physical sciences.docx

7/21/2019 Physical Sciences.docx

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/physical-sciencesdocx 1/32

Astronomy & Geography

Defnitions:

1. Universe: “The totality of everything that exists.” 2. Astronomy: “The study of universe or the investigation of matter and energy in it.”3. Cosmology: “The study of the origin, evolution and nature of universe.”

4. Astrology: “The study of the celestial bodies inuence on human aairs and naturalworld.” Evolution o Cosmological Theories: Steady State Theory of Universe till 17th, then

expanding onept of Universe.1. !arth Centered"#eoentri Theory: $y %tolemy &Alexandria' 2. S(n)Centered"*elioentri Theory: $y +. Coperni(s 1-, #alileo 1/, +e0ton 17

Origin o the Universe:

The Big-Bang: “According to the BigBang theory !" billion years ago, the universe

came into existence after a heavy ex#losion from a singularity which resulted in a hot,dense, ex#anding $the #rocess of ination% sea of matter and energy.” The onept 0as2rst present $y George Lemaitre &the father of 3ig)3ang' in 1457 and 0as 2rst oined$y Sir Fred Hoyle in 14. 6iro0ave adio Signal $y Anrno Penzias & o!ert

"ilson The #oments ater the Big-Bang

$uture o the Universe

1. Close% #o%elContracting Universe Theor': According to this model, manybillions of years from now, ex#ansion will slow, sto# and the universe will contractbac& in u#on itself.

2. $lat #o%el(tea%' (tate Theor': According to this model, the universe will notcolla#se u#on itself, but ex#ansion will slow and the universe will a##roach a stablesi'e, stable at the end.

3. O)en #o%elC'clic Universe Theor': According to this model, the universe willcontinue ex#anding forever.

4. C'clic #o%elE*)an%ing Universe Theor': According to this model, the universe

will colla#se, then there will be BigBang again it will ex#and (rst and will colla#seagain)and the cycle will go on.

+ala*': A massive aggregate of !** of millions of stars all gravitationally interacting and

orbiting around a common center is called +alaxy.” #alaxy is the f(ndamental (nit ofUniverse. T')es: 8val, Spherial, Spiral & Milky Wayo!r gala"y ', !lliptial, 9rreg(lar

#il,' "a': 9t 0as formed 1- $illion years ago. 8(r Solar System is in its 8rion"Sp(r

arm. The spae of the 6ily ;ay is alled #alati %lan. The nearest galaxy is Andromeda. 6ily ;ay is the part of the l(ster of do<ens of galaxies 0hih is alled=oal #ro(p.

(tars & (tellar evolution: “A star is a mass of a gas held together and given its sha#e by

its own gravity.”1. (tars a!out the same size as our (un: ain -euence)/ed +iant)0lanetary 1ebulla)2hite 3warf

2. (tars !igger than (un: #ain (euence:. /ed-u#er +iant)-u#ernova)1eutron -tar)Blac& 4ole

(olar ('stem ".5 billion years ago

(un/ello0 D0ar Planet(tar

(tructure o (un

1. The Core: 1 million C>. 9t has high temperat(re and press(re. +(lear f(siono(rs. !nergy released then.

2. The %hotosphere: , million C>. 9t is miles thi.



3. The Chromosphere: /, million C>. eddish in olor. 9t $eomes visi$le d(ringsolar elipses. 1 miles thiness.

4. The Corona: 1 million C>. !xtends for millions of miles.

• (olar "in%: “-treams of charged #articles ow out from the -un during rotation,

ta&es 5 days to reach 6arth.” 9t travels along magneti 0aves propagated $y the S(n.9t a(ses a(rora and the tail of omet. 9t>s d(e to the plasma in the s(n.

• (uns)ots: “7ool, dar& #atches on the sun surface caused by the disturbance in the-un8s magnetic (eld which ma&e them cooler than the surrounding #hotos#here and

so a##ear dar&er.” The large s(nspots an $e 0ider than the !arth.• (olar $lares: 6x#losions 9 from the corona. 9t releases energy from magnetic loo#s in

the corona, heating the gases of the corona and sending #article sand radiation outinto the solar system.

• Coronal #ass E1ection: ex#losion in the 7orona. 9t occurs when an ex#losion in thecorona #ushes millions or billions of metric tonners of material out into s#ace. 3othinds of explosions seem to res(lt from the s(dden release of energy stored in oronalmagneti 2eld.

$eatures o the (un:

23 !arth to S(n distane is 1mm or 4mmiles is e?(al to one Astronomial Unit.5. 6agneti @ield. S(n rays reah earth in min 5 se

-. 9t taes 5 m. years to revolve aro(nd the 6ily ;ay 0hih is alled osmi year.. otation taes 5) days./. S(nlight in the oean goes 5m or / feet.

The Planets an% Their Characteristics: A $ody in or$it aro(nd the S(n is alled %lanet.

Categories

a. 9nner, oy, 9nferior %lanets: 6er(ry, Ben(s, !arth $colorful, most dense%, 6ars#. 8(ter, ovian, #aseo(s, S(perior %lanets: (piter, Sat(rn, Uran(s, +ept(ne

+eneral $eatures o Planets

1. Biggest. (piter(mallest.6er(ry

2. 4ottest. Ben(s $orning or 6vening -tar%Coolest.+ept(ne

3. $astest otating. (piter(lo0est otating.+ept(ne

4. $astest evolutionar'.6er(ry(lo0est evolutionar'.+ept(ne

$. Brightest. Ben(s Planets $acts Chart.@rom 3oo



D0ar Planet: “ A dwarf #lanet is an ob:ect that orbits the sun, has enough mass to give it a

nearly round sha#e, is not a satellite of other ob:ects and has not cleared the neighborhoodof its own orbit.” !xamples are %l(to and Ceres

#oon 5una: 6th

largest in (olar ('stem +eneral $eatures

Average distane from !arth -,- m

8r$it the !arth in 57 days 7 ho(rs

!Det of earth>s gravity is 1"/th of !arth #ravity

Temperat(re is 17 C> day, )1C> night

6oon has no atmosphere

9ts light taes 1. seonds to reah !arth

6oon is 1"-th the si<e of tis mother planet !arth.

1 times lighter than the !arth.

Phases o the #oon

1. +e0 6oon: S(nE6oonE!arth: Solar 2. @(ll 6oon: S(nE!arthE6oon: @(ll 6oon: =(nar3. *alf 6oon &1st F rd !?(ator': ;hen 6oon is at a 4> angle 0ith respet to the !arth

and S(n.4. =ess than *alf: Cresent$. 6ore than *alf: ;axing

('no%ic #onth: “ Between each a##earance of the newmoon, which occurs when the

moon a##ears closest to the sun, it ta&es about ;<.5 days ;! hours.” (i%ereal #onth: “The time it ta&es the moon to orbit the earth is about ;= days =

hours.” Ecli)se: “The obscuring of one celestial body by another #articularly that of the sun or

moon is called 6cli#se.” T0o inds of elipses involve the earth: those of the moon, orl(nar elipsesG and those of the, s(n, or solar elipses.i3 5unar: “ A >unar 6cli#se occurs when the earth is between the sun and the moon

and its shadow dar&ens the moon.” The !arth asts a onial shado0 in spae. Atany pint 0ithin that one the light of the s(n is 0holly o$s(red. S(rro(nding theshado0 one, also the umbra is an area of partial shado0 alled the #enumbra. S(nE!arthE6oon &HarenedEUm$ra', o(rs d(ring f(ll moon.

ii3 (olar: “ A -olar 6cli#se occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earthand its shadow moves across the face of the earth.” S(nE6oonE!arth, o(rs atthe time of ne0 moon.

Um!ra: Um$ra has its etymology in =atin meaning shado0. 9t is the opa?(e, darer part

of the shado0.

Penum!ra: %en(m$ra has its etymology in =atin, %en means partial. 9t is the semi)opa?(e, lighter part of the shado0.Total Ecli)se: 72hen the oon travels com#letely into the 6arth8s umbra is called Total

>unar 6cli#se.” Partial Ecli)se: “2hen only a #ortion of the oon enters the 6arth8s umbra is called

0artial >unar 6cli#se.” $reuenc' o Ecli)se:

"h' isn8t there an ecli)se ever' #onth9

The #otions o the Earth: otation an% evolution



1. otation: Cloc,0ise "est to East; 5 ho(rs, 5/ / min F -.4 se, and day andnights are prod(ed. 9t gives no0ledge of diretions. 9t gives sense of time, $(lges ate?(ator.

2. evolution: Counter Cloc,0ise East to "est' 8ne year @ormation 8f Seasons

3. (olsticesUneual Da' length: He 51 or 55 and (ne 51 or 55. The s(n is said to $eat a solstie 0hen the diDerene $"0 the distanes from eah pole to the s(n is at itsgreatest.

4. Euino*es Eual %a's an% nights: 9n late 6arh and late Sep, $oth hemispheresare at the same distane from the S(n and the S(n is said to $e at an e?(inox. The+orthern *emisphere>s vernal e?(inox (s(ally o(rs on 6arh 5 or 51 and marsthe $eginning of spring. The +orthern *emisphere>s a(t(mnal e?(inox (s(ally o(rson Sep 55 or 5 and mars the $eginning of a(t(mn. 9n the So(thern *emisphere, the

vernal e?(inox o(rs in Sep and a(t(mnal e?(inox o(rs in 6arh. At the e?(inoxes, the s(n appears to $e diretly over earth>s e?(ator. The lengths ofday and night are then e?(al over almost all earth, exept at the poles. At the northpole and so(th pole, earth>s atmosphere $ends the s(n>s rays eno(gh to mae the s(n

visi$le thro(gho(t the day and night, even d(ring the 15 ho(rs the s(n is $elo0 thehori<on.

Climate an% "eather

<atural 4azar%s an% Disasters )rint rom !oo,;

Chemistr'= Ph'sics an% Energ'

Atom: “The smallest #article of an element that is indivisible and it is the building bloc& of

an element and they are too small to be seen with the na&ed eye.”

Atomic #o%el & (tructure Anion an% Cation: ;hen an atom has an extra eletron, or reeivers an eletron, it

$eomes a negatively harges partile alled Anion3 @or example, Chloride Cl, 8xide 8,S(l2de S, @l(oride @ et. ;hen an atom loses an eletron it $eomes a positive ion alledCation3 @or example, Sodi(m +a, 9ron, =ead %$ et.

>uar,s: “%artiles that form s($atomi partiles, lie proton and ne(tron, are alled

?(ars.” I(ar is the smallest)no0n $(ilding $lo of matter, I(ars never o(rringaloneG they al0ays are fo(nd in om$ination 0ith other ?(ars in larger partiles ofmatter.

Atomic $eature

1. Atomi +o: The no. of #rotons in an element.



;. Atomi 6ass +o: The no. of #rotons and neutrons in an element.. 9sotopes: -ame Atomic no. but dierent ass. no because of neutrons8 variation.

@or example, *ydrogen has three isotopes s(h as hydrogen itself, He(teri(m andTriti(m.

"ater

!. 4eav' "ater D?O: *eavy 0ater is de(teri(m monoxide in 0hih de(teri(m om$ines0ith oxygen and forms 0ater. 9t has diDerent physial properties as it is a$o(t 11Jdenser than ordinary 0ater other0ise, it is hemially similar.

2. Pure "ater: %(re 0ater is not nat(rally availa$le. Sine it is a good solvent so imp(ritiesdissolve in it very easily. 9t is an odorless, tasteless li?(id. 9t ontains no imp(rities, saltsand minerals. 9t is prod(ed either in la$oratory or is o$tained $y p(rifying ordinary0ater. ain 0ater is said to $e the p(re 0ater $(t in (r$an areas it>s also poll(ted.

3. #ineral "ater: 6ineral 0ater is 0ater that ontains mineral salts or gases, and 0hihonse?(ently may have an ation on the h(man $ody diDerent from that of ordinary0ater. 6ineral 0ater is (sed as mediinal agent. Therefore, people tae $ath in nat(ralmineral 0ater springs to (re diseases, espeially sin disease. !xamples are +estle, S(2and Sparlet et.

Basic Conce)ts

1. Perio%ic Ta!le: The periodi ta$le is a ta$le that lists all the no0n hemial elements.There are over 1 elements listed. There are 7 periods and 1 ol(mns in modern

periodi ta$le. There are 45 nat(ral elements. 2. Ph'sical Change: A physial hange o(rs as a s($stane hanges from one physialstate to another s(h solid, li?(id and gas. 9n this hange nothing ne0 is formed. 9t is

very easy to reverse.3. Chemical Change: ;hen t0o s($stanes om$ine together in s(h a 0ay that a ne0

thing or s($stane is formed, it is alled hemial hange. 9t also happens 0hen as($stane splits (p into t0o or more ne0 s($stanes. A hemial hange may aompanya physial hange at the time. @or example, $oiling of an egg.

4. Chemical eaction: A hemial reation o(rs 0hen there is a hemial hange. 9n ahemial reation, there are reatants 0hih start a reation and prod(ts 0hih areformed after a hemial reation. 9n a hemial reation, overall mass remains the same.6ass of the reatants 0ill $e e?(al to that of the prod(ts. Chemial reations an $e of

vario(s inds. An exothermi reation is a hemial reation in 0hih heat is evolved andan endothermi reation is a reation in 0hih heat is a$sor$ed $y the reatants.@or example= C*-K585 -------C85K5*58

$. Chemical Bon%ing:i3 Covalent Bon%: 3et0een two nonmetals. -haring, wea&, nonconductor, :ust for

stability.ii. @onic Bon%: 3et0een a metal and a nonmetal, strong, conduct electricity.

#atter

A3 Pure (u!stance1. Element

a. 6etals$. +on)metals

2. #olecule3. Com)oun%

a. 8rgani$. 9norgani

B3 @m)ure1. #i*ture 2. (olutions3. (olu!ilit'

A ne0 orm o matter: Plasma



Aci%s: Aids and 3ases are t0o lasses of hemial ompo(nds that display generally

opposite harateristis. Aids prod(e *K in a?(eo(s sol(tions. Aids taste so(r, t(rnlitm(s red and often reat 0ith some metals to prod(e hydrogen ions.

*K*58)))))))))))))*8 Aids may $e divided into t0o gro(psG strong aids and 0ea aids. 6any 0ea aidsnat(rally o(r in foods. S(h as Citri aid&=emon', =ati aid &6il', 6ali aid&#reenapples and grapes', Tartari aid&#rapes', Aeti aid&Binegar', @ormi aid&Sting of honey$ees'.Strong aids are orrosive and sho(ld not $e tasted. They reat 0ith ative metals lie,magnesi(m, <in and iron to prod(e hydrogen gas. S(h as *ydrohlori aid &Toilet $o0lleaner', Car$oni aid &soft drins', S(lph(ri aid &3attery', +itri aid &a(ses yello0stains on sin'

Bases: 3ases or alali taste $itter, t(rn litm(s $l(e and feel slippery. 9t prod(es 8* in

a?(eo(s sol(tion. A $ase is a ompo(nd that ne(trali<es an aid. An alali is sol($le $ase0hih is very orrosive.

+a8*))))))))))))+aK8*

S(h as Sodi(m hydroxide +a8* &Ca(sti Soda', %otassi(m hydroxide L8* &Ca(stipotash', 6agnesi(m hydroxide 6g&8*'5 &6il of 6agnesia', Cali(m hydroxide Ca&8*'5

&=ime 0ater', Ammoni(m hydroxide +*-8*, Ammonia +*, Sodi(m Car$onate +a5C8 +e(trali<ation F %rod(tion of Salt

Strength of Aids and 3ases

4ar% "ater & (ot "ater: ;ater that prod(es (rds 0ith soap and prod(es very little

lather is alled hard 0ater. *ard 0ater aDets leaning a$ility of soap. 9t ontains$iar$onates, hlorides, s(lphates of ali(m and magnesi(m. ;ater that prod(es lather0ith soap easily is alled soft 0ater. Soft 0ater does not aDet leaning ation of the soap. 9tdoes not ontain salts of ali(m and magnesi(m and may ontain other salts. Soft 0ater isordinary 0ater.1. Temporary *ard ;ater: ;ater that ontains $iar$onates of Ca and 6g or of $oth is

alled Temporary *ard ;ater. These $iar$onates are sol($le in 0ater and prod(eorresponding ions.

Ca&*C8'5))))))))))))))))))6gK5*C8 2. %ermanent *ard ;ater: ;ater that ontains Chlorides or S(lphates of Ca or 6agnesi(m

or of $oth is alled %ermanent *ard ;ater. These ompo(nds are sol($le in 0ater andprod(e orresponding ions.

CaCl5))))))))))))))CaK5Cl 6gS8-))))))6gKS8-

(otening o "ater

23 emoval o Tem)orar' 4ar%nessa3 3y 3oiling: H(ring $oiling, the $iar$onates of Ca and 6g deompose into insol($le

ar$onates and give C85. The insol($le ar$onates an $e removed $y 2ltration. Ca&*C8'5)))))))))))))CaC8KC85K*58 6g&*C8'5))))))))))))6gC8KC85K*58

!3 3y Clar>s 6ethod: This proess is (sed on a ommerial sale. 9n this proess,al(lated amo(nt of lime Ca&8*'5 is added to temporary hard 0ater.

Ca&*C8'5KCa&8*'5))))))))))))5CaC8K5*58

?3 emoval o Permanent 4ar%nessa3 3y ;ashing Soda 6ethod: 9n this method, 0ater is treated 0ith a al(lated amo(nt

of 0ashing soda +a5C8 0hih onverts the hlorides and s(lphates of Ca and 6ginto their respetive ar$onates 0hih get preipitated.

CaCl5K+aC8))))))))))CaC8K5+aCl 6gS8-K+a5C8)))))))))6gC8K+a5S8-



!3 %erm(tit or 9on !xhange 6ethod: This is a modern method employed for thesoftening of hard 0ater. *ydrated sodi(m al(mini(m siliates +a5Al5Si58 ross*58 is alled perm(tit. These omplex salts are also no0n as <eolites.

The perm(tit is loosely paed in a $ig tan over a layer of oarse sand. *ard 0ater isintrod(ed into the tan from the top. ;ater reahes the $ottom of the tan and thenslo0ly rises thro(gh the perm(tit layer in the tan. The ations present in hard 0aterare exhange for sodi(m ions thereforeG this method is also alled 9on !xhange6ethod.

+a5MKCa)))))))))))))))))))CaMK5+a5

a%ioactivit'

a%ioactivit': “/adioactivity is the s#ontaneous random emission of #article from

within the nucleus of the atom.” The disovery of the phenomenon of radioativity 0asp(rely aidental. 9n 14/, *enry 3e?(erel, a @renh sientist, aidently fo(nd that inpresene of salt of (rani(mG photographi plates got heavily fogged even tho(gh they0ere 0rapped in opa?(e paper. *e onl(ded the Urani(m salt m(st $e giving oDpenetrating radiations similar to N)rays disovered one year earlier. T0o year later,

6adam C(rie named the phenomenon radioativity.• <atural a%ioactivit': !lements 0ith atomi no. a$ove have very heavy (nsta$le

n(lei. 3eing (nsta$le, these n(lei spontaneo(sly $rea (p to form sta$le elements0ith lo0er atomi n(m$ers. 9n the proess of this $rea)(p, three types of radiationsare given o(t. The phenomenon of spontaneo(s disintegration of an (nsta$le n(le(sof nat(rally o(rring isotope aompanied $y emission of ative radiations lie alpha,$eta and gamma radiations is no0n as +at(ral adioativity.

• E*)eriment: The radioative material 0as ept in a small avity in a $lo of lead.

The 0hole apparat(s 0as enlosed in an eva(ated vessel. An eletri 2eld 0asapplied having positive and negative areas. The radiations, 0hih emerged from theradioative material, 0ere made to strie a photographi plate. These radiationsprod(ed three diDerent spots on the photographi plate.

Conclusions:i3 The rays that deOeted to0ards the negative plate onsist of positively)harged

partiles and these 0ere alled alpha rays.ii3 The rays, 0hih defeted to0ards the positive plate, onsist of negatively)

harged partiles and these rays 0ere no0n as the $eta rays.iii3 The rays, 0hih did not deOet, do not ontain any harged partiles and these

rays 0ere alled gamma rays.

+eneral Characteristics

i3 9t is a n(lear phenomenon and it o(rs d(e to the insta$ility of the n(le(s.ii3 9t is a spontaneo(s, ontin(o(s and irreversi$le proess. 9t is independent of

external fators s(h as press(re, temperat(re, state of s($stane, eletrial2eld, magneti 2eld, atalyst.

iii3 A radioative element emits alpha, $eta and gamma radiations $(t not allsim(ltaneo(sly.

iv3 The original radioative n(le(s or element is alled parent element and thene0 element formed is no0n as da(ghter element. The physial and hemialproperties of da(ghter element are diDerent than that of the parent element.

a's

1. Alpha5. 3eta. #amma



• 4al 5ie: The half)life of a radioative material is the time in 0hih half of its startingamo(nt deays into something else. This deay is aompanied $y the release of

vario(s forms of radiation.

• a%ioactive Deca': The spontaneo(s $reado0n of an atomi n(le(s res(lting inthe release of energy and matter from the n(le(s. 9n the proess, element 0illtransform into a ne0 element. This proess, alled transm(tation, is the hange of oneelement into another as a res(lt of hanges 0ithin the n(le(s. The radioative deayand transm(tation proess 0ill ontin(e (ntil a ne0 element is formed that has a

sta$le n(le(s and is not radioative.Car!on Dating: adioative dating is a tehni?(e (sed to date materials s(h asros, (s(ally $ased on a omparison $et0een the o$served a$(ndane of a nat(rallyo(rring radioative isotope and its deay prod(ts, (sing no0n deay rates. 9t it>sthe prinipal so(re of information a$o(t the a$sol(te age of ros and othergeologial feat(res, inl(ding the age of the earth itself, and an $e (sed to date a0ide range of nat(ral and man)made materials. adioar$on dating is a radiometridating method that (ses the nat(rally o(rring radioisotope ar$onE1- to estimatethe age of ar$on)$earing materials.

Detection o a%ioactive a's: adioativity is invisi$le, has no smell, maes noso(ndEin fat it annot $e deteted $y any of o(r senses. *o0ever, $ea(seradioativity aDets the atoms that it passes, 0e an easily monitor it (sing a variety

of methods.1. #eiger) 6(ller T($e5. %hotographi @ilm. #old =eaf !letrosope

Uses o a%iations: 9oni<ation, Smoe detetion, Traer, Thiness, 6edial imaging,

Sterili<ation of medial e?(ipment>s, illing of harmf(l $ateria, illing aner ells. Unites o a%iations: oentgen, ad, em, C(rie, #ray= Sievert, 3e?(erel et.

<uclear $issionto %ivi%e: % A reaction in which radioactive elements $Atomic 1o. greater

than <*% having unstable nuclides begin to s#lit to #roduce energy is called 1uclear ?ission.” Urani(m is one s(h element. ;hen U is $om$arded $y ne(tron it forms U 0hih is(nsta$le form and $reas do0n, splitting into t0o large partiles and emitting threene(trons. The diDerene in masses of reatants and prod(ts appears as energy given $y the

reation

Un----------Barn

+(lear Chain eation: A n(lear hain reation is a series of rapid n(lear 2ssions. A

small sample of Urani(m ontains $illions of atoms. ;hen one Urani(m n(le(s is split$y a ne(tron, it releases t0o or three ne(trons the three ne(trons are (sed to split more Urani(m n(lei. Then these three (rani(m n(lei prod(e nine ne(trons andproess goes on. The 2ssion of n(lei and release of ne(trons $eomes a hain reation.9n a hain reation, $illions of 2ssion reation may o(r per seond.

Controlled +(lear @ission: @or every 5 or ne(trons released, only one m(st $e allo0ed

to strie another (rani(m n(le(s. 9f the ration is less than one then the reation 0ill dieo(t. 9f tis greater than one it 0ill gro0 (nontrolled &an atomi explosion'. @ollo0ings anontrol the n(lear 2ssion, s(h as a ne(tron a$sor$ing element, ontrol rods s(h asthose made of $oron or admi(m, a moderator et.

Urani(m !nrihment: “The re(ning of #ure @ranium to raise the concentration of @ is

called @ranium enrichment and this is #rimarily accom#lished through a techniuecalled gaseous diusion.”

+(lear %o0er:

Advantages: +ot expensive. Ho not ontri$(te to #*!. %rod(es h(ge amo(nt of energy

from small one. %rod(e small amo(nt of 0aste. +(lear po0er is relia$le. Hisadvantages: The 0aste it prod(es is very dangero(s. +(lear po0er is relia$le $(t it

taes a lot of money.



<uclear $usion: “2hen lighter nuclides fuse together to form a heavy nucleus, the #rocess

is called nuclear fusion.” 9n this proess, energy is prod(ed F mass is lost. @or example,t0o atoms of heavy hydrogen may f(se together to form heli(m F a ne(tron:

The s(m of the exat masses of the heli(m atom and the ne(tron is less than the s(m ofexat masses of the t0o heavy hydrogen atoms. The lost mass is released as energy. 9t istho(ght that the s(n>s energy is prod(ed $y n(lear f(sion. An (nontrolled f(sion reationhas $een prod(ed in the hydrogen $om$.

Dierence !et0een <uclear $ission & $usion

a%ioactive Pollution:

-a' or oentgen a's by +erman 0hysicist 2ilhelm /oentgen in !<5

;hat are N)ays: *e passed an eletri (rrent thro(gh athode t($es &speial t($es

ontaining a athode F eletrode from 0hih the air has $een removed'. *e notied thatphotographi plates near$y $egin to gro0 fogged. Then he ased himself, 0hy thiso(rred. @or this he plaed $la paper on the t($e and then s0ithed on the (rrent.+ear$y a sreen oated 0ith $ari(m $egan to glo0. This a(sed him to $elieve than(nno0n rays prod(ed inside the t($e 0ere passing thro(gh the paper to mae thisOoresent s($stane give o(t light. *e named them N)ays.

Uses of N)ays: 6ae photo of a patient>s $ody, ill aner ells and healthy ells too,

ind(stry, at airports to he passengers and $aggage.

Allo'ing: “An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution com#osed of two or more elementsat least one of which is a metal, and where the resultant material has metallic #ro#erties or

Alloy is a mixture of two or more metals.” Allo's

1. Brass Copper F Min 2. Bron'e Copper F Tin3. -teel 9ron, Car$on4. -tainless -teel 9ron, Chromi(m F +iel$. ! arat +old 1 parts of gold and / parts of other metal. ;; arat +old 55 parts gold and 5 parts other metal'. 2hile +old %latin(m and +iel(. -older =ead F Tin

). +erman -ilver +iel, Copper F Min Amalgam: “An amalgam is a substance formed by the combination of mercury with another

metal or amalgam is alloy contain mercury.” Almost all metals an form amalgams 0ithmer(ry, nota$le exeptions $eing iron and platin(m. Silver)mer(ry amalgams areimportant in dentistry and gold)mer(ry amalgam is (sed in the extration of gold from ore.Energ':

Defnition: “The ability to do wor& is called 6nergy.” Unit is Coule

$orms

i. Lineti !nergy: “The energy #ossessed by an ob:ect by virtue of its motion.” !xamples >ight, Thermal, -ound, 6lectrical

.6D!E;mv

ii. %otential !nergy: “The energy #ossessed by an ob:ect by virtue of #osition orcon(guration.” !xamples 7hemical, 1uclear, +ravitational, echanical 0.6D mgh

Conservation o #atter an% Energ' Conce)t: 1either mass nor energy can becreated or destroyed in any #hysical or chemical #rocess. Energ' Conversion Chart:

T')es o Energ' (ources

i. ene0a!le Energ' : “ 6nergy which is generated from natural resources such assun, wind #ower, hydro#ower, solar, biomass, biofuel, geothermal and can begenerated again and again as when reuired.”

• @eat(res:



a. Availa$le in plenty F $y for the leanest so(res of energy on this planet.$. =o0 Car$on emission.. #reen F !nvironmental friendlyd. Stim(late the eonomy F reate Po$ opport(nitiese. =ost ost

• Cons:a. +ot easy to set)(p a plant$. Solar energy an $e (sed at day)time only.. #eothermal)))has side)eDetsd. 3(ilding dams an aDet nat(ral Oo0 of 0ater and 0ild lifee. ;ind energy an aDet $irdsEproportion

ii. <on-ene0a!le Energ': “The energy ta&en from the sources that is availableon earth in limited uantity and will vanish in near future such as fossil fuelsFcoal, natural gas, #etroleum and.

• @eat(res:

a. +ot environmental friendly and an eDet on health$. Cheaper F easy to (se it.. Small amo(nt an prod(e large amo(ntd. +o sophistiated is re?(ired.e. Capitol ost is lo0.

•

Cons:a. HepletionEsomeday$. Serio(s environment eDets.. elease toxi gasesEglo$al 0armingd. %ries)))so(ring day $y day.

#o%ern #aterials an% Chemicals

23 Ceramics: “A ceramic is an inorganic nonmetallic solid made u# of clay that have beensha#ed and then hardened by heating to high tem#erature.” 9n general, eramis are hard,orrosion)resistantQ and $rittle. Cerami omes from the #ree 0or meaning pottery. Thelay)$ased domesti 0ares, art o$Pets and $(ilding prod(ts are familiar to all of (s, $(tpottery is P(st one part of the erami 0orld. +o0adays, the term erami has a moreexpansive meaning and inl(des materials lie glass, advaned erami and some ementsystems as 0ell. Pro)erties:-

A))lications Hard, Ware-resistant, refractory,high melting point, corrosion

resistant, inert to chemicalreaction, thermal insulator,



i3 Aerospaeii3 Cons(mer Usageiii3 A(tomotive 9nd(stryiv3 6edial v3 6ilitary vi3 Comp(ter and !letronis vii3 A$rasives viii3 3(ilding and Constr(tioni*3 Coatings

Classifcation

i3 Com)osition Base%:) O*i%es&al(mina, <ironia, iron oxides', <on-o*i%es&ar$ides, $orides, nitrides and siliides', Com)osites&om$ination of $oth'

ii3 A))lication Base%a3 Tra%itional: ;hite 0ares, str(t(ral lay, $ri and tile, a$rasive, refratories,

ement.!3 A%vance%: n(lear, $io, a(tomotive, optial, ond(tive, magneti, apaitor,

eletroni et?3 Plastics: “ 0lastics are materials made u# of large organic molecules that can be formed into

a variety of #roducts. The molecules that com#ose #lastics are long carbon chains that give#lastics many of their useful #ro#erties.” 9n general, materials that are made (p of long,

hain)lie mole(les are alled polymers. The 0orld plasti is derived from the 0ord#lasticus &=atin, means apa$le of molding' and #lasti&os mean & #ree, to mold' Pro)erties: =ighter, orrosion resistant, olor free, transparent, transl(ent, lo0er

density than metals, eletrial ins(lator, non)magneti in nat(re. Chemistr': %lastis are organi mole(les, eah omposed of ar$on atoms lined into

hains alled %olymer. @or example, one type of plasti no0n as polyethylene isomposed of extremely long mole(les that eah ontains over 5 ar$on atoms.

Altho(gh some plastis are made from plant oils, the maPority are made from fossil f(els Classifcation !ecause o their %ierent res)onse to 4eat 0hich urther reasons

or lies in the chemical structurei. Thermo)lasts: ;ea Bander ;all fores, onept of spaghetti, mole(lar 0eight

strengthen it. e.g. %B, %!, %S, %!!

ii. Thermostating: *ardened permanently, )dimensional net0or, (sed to maeheat resistant prod(ts, mole(lar 0eight doesn>t inO(ene. !.g. 3aelite,H(raplast, !poxy esin.

@m)ortance an% Usages: Homesti, Tehnology, 9nd(stries, Aerospae, *ealth Care

A%vantages: =ighter in 0eight, easily molded, good strength, to(ghness, sho

a$sorption apaity, orrosion resistant, hemially inert, good thermal, eletrialins(lator, 0ater resistant, good adhesiveness, reyla$le material, doesn>t deompose.

Disa%vantages: +on)rene0a$le, $rittle at lo0 temperat(re, deformation, lo0 heat

resistant, poor d(tility, very ostly. Plastics & Environment

i3 *a<ards of %lastis: Chemials, He$ris, @loating ;aste, #ro(nd ;ater, Toxi@(mes.

ii3 %lasti 0aste 6anagementiii3 So(re ed(tioniv3 3iodegrada$le v3 9nineration vi3 eyling %lastis

T')es

i3 %!T"%olyethylene terephthalateii3 *H%!"*igh Hensity %olyethyleneiii3 %BC"%oly Binyl Chlorideiv3 =H%!"=o0 Hensity %olyethylene v3 %%"%olypropylene



vi3 %olystyrene vii3 !verything !lse

#a1or Plastic #aterials

3 $ertilizer: “ ?ertili'er is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin thatis added to a soil to su##ly one or more nutrients essential to the growth of #lants.” +eneral Classifcation

i3 6aron(trientsii3 6iron(trients

Classifcation on the !asis o #o%e o O)eration in the soili3 Hiretii3 9ndiretiii3 Completeiv3 9nomplete v3 6ixed vi3 6iro fertili<er

T')es on the !asis o <utrient (u))lie%

i3 +itrogeno(sii3 %otashiii3 %hosphateiv3 Ammoni(m

v3 %olyphosphate <atural versus ('nthetic $ertilizers

Environmental an% 4ealth 4azar%s

i3 #ro(nd ;aterii3 !(trophiationiii3 Soil Aidityiv3 *ealth *a<ards

F3 Pestici%es: “ Any substance or grou# of substance intended for #reventing, destroying orcontrolling #ests, including insects, rodents, fungi and unwanted #lants is called #esticides.”%estiides are (sed in p($li health to ill vetors of disease, s(h as mos?(itoes, and inagri(lt(re, to ill pests that damage rops. 3y their nat(re, pestiides are potentially toxito other organisms, inl(ding h(mans, and need to $e (sed safely and disposed of properly.

Classifcationa3 One the !asis o Target Pest!3 On the !asis o Chemical ingre%ients Use%

i. 9norganiii. Syntheti 8rganiiii. 3io rational

a. 3io pestiides$. 6iro$ial %estiides

c3 On the Bases o #o%e o Entr' i. Stomah %oisonii. Contat %oisoniii. @(migant %oison

A%vantages: Cost)eDetiveness, @lexi$ility, ?(ality, ?(antity, prie, %revention of

pro$lem, %rotetion of pets and h(mans, protetion of the environment. The Pestici%es Pro!lem: 4azar%s o Pestici%es

1. Create seondary pest pro$lems5. 9nvoe resistane. The !onomis of pestiides Use-. !nvironmental and soial osts. Hrift of sprays and vapor/. esid(es in food7. #ro(nd 0ater ontamination. %oisoning ha<ards



4. S(iidal agent1.%estiides and h(man health

The (olution o Pestici%es

1. C(lt(ral Control5. 6ehanial Control. 3ene2ial 9nsets-. 3iologial %estiides. 3otanial 9nsetiides/. Try to (se the least toxi pestiides7. %rotet desira$le plants

63 Con%uctors

G3 (emicon%uctors

H3 Bio $uels

Biolog'



@ntro%uction Biological 5evels o Organization: Cell: smallest (nit of living thingsETiss(e: gro(p of

similar ellsE8rgan: organi<ed tiss(esESystem: organs 0oring togetherE8rganism:individ(al living thingE%op(lation: gro(p of one ind of organismsEComm(nity: severalpop(lation of organismsE!osystem: $ioti and a$ioti parts of an environmentE3iome:large areas of the 0orld 0ith similar limates F organismsE3iosphere: All the living and

non)living things on !arth. "hat is Cell: The (nit of the str(t(re and f(ntion of all living things is alled Cell.Uniell(lar F 6(ltiell(lar. 9t 0as disovered $y o$ert *oo in 1//. Cell (tructure

1. %lasma 6em$rane5. %rotoplasm F Cytoplasm. #eneti 6aterial

Cell Organelles

23 !ndoplasmi eti(l(m?3 #olgi Apparat(s3 i$osomesF3 =ysosomes

63 %eroxisomesG3 CentrosomeH3 6itohondriaI3 +(le(sJ3 +(lear 6em$rane2K3 Ba(oles223 Cell ;all2?3 %lastids

i3 Chloroplastii3 Chromoplastsiii3 =e(oplasts

Dierence !et0een Animal an% Plant Cell Cell Division

Chromosomes

<ucleic Aci%s

4ere%itar' & +enetics

Evolution

23 5amarc,ism: Theor' o Acuire% Traits?3 Theor' o Continuit' o +erm)lasm3 Dar0inism: Theor' o <atural (election

Classifcation o 5iving Things

(i* ing%oms

23 L?3 L3 LF363 ing%om PlantaeG3 ing%om Animilia Merte!rates & @nverte!rates

#icro-organisms

23 Protozoa?3 Bactria3 $ungi



F3 Mirus Ecos'stem & Ecolog'

Ecolog':

Ecos'stem:

Com)onents o Ecos'stem

23 A$ioti @ators?3 3ioti @ators

i3 %rod(ers or A(totrophs

ii3 Cons(mers: %rimary F Seondaryiii3 Heomposers ('m!iosisto live together: “ A close ecological relationshi# between the individuals of two

or more dierent s#ecies. -ometimes a symbiotic relationshi# bene(ts both s#ecies,sometimes one s#ecies bene(ts at the other8s ex#ense, and in other cases neither s#eciesbene(ts.” There are diDerent types of sym$iosis, $ased (pon the spei2 relationship$et0een the speies involved, important ones areG m(t(alism, parasitism andommensalism.23 #utualism?3 Parasitism3 Commensalism

Biogeochemical C'cles: “The cyclic ow of nutrients between nonliving environment

$soil, roc&s, air and water% and living organisms is &nown as biogeochemical cycle.” ThemaPor n(trients elements s(h ar$on, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 0hih form a$o(t 4Jmass of the living organism, are ir(lated again and again $et0een living and non)livingomponents of the eosystem.23 Car!on C'cle?3 <itrogen C'cle

Biotechnolog': “ Biotechnology is the use of microbes or life #rocesses to #roduce

materials and #roducts that are useful to man&ind.” 9t means any tehni?(e that (ses livingorganisms or parts of organisms to mae or modify prod(ts, improve plants or animals or todevelop miroorganisms for spei2 (ses an $e de2ned as $ioteh. A))lications

23 @ood 3(siness

?3 6edial and %harmae(tial 3ene2ts3 Agri(lt(ral 3ene2tsF3 %oll(tion Control63 3ioremediationG3 9nd(strial

+enetic Engineering an% D<A: “+enetic 6ngineering is the alteration of an organism8s

genetic or hereditary material to eliminate undesirable characteristics of to #roducedesirable new ones.” @m)ortance: To inrease plants and animals prod(tion, to dispose ind(strial 0astes, to

diagnose diseases, and to improve medial treatment. #etho%s

23 Seletive 3reeding of plants and animals for inreased food prod(tion s(hCattle&o0 and $(Dalo' for higher mild prod(tion.?3 *y$ridi<ation or Cross$reeding is to om$ine diDerent strains of a speies &that is,

mem$ers of diDerent harateristis' or mem$ers of diDerent speies in an eDort toom$ine the most desira$le harateristis of $oth. S(h as female horses 0ith maledoneys to prod(e m(les and male horses 0ith female doneys to prod(e hinnies,for (se as 0or animals.

3 eom$inant H+A Tehnology thro(gh gene spliing. ;here one or more genes of anorganism are introd(ed to a seond organism. 9f the seond organism inorporatesthe ne0 H+A into its o0n geneti material, reom$ined H+A res(lts. The introd(tionof an organism essentially alters the harateristis of the organism $y hanging itsprotein mae(p.



Process o ecom!inant D<A Technolog': 9dentifying the gene of interest,isolation from the donor, insertion into a transfer medi(m s(h as plasmid. Thenthe transfer medi(m>s insertion into the organism &host'. The genetially modi2edorganism is no0 isolated and d(pliated in large ?(antities from other organisms0hih have not $een s(essf(lly modi2ed.

A))lications

23 @n #e%icines vaines, vitamins, anti$odies and treatment of the hereditary diseases?3 @n @n%ustries synthetially prod(ed items.

3 @n Agriculture espeially in fr(its and vegeta$les. @ertili<ers and $io)synthesi<ers.F3 $or 4umans, hildren of desira$le traits, s(rrogate parent>s onept those 0hoannot reprod(e.

63 $or Environment, $io)degradation of 0aste prod(ts. Controvers'

Dierence !et0een +enetic Engineering an% Biotechnolog': 3iotehnology is the

(se of living organisms for the $ene2t of manind 0hile geneti engineering is thealternation of the geneti material $y diret intervention in geneti material. The formeris old $ranh of siene 0hile the latter is very yo(ng. 9n the former only miroorganismF life proesses 0ill $e (sed for $ene2t of manind 0hile H+A of any living $eing &plants,animals, h(man and miro$es' an $e altered for the $ene2t of manind.

4uman Ph'siolog'

"hat is 4uman Ph'siolog': “The scienti(c study of various functions $mechanical or

biochemical in nature% of the human body in its normal state.” To maintain normal h(manhealth, the physiologial varia$les s(h as $lood gl(ose, $ody temperat(re, $loodhemistry, et. m(st $e maintained 0ithin a narro0 range. 8ne of the prinipal onepts in

h(man physiology is alled Homeostasis, 0hih means “the maintenance of a stableinternal body environment des#ite changes in the external environment.” The main f(ntionof many h(man organ systems is to maintain this homeostasis.4uman Ph'siolog': #a1or ('stems

23 Circulation: “The circulatory system is made u# of the vessels and the muscles that hel#and control the ow of the blood around the body, this is called circulation.” The mainparts of the system are the heart, arteries, ca#illaries and veins.

4uman 4eart:

Bloo% Circulation: 4o0 %oes !loo% circulate in the !o%'9

Car%iac C'cle:

Bloo% Pressure:

4eart Beat ate: 4uman Bloo%:

$unctions o Bloo%:

Bloo% Cells:

i. ed 3lood Cellsii. ;hite 3lood Cellsiii. %latelets

Bloo% Cells Pro%uction:

Bloo% T')es:

h $actor in Bloo%:

Bloo% Disor%ers:



i. Anemiaii. =e(emiaiii. Thalassemiaiv. *aemophilia

Mascular ('stem: The Bloo% Messels

i. Arteriesii. Beinsiii. Capillaries

4eart Diseasesi. Arterioslerosisii. Atheroslerosisiii. Angina or Angina %etorisiv. *eart Atta

v. Stroe

The 5'm)hatic ('stem

;hat is =ymph

=ymphati System

=ymph +odes

?3 Control an% Coor%ination in 4umans A3 <ervous ('stem

B3 En%ocrine ('stem3 es)irator' ('stem

es)iration C'cle

5ungs

es)irator' Tract

<asal Cavit'

Phar'n*

5ar'n*

Trachea

Brochi an% Bronchioles

Alveoli

Path Ta,en !' @nhale% Air E*change o es)irator' +ases in Alveoli

Trans)ort o es)irator' +ases

i. O*'gen Trans)ortii. Car!on Dio*i%e Trans)ort

a3 @ormation of 3iar$onates!3 @ormation of Car$aminohaemoglo$in

Breathing #echanism

Pro!lems o the 5ungs an% es)irator' ('stem

i. Asthmaii. Common old

iii. =(ng Caneri*. %ne(monia

F3 Digestive ('stem

4uman Digestive Trac,

The (tart o the Process-Oral Cavit'

On the "a' to (tomach: The Eso)hagus

@n the (tomach

ole the @ntestine

(mall @ntestine

Duo%enum

Ne1unum an% @lenum



5arge @ntestine

A))en%i*

A))en%icitis

Disor%ers o Digestive ('stem

i. Hiarrheaii. #asiii. Stomah Ulersi*. Constipation

63 E*cretor' ('stemUrinar' ('stem$unctions o the Urinar' ('stem

(tructure o the Urinar' ('stemi. Lidneysii. Urinary 3ladderiii. Urethraiv. +ephron

v. @ormation of Urine vi. Ultra @iltration vii. Seletive ea$sorption viii. T($(lar Seretionix. Composition of the Urine

i%ne's8 or enal $ailureCauses

Artifcial i%ne'

Disor%ers elate% to i%ne'

i3 4igh Bloo% Pressure 4')ertension;ii3 i%ne' (tone or Calculi

G3 The #usculos,eletal ('stem Bones= #uscles an% Noints;i3 (,eleton

$unctions o the (,eleton

ii3 #uscles

$unctions o the #uscles

iii3 Noints Classifcation

a. 9mmova$le or @i$ro(s#. %artially mova$le or artilagino(s oints+. @reely)mova$le or Synovial Points

H3 4uman e)ro%uctive ('stemi3 #ale e)ro%uctive ('stemii3 $emale e)ro%uctive ('stem

I3 The $ive (ense Organs in 4umansi3 The 4uman E'e

5a'ers o the E'e

a3 Slera!3 Choroidc3 etina

ods

Cons

#echanism o Mision

"hat is ?K?K Mision or Misual Acuit'9

4uman E'e an% Camera

Disor%ers o the E'e

i. +earsightedness &6yopia'ii. @arsightedness &hyperopia'



"h' are A))les e%9

ii3 The 4uman Ear

Division

i3 8(ter !arii3 6iddle !ariii3 9nner !ar

#echanism o 4earing

H!man Health and ,iseases

4ealth: A #erson8s #hysical, mental and social conditions. +ood health is having a #ositive

outloo& on life and feeling good #hysically . To enPoy good health, a person needs proper

shelter, n(trition, exerise, rest et. #ood hygiene and the aess to medial and soial areare also important. Disease: A #athogenic condition in which the normal functioning of an organism or body is

im#aired resulting in extreme #ain, dysfunction, distress or death.Disease Terminolog': Acute&a$r(pt and short d(ration', Chronic&long d(ration',

Communica!le& diret or indiret ontat', Contagious&to(h', En%emic&re(rring inparti(lar area', E)i%emic&not re(rrent $(t parti(larly in large area of the glo$e',Pan%emic&a very extensive epidemi', Out!rea, &a s(dden rise in the inidene of adisease'.

Categories o Diseases

23 Ph'sical Diseases: 9t involves permanent or temporary damage to the $ody and inl(desall other ategories aept mental. e.g leprosy

?3 @nectious Diseases: a(sed $y mirosopi organism &pathogens or germs'.i3 Bacterial :ii3 Miral :6(mps, 6easles, 9nO(en<a, *epatitis, Small %ox, A9HS, Chien %ox, Rello0

fever, Heng(e fever.iii3 $ungal: ing0orm, Athlete>s foot, o(nd0orm.iv3 Protozoans: %lasmodi(m &a(se malaria $y mos?(ito', Trypanosoma&Afrian)

Sleeping Siness $y Tsetse Oy. v3 Parasitic: Tape0orm, o(nd0orm

3 <on-@nectious Diseasesi3 Defcienc'ii3 +enetic an% 4ere%itar'



iii3 Degenerativeiv3 #ental v3 (ocial vi3 (el-inecte%

Transmission o Communica!le Diseases

23 Direct Contact?3 Air!orne3 "ater-!orne

F3 $oo%-!orne63 Contact 0ith (oilG3 B' "oun%s an% (,inH3 @nsect-!orne

The 4uman Deense ('stem

A3 #eneral Hefense systemB3 9mm(ne System

@mmunit'

T')es

!. 9nnate 9mm(nity ;. Adaptive 9mm(nityG. %assive 9mm(nity

@mmunizationMaccination *istory of Baination

Baine

Baine 9mm(nity

Baine !Detiveness

Baine Helivery System

Types

Anti!iotics

*o0 do Anti$iotis ;or

Anti$iotis and Bir(ses

Side !Dets of Anti$iotis

Anti$iotis esistane Classi2ation

Types

A@D(

Symptoms

Hiagnosis

Cancer

Ca(ses

Hiagnosis

Treatment

Common Diseases

23 6alaria?3 T($er(losis3 CholeraF3 Tetan(s63 HiphtheriaG3 TyphoidH3 %lag(eI3 Typh(s

#e%ical A@D( Eui)ment;

23 !C# !letroardiography?3 !!# !letro !nepho #ram3 CT san Comp(ted Tomography



F3 6agneti esonane 9maging 69 Drug

Common Drugs

23 Anestheti?3 Analgesi3 *isamineF3 Antihistamine63 Antipyreti

G3 SedativeH3 Tran?(ili<erI3 +arotiJ3 Hr(g A$(se, Hr(g 6is(se F Addition

Commonl' A!use% Drugs Chart

-n*ironment and its ro#lems

Environment: “The surrounding in which organism lives is called 6nvironment.

Components: Abiotic &air, 0ater, land', Biotic &plants, animals, miro$es'. !nvironment is areservoir of man>s reso(res. 6aintaining the nat(ral reso(res of the environment andtheir aref(l (se is alled onservation.<atural esources: eso(res re?(ire for s(rvival and omfort. eso(res are lassi2ed

into t0o.23 <o-rene0a!le: 8il, oal, gas, Urani(m?3 ene0a!le: Soil, air, 0ater, 0ood, s(nlight

Atmos)here: “The layer of the gases which surrounds the earth is &nown as Atmos#here.”

Com)osition:

1. +itrogen 7J 2. 8xygen 51 J3. Argon .- J4. C85 .J$. *ydrogen .1 J. +eon .1J



'. *eli(m . J(. Lrypton ,1 J). 8<one .1 J

Division

A3 5a'ers Base% on Tem)eraturei3 Troposphere 1/ m. Temperat(re dereases (p0ard at the rate of /. C> per 1

m. 6ost lo(ds o(r here. Commerial plane, 0eather and limate andparah(te o(r here.

ii3 Stratosphere m Temperat(re parti(larly onstant. 9nreases only overtropial regions. 8<one layer, S(personi planes, lo(ds, 0eather $alloons arepresent here.

iii3 6esosphere m A mar derease in temperat(re. 9t>s the oldest. 6eteorsdevelop tails here.

iv3 Thermosphere 15 m *igh temperat(re, 15)55 C>. %oor lights, satellites,spaeraft>s and radio signals are present here.

v3 !xosphere: 9t extends (p to 4/C>. The o(ter limit of atmosphere.B3 5a'ers Base% on Electrical Pro)erties

i3 9onosphere /m to 1m. Ultraviolet radiations, N)rays and sho0ers ofeletrons from the s(n ioni<e several layers of the atmosphere a(sing them toond(t eletriityG these layers reOet radio 0aves of ertain fre?(enies $a

to earth. 3ea(se of the relatively high onentration of ions in the air a$ove, itis alled ionosphere.C3 5a'ers Base% on Com)osition

i3 *omosphere : The lo0est atmosphere s(h as troposphere, stratosphere andmesosphere is alled homosphere.

ii3 *etrosphere: 9t extends a$ove homsphere. Atmos)heric Pressure

4'%ros)here

Bios)here

Earth (tructure Base% on Com)osition

1. Crust FK ,m %ee)= Bro,en oc, (ilicates & Aluminates;

• 6ohorovi Hisontin(ity: The boundary between the crust and the mantle. 9ngeology, the word discontinuity is used for a surface at which seismic waveschange velocity.

2. #antle ?IKK ,m %ee)= Plastic (tate (ilicates= #agnesium & @ron;

• Asthenosphere: 2ithin the u##er mantle is a 'one of wea&ness called Asthenos#here.”

• Transition Mone: “The 'one from about "** &m to about H=* is &nown as Transition

Ione where minerals undergo a #rocess called #hase transition and they change instructure and form other atomic arrangements.” The mantle below H=* &m iscalled the lower mantle, doesn8t change much in com#osition or #hase as it gets

dee#er.3. Core 6KK ,m thic,= (emi 5iui% (tate @ron & <ic,el;: 6arth magnetic (eld is

believed to be controlled by the liuid outer core. The #ressure at the center of theearth is extremely highF it is because of this extremely high #ressure that the iron ininner core can remain in the solid state des#ite the very high tem#erature.

Earth (tructure Base% on the #echanical Pro)erties

1. =ithosphere /)1 m Thi: The to#most layers which com#rised the crust and solid#ortion of the u##er mantle. 9t is divided into many #lates that move in relation toeach other due to tectonic forces.

2. Asthenosphere 1E m Thi: The semiliuid layers over which lithos#here oats and is wea&er com#aratively.



The Earth is a huge magnet by 2illiam +ilbert

The oc,s: “ A roc& is an aggregate of mineral #articles, forming #art of the lithos#here,

made of single mineral or a mixture of many, may be organic or inorganic in origin and maybe either consolidated as marble, bric& or unconsolidated as clay sand.” os are mainlylassi2ed $y mineral F hemial omposition or $y the mode of formation.1. @gneous: +ranite, 3iorite, Basalt, +abbro, 0eriodotite, 0egmatiteJ “These roc&s form

from the cooling of molten material magma or lava and can ha##en inside or on thesurface of the earth, constitute about <5 K of the outer !H &m of the earth.”

2. (e%imentar'Derive% oc,s : -andstone, -hale, >imestone, +y#sum, BrecciaJ “Theseroc&s form from the accumulation, lithi(cation of fragments earth materials, organicremains or chemical #reci#itates derived from other roc&s whether igneous, sedimentary or metamor#hic, is also called 3erived roc&s.”

3. #etamor)hic: arble, -chist, +neiss, and 3iamondJ form of texture of existing roc&s iscalled metamor#hism.

#inerals

Plate Tectonics

Environmental Pollution

"ater Pollution

Air Pollution or Atmos)heric Pollution

#ontreal Protocol'oto Protocol

5an% Pollution

<oise Pollution

Climate Change an% +reen 4ouse Eect: “7ertain greenhouse gases in the atmos#here,

including water va#or, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, absorb infrared radiationcoming from earthF tem#orarily #revent it from dis#ersing into s#ace. As these atmos#hericgases warm, they in turn emit infrared radiation in all directions. -ome of this heat returnsbac& to earth to further warm the surface in what is &nown as the greenhouse eect andsome this heat is eventually released to s#ace.”

4o0 Do 4umans Contri!ute to the +reenhouse Eect:

1. 3(rning nat(ral gas, oal and oil 2. Some farming praties and land (se hanges3. 6any fatories prod(e long lasting ind(strial gases.4. Heforestation$. %op(lation gro0th. Car$on dioxide for more than /J and it is inreasing $y more than 1J every 5

years.

@m)acts o +lo!al "arming

1. 9t raises sea level as 0ell as red(ing s(pplies of fresh 0ater. 2. ;orld>s endanger speies 0o(ld $eome extint.3. *(man $eings4. Hiseases advent$. 6elting of glaiers. @ood inse(rity'. 6igration $ea(se of the s($merging of oastal regions(. ;ater evaporation). ;eather pattern

Eorts to re%uce +lo!al "arming: To ontrol air poll(tion

Aci% ain: 9t is a form of air #ollution in which airborne acids fall to the ground and its

corrosiveness causes wides#read damage to the environment.

E*)lanation: The pro$lem $egins 0ith the prod(tion of s(lph(r dioxide and nitrogenoxides from the $(rning of fossil f(els, s(h as oal, nat(ral gas and oil, and from ertain



inds of man(fat(ring. S(lph(r dioxide and nitrogen oxides reat 0ith 0ater and otherhemials in the air to form s(lph(ri aid, nitri aid and other poll(tants. These aidpoll(tants reah high into the atmosphere, travel 0ith the 0ind for h(ndreds of miles andevent(ally ret(rn to the gro(nd $y 0ay of rain, sno0 or fog and as invisi$le dry forms.

Eects o the Aci% ain

1. 9t dissolves and 0ashes a0ay n(trients in the soil need $y plants. 2. 9t slo0s the gro0th of plant3. ;ater $odies $eome aidi and (n2t for life

4. 8n 0ildlife$. 3(ildings, stat(es, a(tomo$iles and other str(t(res.. 8n h(man respiratory system, espeially a(ses asthma

Eorts to control Aci% ain

23 ed(ing the amo(nt of S8 and +8 released $y po0er plants, motor vehiles andfatories.

?3 S0ithing to leaner $(rning f(els.Ozone 5a'er: 8<one =ayer is a region of the atmosphere from 14 to - m a$ove earth>s

s(rfae. 8<one onentrations of (p to 1 ppm &parts per million' o(r in the o<one layer.The o<one forms there $y the ation of s(nlight on oxygen. This ation has $een taing plaefor many millions of year, $(t nat(rally)o(rring nitrogen ompo(nds in the atmosphereapparently have ept the o<one onentration at a fairly sta$le level.

"hat is Ozone: o<one is one of three forms, alled allotropes, of the element oxygen.8<one is triatomi, meaning that it has three atoms in eah mole(leG form(la 8. 8<oneis m(h more ative than ordinary oxygen. 9t is (sed in p(rifying 0ater, sterili<ing air and$leahing ertain foods, and to ill germs at a$attoirs.

Ozone $ormation: To0 forms of oxygen are fo(nd in stratosphereG mole(lar oxygen 85

0hih is made (p of t0o atoms of oxygen, and o<one 8 0hih is made (p of threeoxygen atoms. 8<one is formed 0hen intensive (ltra violet radiation from the s(n $reasdo0n 85 into t0o 8xygen atoms. These highly reative oxygen atoms an then reat 0ithmore 85 to form 8. Ultraviolet rays are neessary for the prod(tion of o<one.

8K85))))))8 Ozone A!sor!s Ultra violet a%iation: A$sorption of the s(n>s (ltra violet radiation

d(ring o<one formation and destr(tion in the stratosphere has three important

onse?(enes.23 =ess Ultra violet radiations reahes the lo0er parts of the atmosphere, proteting

earth from damaging.?3 8<one formation and destr(tion are diretly proportional.3 Temperat(re trend is opposite in the stratosphere to that seen in the troposphere.

@m)ortance o Ozone: The o<one layer of the atmosphere protets life on earth $y

a$sor$ing harmf(l (ltraviolet radiation &light 0ith 0avelengths less than 5 nm' fromthe s(n. if all the (ltraviolet radiation given oD $y the s(n 0ere allo0ed to reah thes(rfae of earth, most of the life on earth>s s(rfae 0o(ld pro$a$ly $e destroyed. Short0avelengths of (ltraviolet radiation are damaging to the ell str(t(re of livingorganisms. @ort(nately, the o<one layer a$sor$s almost all of the short 0avelength(ltraviolet radiation and m(h the long 0avelength (ltraviolet radiation given oD $y thes(n.

Ozone De)letion: 9n 147s, sientists $eame onerned 0hen they disovered that

hemials all hlorofor(ar$ons, or C@Cs, posed a possi$le threat to the o<one layer.These hlorine ontaining hemials rise into the (pper stratosphere and are $roendo0n $y s(nlight, 0here(pon the hlorine reats 0ith and destroys o<one mole(les.

A$o(t 1, mole(les of o<one are $roen do0n per C@C mole(le. The so)alledo<one hole is a thinned region of the o<one layer that develops in the Antarti Springand ontin(es for several months $efore thiening again.

Causes

1. ChloroO(oroar$onsG J of stratospheri o<one depletion.



5. *alons: a ompo(nd 0here hydrogen atoms of hydroar$on replaed $y $romine andother halogen atoms. 3romine depletes the o<one layer.

. 6ethyl Chloroform: (sed mainly in ind(stry, for vapor degreasing, some aerosols, oldleaning, adhesives and hemial proessing.

-. Car$on Tetrahloride:. *ydro)O(oroar$ons

Eects: Stratospheri o<one 2lters o(t most of the s(n>s potentially harmf(l short0ave

(ltraviolet radiation. 9f this o<one $eomes depleted, then more UB rays 0ill reah theearth.1. *(mans> health: sin aners, s(n$(rns and premat(re aging of the sin. !ye

diseases s(h as $lindness. ;eaening of the imm(ne system. Ca(sing m(tation.5. 8n Agri(lt(re, @orestry and +at(ral eosystems: ed(e gro0th, photosynthesis,

@lo0ering et.. 6arine =ife: Tiny organisms on the s(rfae of oeans, loss of $iodiversity in o(r

oeans, rivers and laes. ed(e 2sh yields for ommerial and sport 2sheries.



Food S+ien+e

Balance Diet: “A balance diet is a diet which includes right amount of all the nutrients such

as #roteins, vitamins, minerals, fats, carbohydrates etc., for #ro#er growth, develo#mentand normal functioning of the body.” Com)onents o Diet

1. "ater: 9t is highly essential to normal bodily functioning)as a vehicle for carryingother nutrients and because H5=5K of the human body is water.” A person ans(rvive only eight to ten days 0itho(t 0ater, 0hereas it taes 0ees or even months

to die from la of food.

Deh'%ration: “ 3ehydration is a condition that occurs when someone loses more uids than he or she ta&es in.” The eDets of dehydration are tiredness, migraine,consti#ation, muscle cam#s, irregular blood #ressure and &idney #roblems. Aperson needs to drin 5) liters of 0ater every day. The average (rine o(tp(t forad(lts is 1. liters a day.

2. Car!oh'%rates: Car$ohydrates are the h(man $ody>s ey so(re of energy, providing- alories of energy per gram. ;hen ar$ohydrates are $roen do0n $y the $ody,gl(ose is prod(ed. #l(ose is ritial to help maintain tiss(e protein, meta$oli fatand f(el the entral nervo(s system. #l(ose is o$served in the $lood stream thro(ghthe intestinal 0all. Some of gl(ose goes straight to 0or in o(r $rain ells and red$lood ells, 0hile the rest maes its 0ay to the lever and m(sles, 0here it is stored

as glyogen &animal starh', and to fat ells 0here it is stored as fat.(ources: Cereals, fr(its, honey, mil, s(gar $eet, potato and s(garane.

Classifcation

i. #onosacchari%ea. #l(ose: for ell(lar respiration and $lood s(gar#. #alatose: in mild and yog(rt+. @r(tose: honey

ii. Disacchari%esa. S(rose: ommon s(garQ gl(ose and fr(tose#. =atose: in milQ gl(ose and galatose+. 6altose: Starh digestionQgl(ose and gl(ose



iii. Pol'sacchari%esa. Starh: plants onvert exess gl(ose into starh#. #lyogen: animals store exess gl(ose $y polymeri<ing it to form

glyogen.+. Cell(lose: single most a$(ndant organi mole(le in the $iosphere.

Str(t(ral materials are made.d. Chitin: it is fo(nd in the ell 0alls of f(ngi, the exoseletons of

arthropods and insets.

Dia!etes #ellitus-Dia!etes @nsi)i%es

3. Protein: %roteins are the hief $(ilders of the $ody. They are omplex mole(lesmade (p of Car$on, *ydrogen, 8xygen and +itrogen, sometimes s(lph(r andphosphoro(s. %roteins are (sed to synthesis en<ymes &pepsin trypsin', hormones&ins(lin, adrenaline', arrier proteins &hemoglo$in', ontratile proteins &myosin,atin', str(t(ral proteins &ollagen' and protetive proteins &anti$odies'. They alsoform sin pigments lie melanin and n(lei aids &H+A and +A'.

(ources: gro(nd n(ts, $eans, 0hole ereals, p(lses, 2sh, egg, meat, mil, heese.

Com)osition: The proteins are polymers made of monomers alled the aminoaids. Amino aids are alled amino aids $ea(se they all ontain an amino gro(p+* and a ar$oxyl gro(p C88*, 0hih is aidi.

<on-Amino Aci%s

Essential Amino Aci%s

Classifcation Base% on Com)osition:

i3 (im)le )roteins:ii3 Collagen: tiss(es, $ones, artilage, gelatiniii3 Elastin: ligaments, tendons and arteries.iv3 eratin: hair, nails, hooves, horns and feathers

Classifcation

i3 ConP(gate: “7on:ugate #roteins are those which contain a nonamino acidcom#onent in addition to the amino acid com#onent in addition to the aminoacids. This amino acid com#onent is called #rosthetic grou#.” !xamples are#lyoprotein, %hosphoproteins, and =ipoproteins.

ii3 Herived: “They are not naturallyoccurring #roteins and are obtained fromsim#le #roteins by action of en'ymes and chemical agents.” !xamples arepeptones, peptides, proteoses, et.

iii3 %rotein 9ntae:

$unctions

4. 5i)i%s $ats an% Oil;: =ipid is the olletive name for fats, oils, 0axes and fat)liemole(les s(h as steroids fo(nd in the $ody. The $asi (nite of lipids is triglyeride,synthesi<ed from glyerol and fatty aids. There are some diDerenes in fats and oils.@ats are solid at room temperat(re 0hile oils are li?(id at room temperat(re. @atshave high melting point 0hile oils have lo0 melting pint. @ats are mainly o$tainedfrom animal so(res 0hile oils from plant so(res. =ipids provide 4.1 alories energyper gram.

$att' Aci%s: @atty aids are also organi ompo(nds. !ah fatty aid has aar$oxyli aid C88* gro(p. Some fatty aids are sat(rated and some are(nsat(rated.

Trigl'ceri%es

(ources

Classifcation

i3 Sat(ratedii3 Unsat(rated

a. Trans @at#. Cholesterol+. 8mega



$unctions

$. Dietar' $i!er: @i$er is an indigesti$le ar$ohydrates fo(nd in plant foods. @oodn(tritionists lassify 2$er aording to its a$ility to dissolve in 0ater.

. Mitamins: “Litamin is any of the organic com#ounds that the body reuires in smallamounts to maintain health and function #ro#erly.” They are needed $y the $ody in

very small amo(nts to trigger the tho(sands of hemial reations neessary tomaintain good health. The most prominent f(ntion of the vitamins and minerals isthat they at as ofator. Along 0ith many f(ntions, they enhane the $ody>s (se of

ar$ohydrates, proteins, and fats. They are ritial in the formation of $lood ells,hormones, nervo(s system hemials no0n as ne(rotransmitters, and the genetimaterial H+A. 9mportantly, they do not provide energy to the $ody $(t they reg(latethe meta$olism hene ens(re the s(pply of energy to the $ody.a3 $at (olu!le: A, H, ! and L !3 "ater (olu!le: 3 and C

'. #inerals

• Hietary 6inerals

(. Enz'mes

• Str(t(re

• Charateristis

• Uses

$oo% Preservation: “ 9t is the #rocess of treating and handling food to sto# or slow downs#oilage and thus allow for longer storage. 0reservation usually involves #reventing thegrowth of bacteria, yeasts, fungi and other microorganisms as well as retarding theoxidation of fats which cause rancidity.” 6ethods of preservation areG anning, irradiation,dehydration, free<e)drying, salting, piling, fermentation, ar$onation, heese)maing,hemial preservation et.

$oo% Pasteurization: “The #rocess of heating a beverage or other food such mil& to a

s#eci(c tem#erature for a s#eci(c #eriod of time in order to &ill microorganisms, that couldcause disease, s#oilage or undesired fermentation.”

#alnutrition: “ alnutrition is a dietary condition caused by a de(ciency or excess of one

or more essential nutrient in the diet.”1. Un%er: “2hen diet is not balanced and it contains fewer calories or is de(cient in one

of the basic nutrients, then dietary condition is term as under nutrition.” 9t isharateri<ed $y a 0ide array of health pro$lems inl(ding extreme 0eight loss,st(nted gro0th, 0eaened resistane to infetion and impairment of intellet. Severeases of (nder)n(trition an lead to death.

2. Over: “ 6xcess of any of nutrients or calories is termed as overnutrition.” Severepro$lems are o$esity, dia$etes mellit(s, heart pro$lems and some forms of aner too.

#eta!olism: “The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the cell is called metabolism.”

9n fat tho(sands of meta$oli reations happen at the same time to eep o(r ells healthyand 0oring. 6eta$olism is a onstant proess that $egins 0hen 0e are oneived and ends0hen 0e die. 9t is vital proess of all life forms not P(st h(mans. 9f meta$olism stops, livingthing dies. Higestion, respiration, photosynthesis are examples of meta$olism. 9t is lassi2ed

into to t0oG1. Ana!olism or Constructive #eta!olism: “3uring anabolism, small moleculeschanged into larger, more com#lex molecules of carbohydrates, #roteins and fat.” 9t isall a$o(t $(ilding and storing. !xample is %hotosynthesis

2. Cata!olism or Destructive #eta!olism: “The #rocess that #roduces the energyreuired for all activity in the cells. 9n this #rocess cells brea& down large molecules,mostly carbohydrates and fats to release energy.” !xamples are digestion andrespiration.



/n0ormation e+hnology

@ntro%uction

He2nition: “The #rocessing and distribution of data)using com#uter,

telecommunications and digital electronics.” Comp(ter: “An electronic machine, o#erating under the control of instructions stored in

its own memory that can acce#t data, mani#ulate data, according to the s#eci(ed rules,#roduce results and store the results for future use.” Hata: “ A collection of un#rocessed facts (gures and symbols.”

9nformation: “ 3ata that is organi'ed, meaningful and useful.”

A))lications o @normation Technolog':

1. !d(ation: 9m#ortant learning tools. 5. Siene: /esearch, 3evelo#ment, 2eather forecasting, 6arthua&es, hurricanes,

+enetics, Astronomical Mbservations, -atellite.. Comm(niation: 9nternet, obile, 2ireless-. 3(siness:. #overnment: 6conomic 3evelo#ment/. !ntertainment:

7. !ngineering and Tehnology: 7onstruction, 3esignation etc,. 6edial: @ltrasonogra#hy, 67+, 66+, 6+, /9, -creening of blood, laser -urgery,

6ndosco#y etc. 4istor' o Com)uter

@renh philosopher, mathematiian and physiist laise as+al invented a 6ahine in1/-5 that added and s($trated, a(tomatially arrying and $orro0ing digits from ol(mn tool(mn. A 3ritish mathematiian and sientist harles a##age invented a HiDerene6ahine 0ith 5 deimal apaities that o(ld solve mathematial pro$lems. *e inventedanother mahine alled the Analytial !ngine 0hih 0as onsidered the mehanialpre(rsor of the modern omp(ter. *e is onsidered the father of omp(ter. Another 3ritishmathematiian, Alan !rning invented T(rning 6ahine in 14/ that o(ld proesse?(ations 0itho(t h(man diretions. The T(rning 6ahine resem$led a(tomati type0riter

that (sed sym$ols for math and logi instead of letters. *e intended the Hevie to $e a(niversal mahine. *is mahine 0as the theoretial pre(rsor to the modern digitalomp(ter. *e is onsidered no0 the father of modern omp(ter.The $ive +enerations o Com)uter

1. Ba((m T($es 14-)/:5. Transistors 14/)/. 9ntegrated Cir(its 14/)71-. 6iroproessors 1471)%resent. Arti2ial 9ntelligene: %resent F 3eyond “The study and engineering of intelligent

machines ca#able of #erforming the same &inds of functions that characteri'e humanthought.” 9t is a (eld of 7om#uter -cience, #erforming tas&s more com#lex and far fromthe realm of actual thought.

4o0 Com)uter "or, Com)uter 4ar%0are

23 9np(t: oysti, Sanner, To(h %anel, 6irophone, 6o(se, Ley$oard, Camera?3 8(tp(t: BHU &6onitor, %roPetor, =CH', Speaer F headset, %lotter, %rinter

&9mpat, +on)9mpat'3 Storage:

a. 9nternal 6emory: om, A6, @lash, Cahe, egisters$. !xternal 6emory:

i. 6agneti Storage 6edia: *ard Hrive, @loppy His ii. 8ptial Storage 6edia: CH, HBHiii. 6agneto)optial Storage:



F3 %roessing Hevies:i. The Central %roessing Unit

a. Arithmeti =ogial Unit$. Control Unit

Com)uter (ot0are

23 System Soft0area. 8perating System$. Utility Soft0are: Anti)vir(s, 3a)(p (tilities, His Cheers, Cleaners

?3 Appliation Soft0are: %aage, C(stom, @ree0are, %($li Homain, Share0are Com)arison o (ot0are an% 4ar%0are

Com)uter Programming 5anguages

23 =o0 =evel?3 *igh =evel

T')es o Com)uter

23 Higital and Analog(e?3 *y$rid Comp(ter

ange o Com)uter A!ilit'

23 6iro?3 6ini3 6iniframes

F3 S(per Comp(ter Com)uter <et0or,s: “The communication of com#uters with each other8s through a

series of connections and associated hardware called 1etwor&.” 9t has divided into t0o23 =A+: “ A local area networ& that consists of several 07s or wor&stations connected to

a s#ecial com#uter called a server, often within the same building or oice #remises.”?3 ;A+: “2ide area networ&s are networ&s that s#an large geogra#hical area such as

communication lin&s cross metro#olitan, regional or national boundaries over a longdistance.”

Com)uter Mirus

• He2nition: “ A com#uter#rogram usually hidden within another seemingly innocuous#rogram that #roduces co#ies of it and insets them into other #rograms or (les, and#erforms a malicious action such as destruction of data.”

• 9nfetions: 3oot reords, @iles, 6aros, His Cl(sters and 3ath @iles et.

• *o0 Spread

1. @rom internet 2. @rom e)mail3. @rom a Comp(ter +et0or

• Symptoms

1. Comp(ter programs tae longer to load than normal. 2. *ard Hrive onstantly r(ns o(t of free spae.3. +e0 2les eep appearing on the system and 0e don>t no0 they ame from.4. Strange so(nds or $eeping noises from omp(ter$. Strange graphi on monitor

. @iles have strange names'. Una$le to aess hard drive.(. %rograms at erratially

• Safe Comp(ting %raties

1. =oad soft0are from original diss or CH>s only. 2. !xe(te only the programs of 0hih yo( are familiar as to their origin.3. System on2g(ration $y the at(al person4. %ass0ord protetion$. Che all programs do0nloaded from internet. Anti)vir(s installation

physical sciences.docx

Documents