere,whichisitselfagreenhousegasandresponsibleformanyhealthcomplaintsinhumans.Isoprenealsoincreasesthelifetimeofmethaneintheatmosphere,prolongingitsdamaginggreenhouseeffect.

Soit’simportantthatwedomoreresearch,tounderstandhowisopreneisproduced,theroleitplaysinmarinecommunitiesandecosystems,andhowenvironmentalchangewillaffectitsfutureproduction.

Taking the heat?Untilrecently,wethoughtsomeofisoprene’sharmfuleffectswouldbenegatedbyitsabilitytostimulatetheformationofaerosols,whichcausecloudstoform(seepp20-21).Thepresenceofisoprenewasthoughttohelpreflectthesun’srayswithalayerofcloud,coolingtheplanetandreducingglobalwarming.Butnewevidencesuggeststheopposite–thatisoprene

actuallyinhibitscloudformationandsowillonlymakeglobalwarmingmoresevere.Ifthisisright,theeffectofisopreneintheatmosphereabovetheoceanscouldworkagainstthatofDMS,whichisknowntodrivecloudformation.

Anotherangletotheisoprenestoryisthebenefitstotheorganismsthatproduceit.Essentially,makingisoprenestrengthenscellmembranesandincreasestheirthermotolerance–itprotectsthemfromdamagecausedbyhightemperatures.Theeffectcanbesodramaticthatinsomecasesisoprenehasbeenshowntoincreasethemaximumtemperatureplantscantolerateby7.5°C.Butthisprotectiverolecouldmeanisopreneproductionincreasesastheplanetwarmsinthefuture.Sonotonlycouldisopreneberesponsibleforanimportantproportionofatmosphericchange,itcouldalsodriveapositivefeedbackpattern–aviciouscircleofhighertemperaturescausingmoreisopreneemissions,whichinturnhelpdrivetemperaturesevenhigher.

Wearealsolookingatisoprene’sroleasanantioxidant,protectingplantcellsfromdamagebyharmfulmoleculesincludingozoneandhydrogenperoxide.Althoughthisisoftenthoughttobeanevolutionarycoincidence,whichcameaboutasaside-effectofdevelopingthermotolerance,thebenefitstoisoprene-producingorganismsarestillimportant.Isoprenehasalsobeenshowntoactasasignaltootherlivingthings,forexampledeterringherbivoresfromfeedingoncertainisoprene-producingplants.

Whatlittleworkhasbeendoneonisopreneinmarinesystemshasbeenlargelyrestrictedtosourcesintheopenocean,whichdominateintermsofareabutnotinratesofproductivity.Yetemergingevidencesuggeststhatisopreneplaysamajorroleintheworld’soceans,particularlyincoastalhabitats.

By the sea shore Theseimportantecosystemscouldrepresentavastlyunderestimatedsourceofisoprene.AttheUniversityofEssex,wehavebeenimprovingourknowledgeofisopreneinmarinecoastalsystems,wherephotosyntheticactivityisgenerallymuchhigherthanintheopenoceanduetoahigherbiomassofmarineorganisms.AspartofaNERC-fundedproject,weareinvestigatingtheisopreneproductionratesofimportanthabitatslikesaltmarshesanddifferentorganismslikeseaweeds,seagrassesandcorals–inmanycasesforthefirsttime.Usingspeciallydesignedgas-tightequipmentwearelookingathowtheseorganismsrespondtoarangeofconditions,particularlyvaryingtemperatureandlight,andbeginningtounderstandhowtheenvironment

controlsisopreneproductionandthedifferentamountsorganismsproduce.

Coastsandestuariesoftenhaveawiderangeofenvironmentalconditionsinarelativelysmallspaceand,particularlyintemperatezones,thesecanchangesignificantlybydayandbyseason.Thismeanstheycanprovidevaluableinformationabouthowecosystemsmayrespondtoenvironmentalchange,andinturnhowtheproductionofisoprenemaychangeunderfutureclimates.Tomakethemostofthiswe’recarryingoutayear-longfieldsurveytomonitorisopreneproductionalongaUKestuary.ThisbuildsonarecentEssex-ledstudywhichfoundthatdiversemicrobeslivingthereconsumedsignificantamountofisoprenemakingitanimportantenergysourceforcoastalbacteria.Thisalsosuggeststhatalgaeareactuallyproducingfarmoreisoprenethanwearedetectingintheatmosphere.

Alongsidethesestudies,arecenttechnologicaladvanceisenablingustoanalyseisopreneproductionfrommarinesourcesinrealtime.Todothis,NERC-fundedscientistsatEssexhavemodifiedasensornormallyusedinatmosphericandterrestrialstudies.Itusesachemicalreactiontomeasureisoprene,soitcantakemarinemeasurementsofthegastentimesasecond.Thisimportantdevelopmentpromisestoallowresearchtobecarriedoutinmuchgreaterdetailandwillhelpaddressmanyunansweredquestions.

Alongsideexistingresearchintoisopreneinmarinesystems,projectsliketheseshouldsoongiveusamuchbetterunderstandingoftheconnectionbetweenisopreneproductionandenvironmentalchange.ThiswillbeacriticalstepinevaluatingtheroleandpotentialfeedbackofisopreneinfutureclimatesonplanetEarth.ItwillalsohelpusjudgehowbiganimpactmarineisoprenecouldhaverelativetobothterrestrialisopreneandmarineDMS.Whenweknowallthiswe’llbemuchbetterplacedtounderstandthebalanceofpowerofthesetracegasesacrosstheplanetasawhole.

MoreiNforMATioNDan Exton is a PhD student at the University of Essex’s Algal Research Group. Email: [email protected]

furTherreADiNGAcuña Alvarez, L, Exton, DA, Suggett, DJ, Timmis, KN and McGenity, TJ (2009). Characterization of marine isoprene-degrading communities. Environmental Microbiology 11, 3280-3291.

Exton, DA, Smith, DJ, McGenity, TJ, Steinke, M, Hills, A and Suggett, DJ. (In press). Application of a Fast Isoprene Sensor (FIS) for measuring isoprene production from marine samples. Limnology and Oceanography: Methods


Scotlandhasbeensubjecttorepeatedglaciationsoverthepast2millionyears–theevidenceisallaroundinthewildandruggedlandscape,the

ice-carvedglensanddramaticsealochs.YetthelandscapebeneaththeseaisnowalsobeginningtorevealfurthercluesastotheextentanddynamicsoftheBritishIceSheet.

Wearere-evaluatingtheextentandeffectofthelastnorthernicecaptohaveoccurredintheUK.TheicecapexistedinScotlandduringacoldperiodtermedtheYoungerDryas.Thisrapidcoolingattheendofthelastglaciationmayhavebeencausedbyatemporaryslowingofoceancirculation,orevenperhapsbyameteoriteimpactinNorthAmericathatledtoadecreaseinglobaltemperature.Suchshort,coldclimaticeventsarecalledstadials;theYoungerDryasstadialoccurredbetween12,800and11,500yearsago–veryrecently,geologicallyspeaking!

DuringthistimealargeicecapcoveredmuchofwesternScotland.Modellingstudiesandonshorefieldworkintheareahaveestablishedtheassumedlimitsoftheicecap.Andwiththedevelopmentofmoreadvancedgeophysicaltechniques,wearenowexaminingtheoffshoremarinerecord.Studyingthemarineenvironmenthasmanyadvantages;themainoneisitsabilitytopreserveancientclimates,bothintheshapeoftheseabedandinthelayersofsedimentsthataccumulatethere.

MyPhDproject,fundedbyNERCandbasedattheScottishAssociationforMarineScience(SAMS)inOban,investigatestheoffshorerecordsofScotland’slasticecap.Thisinvolvesexaminingsedimentrecords,andmappingtheunderwaterlimitsoftheice

Hunting the last ice sheetThe seabed around Scotland is giving up the secrets of the last ice age. Kate McIntyre and John Howe explain how.

capbycollectingandinterpretingmultibeamsonardata.Multibeamsystemsusemultiplebeamsofsounddirectedattheseabedtobuildanaccurateacousticmapoftheunderwaterlandscape.WeusedSAMS’newResonSeabatmultibeamsystemtocarryoutthemappingfromresearchvesselR/V Calanus.

Fjords–betterknowninScotlandassealochs–arecarvedintothelandscapebyglaciers,andactasoutletconduitsforiceandwaterdrainingseawardfromtheirmainicecaps.Thismeanstheyoftenpreservemoraines–ridgesofgravel,sandandrockleftbehindastheglacierretreats–withintheirbasins.Wecanidentifythesemorainesontheseabedbymultibeammapping.

LochLinnheisthesouth-westerlyendoftheGreatGlenFaultwhichcutsacrossScotlandtotheMorayFirthontheeastcoast.Duringpasticeages,thelochwasamajoroutletforglaciersfromtheRannochMoorarea,whereicebuiltupintheinitialstagesofdevelopment.OurrecentmultibeamsurveyofLochLinnhediscoveredmorainesthatsuggestthattheYoungerDryasglaciermayhaveadvancedsignificantlyfurtherdownthelochthanwaspreviouslythoughtfromonshorefieldmappingevidence.

Furtherevidenceforamoresoutherlylimitiscontainedinsedimentsfromtheseafloor.Wehavefoundveryheavilycompactedsedimentinacoresampletakenmuchfurthersouththanthemappedonshorelimitoftheglacier.Theonlywayforthesedimenttobecomesocompactedisbythecrushingweightoficepassingoverthetopofit,sotheglaciermusthavereachedatleastasfarsouthasthepositionofthiscore.

Theglacierseemstohaveretreatedinseveralstages,eachbeingmarkedbyarecessionalmorainedepositedatthefrontoftheglacierwhenitpausedinitslongretreat,orevenreturnedbrieflytoadvancing.ThissteppedpatternofretreathasalsobeenobservedintheSummerIslesregioninnorth-westScotland.here,amultibeamsurveybytheBritishGeologicalSurveyin2005revealedasimilarpatternofrecessionalmorainespreservedontheseabed.

Mapping beneath the wavesAswellastheLochLinnheresearch,myfieldworkhasinvolvedsea-floormappingintheSoundofSleatandfurtherouttosea,westoftheIsleofMuck.Scotland’swestcoast,withitsmanylochs,glens,mountainsandislands,iswellknownforitsoutstandingnaturalbeauty,andithasbeenahugeprivilegetohavetheopportunitytocarryoutmyfieldworkinthisarea.TheLinnhesurveywascarriedoutin

Rannach Moor.

Several moraines associated with an ice-scoured rocky outcrop.


February,butwewereblessedwithbeautifulweatherandcalmconditions.TheCalanusmadeherwayupanddownthelochatasedatesurveyingspeedofthreetofourknots,offeringalternateviewsofthesnowymountainpeaksofGlencoetothenorth-eastandtheraisedshorelinesaroundtheFirthofLorneandtheislandofLismoretothesouth-west.

Meanwhilethemultibeamtransducersbeneaththeboatwerepingingaway,pickingupthereturningechoesofsoundandtranslatingthemintoabeautifulseafloorimageonouronboardcomputerscreen.Itwasfascinatingtowatchasfeaturessuchasmorainesandice-scouredrockyoutcropsappearedonthescreen,revealingahithertounseencomplexunderwaterlandscape.LaterintheSoundofSleat,weweren’tsolucky–astormblewupinthemiddleofourfirstday’ssurveyandwewereforcedtobattendownthehatchesandmakeourwaybacktoMallaigharbourthroughthemountainouswaves.Fortunatelywehadalready

mappedalargemoraineoutsidethemouthofLochhourn,demonstratingthat,asinLochLinnhe,theicehereextendedfurtherseawardsthantheonshoreevidencesuggests.

Theragingweathertrappedusintheharbourfortherestoftheweek,butthefollowingMondaydawnedblueandsunny.WesteamedoutpasttheislandsofRum,EiggandMuckandsurveyedtheMuckDeep–along,narrowdepressionintheseabedcarvedoutduringearliericeages,whenicesheetsmuchbiggerthantheYoungerDryasicecapcoveredvastareasofNorthAmericaandEurope.At320metres,theMuckDeepisoneofthedeepestpointsontheUKcontinentalshelf(theareaofshallowseasurroundingland,whichrarelyexceeds200metresindepth).Thesurveywascarriedoutoverthreedaysofsilkyseasanduttertranquillity;wewereevenbrieflyjoinedbyapodofbottlenosedolphinswhichswamaroundandunderneaththebowoftheboat,muchtothedelightofcrewandscientistsalike.

HUNTING THE LAST ICE SHEET

Atpresentthereisconsiderabledebateovertheextentandtimingoftheshort-livedYoungerDryasevent.Thestadialinterruptedaperiodofwarmingattheendofthelasticeage,plungingthenorthernhemispherebackintoglacialclimateconditions.ThebigquestionthatisvexingglaciologistsiswhetherornottheYoungerDryasicecapgrewfromnothingafterthemainicesheetdisintegrated.Numericalmodelspredictthatitcouldhavedone–butthisdisagreeswiththerecentoffshoreevidence,whichshowsthattheglensandsealochsofwesternScotlandwerefilledwithglacierstosomeextentevenduringthewarmperiodbeforethestadial.

Questionslikethesemightseemalittleesotericandonlyofinteresttoacademics,butmodernandrecentclimatemodelsarebeingusedtopredictclimaticchangeovershorttimescalesmeasuredindecades.Totestthesemodels,itisvitalthatwehaveasmuchinformationaspossibleabouthowclimatehaschangedinthepastandhowthesechangeshaveaffectedourenvironment.Ifthemodelscanaccurately‘predict’climatechangethatweknowhasalreadyoccurred,thenwecanhavemuchmoreconfidenceinpredictionstheymakeaboutthefuture.Studieslikeoursprovidetheevidenceforpastclimatechange,againstwhichice-sheetandclimatemodelscanbetested.

MoreiNforMATioNKate McIntyre is a PhD student and Dr John Howe a lecturer in Marine Geology at the Scottish Association for Marine Science. Email: [email protected] or [email protected]

David Woods/istockphoto.com

Recessional moraines preserved on the seabed of Loch Linnhe.


Wetlands are the largest source of methane but until now we have not understood how changes in these natural emissions affect concentrations of methane in the atmosphere. Paul Palmer and Anthony Bloom describe how they used satellite observations to reveal new insights into this greenhouse gas.

Bugs, bogs and gravity: a new look at methane

Methaneisthepoorcousinofcarbondioxide(CO2),oftenmentionedinpassingwhenthesubjectofgreenhousegasesis

raisedbutrarelythefocusofdiscussion.Butshoulditbe?Sure,thereisroughly200timesmoreCO2intheatmospherethanmethane,largelybecausemethaneisremovedfromtheatmosphererelativelyquickly,withan‘atmosphericlifetime’of9years.Butasagreenhousegasmethaneisabout25timesmorepotentthanthesameamountofCO2.Calculationsfromthe2007IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)reportshowedthatovera20-yearperiodmethanehasasmuchimpactontheclimateasCO2.Theoxidationofmethaneintheatmospherealsohelpstodeterminetheconcentrationofozoneinthelowerlevelsoftheatmosphere,somethanehasasignificantindirecteffectonclimatetoo.Elevatedlevelsofozonearelinkedtohumanrespiratoryillnessesandfallingagriculturalcropyields,bothofwhichhavemeasurableeconomicconsequences.Soitisclearthatcontrollingemissionsofmethaneisimportantformitigatingglobalwarmingintheshorttermandaspartofamorecomprehensivestrategytoreducegreenhousegasemissions.

Between1984and2009,theamountofmethaneintheatmosphereincreasedby10percent–165partsperbillion(ppb).Whilethisincreasewasfairlysteadyupuntil2006,

in2007methaneconcentrationsstartedtorisealmostsimultaneouslyatalllatitudes.Whatchangedoverthisperiod?Scientistshavesuggestedanumberofhypothesesbasedonsparsesurfacedatabutdidnotreachanyfirmconclusions.

Ourprojectwentintospaceforacloserlook.WeusedmethaneobservationsfromtheSCIAMAChYsatelliteinstrument,whichmeasureshowsolarradiationisabsorbedbytheatmosphere.Theseobservationscontaininformationabouttheprocessesthatreleaseanddestroymethaneandaboutthewindsthatblowthegasaroundtheatmosphere.Butthereisnothinginthesatellitemeasurementthatcantelluswhichsurfaceprocessescausetheatmosphericvariations.Othergasesshowednoevidenceoflargechangesintheman-madesourcesofmethaneorinthesurfaceoratmosphericprocessesthatconsumemethane(knownas‘sinks’).Thisledustostudychangesinthewetlandsourceofmethane.

Wetlands–bogs,fensandswampsforexample–arethesinglelargestsourceofmethane.Methaneisproducedbymicrobesunderanaerobicconditionsandisconsumedbyothermicrobesunderaerobicconditions–awonderfulexampleofhowsomeofthesmallestcomponentsoftheclimatesystemhelpdeterminetheevolutionoftheEarth’sclimate.Thenetamountofmethaneemittedbywetlandsisdeterminedbytemperature,

Ashley Cooper/Global W

arming Im

ages

A peat bog on Fairfield in the Lake District National Park.


BUGS, BOGS AND GRAVITY

waterlevelandorganiccarboncontent,withtemperaturegenerallyplayingalargerroleathighlatitudesandwateravailabilitybeingmoresignificantatlowlatitudes.Weusedoutputfromanumericalweathermodelforsurfacetemperaturechanges,butforchangesinwaterlevelweonceagainlookedtospace,thistimetheGRACEsatellites.Thesecanmeasureverysmallchangesingravity,someofwhichcanberelatedtochangesingroundwaterlevel.

Ournextstepwastodevelopamathematicalmodeltoinvestigatehowatmosphericmethanechangedwithtemperatureandwaterlevelsbetween2003and2005,combiningtheweathermodeloutputandsatellitedatawithinformationonglobalwetlandemissionsfromtheIPCCreport.Whenwetestedourmodelovertheperiod2003-2007wefoundthatglobalwetlandemissionsincreasedsteadily,peakingin2007.Thiswasmainlyduetoincreasedemissionsatmid-highnorthernlatitudes,withthelargeincreasein2007duetowarmingathighnorthernlatitudesandincreasedprecipitationinthetropics–aresultthatagreedwiththeanalysisofthesurfacedata.

MoreiNforMATioNPaul Palmer is Professor of quantitative Earth Observation in the School of GeoSciences at the University of Edinburgh. Email: [email protected] Bloom is a NERC PhD student. Email: [email protected] NERC-funded MethaneNet project promotes integrative research activities. www.methanenet.org.uk

furTherreADiNGBloom, AA, Palmer, PI, Fraser, A, Reay, DS and Frankenberg, C (2010) Large-scale controls of methanogenesis inferred from methane and gravity spaceborne data. Science 327, 322-5.

So,whatnext?Ouranalysishasshownthatevenmoderatechangesinwarmingathighnorthernlatitudesorprecipitationatlowlatitudescanleadtoasubstantialreleaseofmethaneintotheatmosphere.Other(unpublished)worksuggeststhatcurrentlyemissionsofmethanefromwetlandsarenotgrowing,whichmeanswehavenotyetreachedthewarmingnecessaryforaself-sustainedrunawayincreaseinemissions.Reachingthislevelofwarmingwouldeventuallyresultinthereleaseofahugeamountofmethanecurrentlytrappedunderneaththepermafrost.

howclosewearetothispoint,orindeedwhetheritexists,isuncertain.Butthecombinationofsurfaceandsatellite

measurementshasbeenimportant.Detailedsurfacedatacanbeusedtoadvanceourunderstandingofhowindividualwetlandsrespondtochangesinclimate.Satellitedatacanbeusedtorelatethisinformationtotheglobe,effectivelymappingtheselargevulnerableregionstohelpdevelopandmonitorland-usepolicy.Suchpolicyliesatthecentreofmanagingwetlandemissionsbutthereiscurrentlynoconsensusastowhataneffectivelong-termstrategywouldbe.Whatisclearisthatintegratedresearchactivitieslikethesearefundamentaltothedevelopmentofsensibleapproachestolimitingclimatechangecausedbymethane.

Nigel Haw

tin


Adapting to a changing climateThe British Geological Survey’s climate change programme is just two years old, but is already tackling some of the toughest questions to emerge from climate science. Mike Ellis explains how.

Whatwilltheclimate–andindeedtheweather–belikeinthefuture?Andhowwillourenvironment,allofit–urban,

rural,chemical,physical,biological–respondtoclimatechange?Thesetwofundamentalquestionsarestillnotresolved,buttheanswerswilllieattheveryheartofanystrategyforadaptingtoclimatechange.

Palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmentsFutureclimatesaredifficulttopredict.Notonlyisthesystemchaoticbutwedon’tyetknowallthefeedbacksthataffectit.Feedbackmeansaknock-oneffect–whentheimpactofonechangeeffectivelyincreases,ordecreases,theeffectoffurtherchange.TherapidlossofArcticicein2007,andfasterriseinsealevelsthanmodelshadpredicted,showthatourpoorunderstandingofthesefeedbackslimitsourabilitytoseeintothefuture.

Buttolookaheaditissometimesusefulfirsttolookback.OurgeologicalpastoffersauniqueinsightintohowtheEarthrespondstodifferentconditions.Oceanandlake-sedimentcoresarebeginningtoreveal,instartlingdetail,howtheEarthsystemrespondstorelativelysuddenchanges.Forexample,closeto55millionyearsago,anamountofcarbon

dioxide(CO2)roughlyequivalenttoourcurrentknownreservesoffossilfuelwasinjectedintotheatmosphere–amassivechangebyanystandards.Incredibly,someofthecoresBGSislookingathavesuchhighresolutionthatscientistscaninterprethowtheEarthrespondedalmostyearbyyear.

OneofthemostsignificantclimatechangesinEarth’shistoryoccurredabout450,000yearsago(theso-calledmid-Pleistocenetransition),whenclimatecycleschangedfromaround40,000to100,000years.Nooneknowswhy,anduntilweunderstandthesesortsofchangeswecan’thopetopredictfutureclimatewithanycertainty.Tofindanswers,BGSscientistsaretakingpartinthefirsteverexpeditiontotheBeringSeabytheIntegratedOceanDrillingProgram(IODP).ThisletsususeoceansedimentcorestocomparechangesintheArcticoceanenvironmenttoglobalclimatechange,totacklequestionsofhowtheEarthsystemworksasasystem.InformationinthecoreswillshowushowcloselyEarth’senvironmentalresponseislinkedtochangesinclimate,andhowthesystemvariesduringandaftertheserapidchanges.

ThelasttimetheEarth’satmospherehadaCO2concentrationof365-415partspermillionwasduringthePliocene,around3millionyearsago,andtheplanetwasonaverage3-4°Cwarmer(probablyalotmoreinthenorthernhemisphere).Ifman-madeemissionscontinueatpresentrateswewillreachthehigheroftheselevelssoonafter2020.Sowehavetofindout–andsoon–howtheenvironmentdifferedwhenaverageglobaltemperaturewasthishigh.Onewayofdoingthisisbylookingatsea-surfacetemperaturesinthePliocene.BGSisapartnerintheUSGSPRISMclimateproject,onegoalofwhichistofindcluestosea-surfacetemperaturesintheratioofheavytolightoxygenisotopespreservedinclamandplankticfossils.Thiswillhelpshowhowheatwastransportedthroughtheworld’soceans,andit’svitalthatweunderstandhowthispartofthesystemoperatedinthewarmerPlioceneworldifweareheadinginthesamedirection.

BGSwillusethisdatainitsnew

IODP scientists onboard JOIDES Resolution celebrate thecollection of the longest-ever core by the hydraulic Advanced PistonCorer, from 458.4 metres below the sea floor.


oftheEarth’ssysteminawarmerandrapidlychangingclimate.Butthisisonlyhalfoftheproblem.Theotherhalfmaybemorecomplex,andwillinvolveamuchbroaderrangeofdisciplines.

Modelling the environmental impact Lotsofworkhasgoneintomodellingfutureclimates,butrelativelylittleintohowtheenvironmentasasystemwillrespond.Translatingprobabilitiesofclimatechangeintoprobabilitiesofenvironmentalimpactisoneofthemostsignificantchallengesaheadfortheclimatechangecommunity.ScientistsfromBGSarecollaboratingwithcolleaguesfromarangeofotherdisciplinestodevelopamodeltoassessenvironmentalsensitivitytoclimatechange–ESC.Environmentsdonotbehaveinalinearwayandenvironmentalresponses(intermsoffrequencyoflandslides,say,ortheformthatawaterchannelwantstotake,orchangestoanecosystemwithinthatchannel)areextraordinarilydifficulttopredict.Theyaresubjecttomanycomplexprocessesandweareonlybeginningtounderstandhowtheseprocessesarelinked.

Anditisn’tonlytheextremeeventsthatmaybeimportant–agreaternumberofapparentlylesssignificanteventscouldmakeaconsiderabledifferencetotheconditionsinwhichextremeeventstakeplace.TheESCmodelwilllinkthedynamicsoftheseprocesses–hillslopeandcliffstability,groundandsurfacewaterflow,sedimenttransport,channelform,ecologicalprocesses,coastalprocesses,andmanymore.Ratherthanreinventwheels,weaimtocombine

ADAPTING TO A CHANGING CLIMATE

palaeoclimatemodellinginitiative,whichlinksthestateoftheEarthsystemduringthePliocenetothatoftheAnthropocene,thenamebeinggiventothepotentiallynewestgeologicalperiod–anepochbornofhumaninfluenceonourhomeplanet.Newpalaeoclimatemodelsarebeingdeveloped,forexample,toinvestigatetheroleofmodernland-useindeterminingwhattheclimatemighthavelookedlikehaditnotbeenforthedevelopmentofcivilizations.Andweareinvestigatingtheroleofoceanicheattransportinprovidingthresholdsortippingpointsinachangingclimate.

Theenvironmentisadynamicsystemaswehaveseen,andweareconsideringitfromeveryangle.Feedbackstotheclimatesystemrevolvearoundthefateofstoredcarbon,whetherinsoils,methanesourcesorpermafrost.BGSislookingatallofthese,investigatingcarboncyclinginsoilsandbiomass,changesincarbonpoolsinUKsoils,andthestabilityofmethaneinwetandfrozenenvironments.(Welookatcarboncaptureandstoragetoo–waysofcapturingCO2asitisgeneratedandstoringitawayfromtheatmosphere.)Basedonnewevidence,BGSscientistshavealsodevelopednewideasabouthowtheBritishicesheetbehavedduringthelasticeage,andtherelativechronologyoftheadvanceandretreatofglaciers.Thiswillgiveusabetterunderstandingofice-sheetdynamicsinawarmingworld,whichinturnwillprovidefurtherinsightintothedynamicsoftheretreatingGreenlandicesheet.

Alloftheseeffortswillreduceouruncertaintyaboutfutureclimatesandthestate

existingmodelsonacommonplatform,designingnewcomponentswherenecessary.AnESCmodelwillprovideaquantitativeassessmentofhowaspecificenvironmentwillrespondtoadifferentdistributionofweatherevents,atascalethatwillbedirectlyusefultopeoplewhoneedtomakedecisionsabouturbanandruraladaptationstrategies.

TheapplicationofanESCmodelwouldnotbepossiblewithoutthelonghistoryofmonitoringandevaluatingBritain’senvironmentbyBGSanditssisterorganisationCEh–theCentreforEcology&hydrology.Suchlong-termstudiesarecrucialforprovidingtheinitialconditionsforanESCmodel,becauseunlikeclimatemodelling,theESCmodelcannotassumethattheenvironmentalsystemstartsinequilibrium.

Oneofthemaindriversofenvironmentalchangeoverhundredstothousandsofyearsisbase-levelchange–thecombinationofshiftsinseaandlandlevels.Wecanseefromstudiesofearliericesheetsthatlandsinksandriseswithglacialmovement,whiletheexistenceoforganismsthataresensitivetosalinitytellusaboutchangesinsealevel.Baselevelandclimatesetthepaceforerosion,andBGSisreassessingerosionacrosstheUKandfeedingthisinformationintodynamicmodelstoassessthesensitivityofspecificenvironmentstoclimatechange.

TheBGSclimatechangeprogrammehasexistedinitspresentguiseforalittlemorethantwoyearsbutalreadyhastiestomorethan20UKuniversitiesaswellassisteragencies,CEh,theBritishAntarcticSurveyandtheNationalOceanographicCentreinSouthampton.Thefewaspectstouchedonheredon’tdojusticetotheverybroadscopeoftheprogramme,ascopethatwillcertainlyexpandbecause,ultimately,wearedrivenbytheneedtoservethenationalinterestinthebestwaypossible.SoBGSwillcontinuetoberesponsivetothefundamentalquestionsaboutclimatechangethatemergefromthescientificcommunityandwidersociety.

MoreiNforMATioNMike Ellis is head of climate science at BGS. www.bgs.ac.uk/research/climatechange

Pliocene Research Interpretation and Synoptic Mapping (PRISM) http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/prism

NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory www.bgs.ac.uk/nigl/Climate_RatesChange.html

furTherreADiNGUS National Research Council (Washington DC) (2010) Landscapes on the Edge: New horizons for research on Earth’s surface.

Flooding in Cockermouth, Cumbria, in November 2009. The scale of events like these depends on the climate and the sensitivity of thespecific environment. BGS models will assess such sensitivity to future climates.


TheunassuminglimestonebuildingontheeasternsideofPlymouthhoeisaresearchlaboratory,behindwhosewallssomeoftheUK’smost

eminentmarinebiologistshavewrestledwiththepressingsciencequestionsoftheirdayformorethanacentury.ThelaboratoryishometotheMarineBiologicalAssociationoftheUK(MBA)whichwasformedbytheRoyalSocietyin1884,primarilytoinvestigatethedeclineoffishstocks.Newlyelectedpresident,Thhuxley,didn’tbelievetheocean’sresourcescouldbedentedbythetechnologyofthetime.Buthisviewwasn’tsharedbyRayLankester,theMBA’sfirstelectedsecretary,whowasveryconcernedabouttheeffectsoftheincreasingnumbersoffishbeinglandedonUKshores.

Morethanacenturyonweknowthatfishstocksarebeingseverelydepletedbyhumanactivities,andthechallengesthatnowfacetheoceansandsocietiesacrosstheglobearebiggerandmorecomplexthaneitherhuxleyorLankestercouldhaveimagined.Largecod,tunaandskate–allabundantintheNorthSeaintheearlypartofthe20thcentury–arenowreducedtobetween5and10percentoflevels100yearsago,orarelocallyextinct.Protectionofareasoftheseabedandspawningpopulationsoffishisalargepartofthesolution,andtheworkofMBAscientistshaskepttheorganisationattheforefrontofsuchchallenges.

Marine Biological Association

In September last year, some of the top names in the marine world gathered in the Fishmongers’ Hall in London to celebrate the Marine Biological Association’s 125th anniversary. Guy Baker looks at some of the work that has led to this success.

125 years on

MBA scientists were some of the first to use satellites to study ocean phytoplankton populations.

TheMBA’slong-termrecordsoffishandzooplanktoninthewesternEnglishChannelhavebeeninvaluableforshowingenvironmentalchangeoverdecadesandactasabaselineagainstwhichtheeffectsofhumanactivitiescanbemeasured.MBAscientistsFrederickRussellandAlanSouthwardwereresponsibleforakeypieceofresearchonmarinesystems.Theylookedatzooplanktondataandthechangesthatwereobservedoverroughly50-yeartimeperiodsfromapredominanceofpilchardsintheEnglishChanneltooneofherrings.Thisworkwassupportedbyrecordsoftaxationonfishlandingsandtemperaturerecordsgoingbacktothemid-17thcentury,whichshowedthatpilchardswerelandedduringwarmperiodsandherringsduringcold.The‘RussellCycle’introducedtheideathatclimatechangesfollowaroughlyten-yearcycleandthatthesecyclesdriveperiodicchangesinmarineecosystems.

Backedbysuchpainstakinglong-termstudies,MBAscientistshavebeenresponsibleforsometrulygroundbreakingscientificachievements.Intheearly1950sAlanhodgkinandAndrewhuxleyrevealedthechemicalmechanismofnervetransmissionthroughtheirworkonthegiantnervefibrefoundinsquid.Thescientists’combinationoftheoreticalandexperimentalworkledtoNobelprizesforhodgkin,huxleyandJohnEcclesin1963.

ESA


algaisnowmakingheadlinesforitsabsorptionofcarbondioxidefromtheoceans,and40yearsonMBAresearchersaretryingtounderstandexactlyhowoceanplankton–andparticularlythecoccolithophores–absorbCO2andproducecalciumcarbonate.Theyaredevelopingnewtoolsandtechniquestomeasurethestateofplanktoninrealtimeinthesea,andtotrackthechangesofpastplanktonpopulations.

Anothercontinuinglineofresearchbeganinthe1980s,whenMBAscientistsnoticedbizarreabnormalitiesinmarineanimalslivinginandaroundestuariesandatcoastalsiteswheretherewaslotsofboatingandshippingactivity.Inparticular,‘imposex’–theimpositionofmalesexualcharacteristicsonfemales–wasseenincertaintypesofmolluscs.Theworstaffectedwasthedogwhelk,Nucella lapillus,whichwasrapidlybecomingunabletoreproduceandinsomeareashadevenbecomeextinct.Thescientistsidentifiedtin-basedantifoulingpaintsastheculprit.Themostactiveingredientinthesepaintswastributyltin–TBT–whichtheresearchersshowedtohaveendocrine-disruptingproperties,interferingwiththe

MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

AlanSouthwardwasoneofthemostinfluentialBritishmarinebiologistsofhisgeneration.hisworkwithDennisCrispwasamongthefirsttoshowtheeffectsofclimateonmarineecosystems;itprovidedabaselineagainstwhichrecentresponsestoglobalwarminghavebeencomparedandcontinuestoformthefoundationformuchcurrentMBAresearchonenvironmentalchange.TheMarineBiodiversityandClimateChange(MarClim)projecthasbuiltonSouthward’slegacy,continuingandexpandingtheMBA’slong-termrecordsofselectedrocky-shorespecieswhoseabundanceswereknowntobelinkedtofluctuationsinclimaticconditions.BystudyingthedistributionofavarietyofinvertebratessuchaslimpetsandtopshellsaroundBritainandIreland,andusinghistoricaldatatoprovidebaselinesforpreviouswarmandcoolperiods,MBAresearchersfoundthatsouthernspecies

aremovingnorthwardsandeastwardsatupto50kmperdecade–farexceedingtheglobalaverageof6.1kmperdecadeonland.

Alwaysattheforefrontofmarineresearch,inthe1970sand1980sMBAscientistsweresomeofthefirsttousesatellitestostudyoceanphytoplanktonpopulations.TheyproducedthefirstsatelliteimagesofbloomsofcoccolithophoresintheAtlanticOcean.This

Species based in the south of Britain are moving northwards and eastwards at up to 50km per decade.

whelks’hormoneproduction.Populationsofothermolluscssuchasclams,Scrobicularia plana,werefoundtobeindeclineatTBT-pollutedsitestoo.ThisandrelatedresearchledtoabanontheuseofTBT-basedpaintsonsmallervesselsintheUKin1987andtoInternationalMaritimeOrganisation(IMO)recommendationsforasimilarmeasurefortheglobalcommercialfleetfrom2008onward.Thislineofworkcontinuestocontributetonationalandregionalperspectivesonhumanimpactsonmarineenvironments,andtomappollutionhotspots.

TheMBAisalsolookingathowmarineanimals’environmentsinfluencethewaytheysearchforfood.Sincefoodintheoceansisoftensparselydistributedpredatorsmustcoverhugeareas.Electronictaggingandtrackingofanimalsasdiverseaspenguins,baskingsharksandtunahasrevealedthatthemovementsofpredatorscorrespondtoLévyflightpatterns–ratherthanmovingthroughtheirenvironmentinarandommannertheyemployastrategywhichmaximisestheirchancesoffindingtheirthinlyspreadprey.

Over125yearstheMBAhasestablishedaninternationalreputationforexcellent,independentresearchintoallaspectsofmarineandenvironmentalscience.ItadvisesGovernmentandhasaninnovativeeducationandpublicoutreachprogramme.TheorganisationisafoundermemberofthePlymouthMarineSciencesPartnership(PMSP)whichisthelargestregionalclusterofexpertiseinmarinesciences,education,engineeringandtechnologyinBritainandoneofthelargestinEurope.Climatechange,oceanacidificationandpollution,thecombinationofbiological,geologicalandchemicalprocessesandthemanyotherpressurestheoceansendurearenowexercisingthemindsofourscientists,andsomeoftheUK’sbestyoungresearcherswillhavetheformativeexperiencesoftheirscientificcareersinthelimestonebuildingonPlymouthhoe.Thenext125yearsarelikelytobeevenmoredemandingthanthelastbutnolessrewarding.

MoreiNforMATioNGuy Baker is communications officer at the Marine Biological Association. E-mail: [email protected]

The MBA is a learned society and welcomes new members: visit www.mba.ac.uk/membership.php.

The Association’s research programme is supported by grant-in-aid funding from NERC.

More information about the MBA’s 125-year celebrations can be found at: www.mba.ac.uk/125years.php and for more information on PMSP visit www.pmsp.org.uk

MBA scientists found that antifouling paints were damaging marine life.KLJ Photographic/Alam

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