1

Photographicrules:

Abeginning,middle,andperhaps,end.

AndrewMurdoch,BA(Hons)Photography.

Supervisor:MarkDunlop.WordCount:10,974

2

Form4 MEDI10015 ArtResearchProjectHonoursDissertationFinalSubmissionTobecompletedinfullandboundintodissertationaftertitlepage.Surname:Murdoch FirstName(s):Andrew

BannerNo.B00211916 Session:2011‐2012

Programme:BA(Hons)Photography

ResearchProjectSupervisor:MarkDunlop

DissertationTitle:Photographicrules:Abeginning,middle,andperhaps,end.

PlagiarismStatementIcertifythisisallmyownworkandhavesubmittedthiswithclearknowledgeoftheuniversity’sguidelinesandpolicyonplagiarism:

SIGN:

EthicsStatement(seeBlackboardforRes.Project).

I certify this submitted this with clear knowledge of the university’s guidelines and School ofMedia,LanguageandMusicpolicyonethics:

SIGN:

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Contents

Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................4

Methodology

Analysis‐CombinedAnalysis .......................................................................................................................5‐FormalAnalysis .............................................................................................................................5‐ContextualAnalysis......................................................................................................................8‐Comparison......................................................................................................................................9

Theory

‐Post‐Modernism ......................................................................................................................... 10‐Formalism ..................................................................................................................................... 11

LiteratureReview

Impressionism .............................................................................................................................. 13Inventionofphotography ........................................................................................................ 15PerceptionsofPhotography.................................................................................................... 17PhotographicRules..................................................................................................................... 20

ArtifactAnalysis

Subvertingtherules ................................................................................................................... 23Post‐warJapanesePhotography........................................................................................... 23‐DaidoMoriyama ......................................................................................................................... 26‐HiroshiSugimoto........................................................................................................................ 30‐ShomeiTomatsu......................................................................................................................... 34AnselAdams................................................................................................................................... 35Photographasacommunicator............................................................................................. 37Breakingrulesasachoice........................................................................................................ 41Photographingsubjectswithnoform ................................................................................ 44‐TrentParke ................................................................................................................................... 45‐ThomasJoshuaCooper ............................................................................................................ 48

Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 51Listofplates ....................................................................................................................................... 55

Bibliography....................................................................................................................................... 57

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Introduction

Thisresearchprojectwilladdresstheconceptoftechnicalruleswithin

photography,thepossiblereasonsforbreakingtheserulesandtheresultsof

doingso.

Itwilldothisinseveralways.Byexploringphotography,givingconsiderationto

thedefinitionofthephotograph,itwilllookatthecircumstancesaroundthe

inventionofphotographyanditsdevelopmenttocurrentpractice.Investigation

willbemadeintothenotionofrules,wheretheserulescomefromandwhy

imagesareoftenclassifiedascorrectorincorrect.Theprimarythreadof

investigationwillbetolookatwhetherimagesthatdonotadheretothe

traditionalconventionsofphotographyelevatethemselvesabovethosethatdo

inanyway.Considerationwillalsobegiventohowfollowingtherules,ornot,

affectshowwellimagesareabletoservethebasicfunctionofimparting

information.Assuch,justificationforbreakingruleswillbeexplored.

Parallelstothehistoryofothertypesofart,namelypainting,willbedrawn.

Contextualanalysiswillbeusedtoexamineifphotographersarechoosingto

breaktherulesforsimilarreasonsthatcausedpainterstomoveawayfrom

strivingtocreateultrarealisticworksandadoptmoreimpressionisticstyles.

Throughoutthedissertationconsiderationwillbegiventothethemeofcontext–

howwhatishappeningaroundphotographyandphotographershasmadethem

chosetoworkinonewayratherthananother.Thecontextoftheimages

themselveswillalsobeconsidered;arephotographsthatadheretotherules

vieweddifferentlytothosethatdonotandhasthisinfluencedthepractitioner’s

choices.

Thestylesofphotographythatarebeingcomparedwillbedefinedbyciting

imagesfrompractitionersofeach.Wherepossible,thecomparisonswillbemade

withexamplesofphotographerswhoworkwithsimilarsubjectmatterssuch

thatadirectcomparisonintheapproachcanbemade.

5

Methodology–Analysis

CombinedAnalysis

Imageswillbeanalysedusingacombinationofformalandcontextualanalysis.

Workbeinganalysedwillincludeexamplesofimagescreatedbyphotographers

whodofollowtherulesandthosewhodonot.Therewillbeimagesfrom

photographerswhomakeaconsciousdecisiontodisregardtherules:doingsoin

ordertorealisetheircreativevision,andfromthosewhodosoasacompromise;

photographersworkinginconditionswhichdonotallowforthecreationof

technicallyperfectimages.Theseimageswillbeanalysedinordertodetermine

thereasonsandjustificationsfortheapproachthephotographerhastaken.

Imageswillbeanalysedformally;takingtheimageitselfanddiscussingthe

content,subject,tones,coloursetcandcontextually;lookingatwhereandwhen

theimagewasmade,bywhom,andforwhatpurpose.

FormalAnalysis

Formalanalysisdealswiththatwhichcanbeuniversallyacceptedasdefiniteand

assuchcanbethemosteasilyunderstoodanalysismethod.Forexample,a

formalanalysisofanimagewouldidentifytheelementswithinit;whatis

actuallypictured,thecoloursusedandinthecaseofblackandwhiteimages,the

useoflightanddarktones.Itcouldalsodealwiththetechniquesused;wasafast

shutterspeedusedtofreezemotionoralongeronewhichresultedinablurred

image,istheentireimageinfocusorisonlyapartoftheimage.Althoughitisnot

alwaysknownorobvious,formalanalysisofanimagecouldalsolookat

equipmentused,thetypeofcamera,wideangleversustelephotolens,image

format,filmordigital.

Becauseformalanalysisissoconcernedwithfactasopposedtointerpretation

itsuseinthecriticismofphotographyoftenleadstotechnicallyconcerned

questionswhichonlyhaveayesornoanswerbeingaskedofanimage.Inorder

tosatisfythesequestionsphotographersmaychoosetoadopttechniquesand

followrulesthatwouldensuretheirimageswereanalysedasbeingcorrect.

6

Formalanalysisdoesnotdealwithwhyanyofthesethingshavebeendone.It

doesnotlookatwhythephotographerdecidedtoemployacertaintechniqueor

tocomposeanimagethewaytheyhave.Itdoesnotconsideranythingotherthan

theimageitself.However,D’Allevawrites,

“…there’snosuchthingasapureformalanalysisthatistotally

divorcedfromcontextualanalysis.Thisisbecauseyou,theviewer,do

provideakindofcontext.”(D’Alleva,2010,p27).

Itisonlythroughtheirexperiencesofviewingandparticipatinginphotography

thataviewerorcriticcanidentifythattheapproachphotographerslike

MoriyamaandTomatsuoftentakeisnotatraditionalone.

i.

Moriyama,1987,TightsinShimotakaido[photograph]

ii.

Tomatsu,1961,Nagasaki:Meltedbottle[photograph]

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Similarly,itisonlybecauseaviewermighthaveexperiencedtheplacestheysee

insomeone’sphotographsthattheycanknowwhethertheyhaveaccurately

portrayedtheplaceornot.

Formalanalysiswillbeusedtoidentifyimagesthatappeartofollowtherules

andthosewhichdonotanditwilldemonstratethedifferencesbetweenthem.

Therewillbediscussionofwhyanentirelyformalanalysisoftheimagesone

makesmightenableanassessmentofhowtechnicallycorrecttheyarebutalso

thatacontextualanalysisisoftenrequiredwhenpurelyrepresentational

technicalimagemakingisnottheonlydesiredoutcome.Formalanalysisofsome

examplesofsimilarsubjectmattersphotographedintraditionalandnon‐

traditionalstyleswillbemadetoevaluateifthereisanybenefitordetrimentin

breakingsomeoftheruleswhenyouwanttomakeanimagethatcommunicates

ordescribessomething.

8

ContextualAnalysis

Contextualanalysisisadeeperconsiderationoftheartist’smotives,influences

andmessages.D’Alleva(2010p52)writesthatcontextualanalysistriesto

“understandtheworkofartinaparticularculturalmoment”.

Itlooksatwhytheartisthasincludedcertainthingswithinthecompositionand

whyaparticularpointofviewhasbeenchosen?Italsoassesseswhatinfluence

willtheartist’sbackgroundandthatofthepatronorvieweroftheworkhaveon

theinterpretationofit.

iii.

Adams,1927,BidalveilFall[photograph]

Whilecontextualanalysisdealswiththingswhichcanbesaidtobefairlycertain,

i.e.wecanbefairlycertainthatoneofthethingsthatinformedAnselAdams’

choiceofphotographicsubjectwashislivingwithinYosemiteNationalPark,

thesethingsaremuchmoreopentointerpretationandmanyofthequestions

askedinacontextualanalysiscouldonlybeansweredwithanycertaintybythe

artistortheindividualviewerconcerned.

Contextualanalysiswillbeusedwithinthisdissertationtolookatwhatwas

happeningintheworldandinparticular,inParisiansociety,thatstimulatedthe

riseoftheImpressionistpaintingmovementandhowthisrelatesto

photography.Itwillassesswhethertherearesimilarmotivesdriving

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photographerstobreaktherulesnowasthereweredrivingpainterstomove

awayfromstrivingforultrarealisticrepresentationsatthestartofthe19th

century.Contextualanalysiswillbeusedalongsideformalanalysistoevaluate

non‐traditionalphotographsascommunicatorsbyconsideringhowcertain

situationsremovetheabilityforthephotographertocreatetraditionallycorrect

images,lookingatwhethertheinformationlosttomotionblurormissedfocusis

significantwhenitwouldbeimpossibletoproduceamoretechnicallycorrect

imageandwhethertheinclusionofthingslikebluractuallyenablestheviewerto

betterunderstandwhatwashappening.

Comparison

Asjustificationsforimagesthatbreaktherulesandimagesthatfollowthemare

tobeconsidered,comparisonwillbeused.Workswillbecomparedformally;

evaluatingthecontentofeachandhowwellitfulfilsitspurpose,and

contextually;lookingintothebackgroundoftheauthorandthecontextofthe

worktodeterminewhythechosenapproachhasbeentaken.

Wherepossible,comparisonswillbemadebetweenphotographsofsimilar

subjectmattersuchthattheeffectsofusingdifferenttechniquescaneasilybe

appreciated.

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Methodology­Theory

Post‐Modernism

Post‐modernismisnotatheoryinitsownrightbutratheracollectionoftheories

andpracticesthatcentrearoundtakingnon‐traditionalapproachestotraditional

ideas.Veryoftenthepost‐modernartistwillusenewandunusualmaterialsor

techniquestocreatetheirwork,intentionallycontrastinglow,cheapmaterials

withhighartformslikesculpture.SarahLucasisanexampleofsuchanartist;in

herBunnyGirlseriesshehastakenapost‐modernapproachtosculptureby

usingnylontightsandcottonwaddingtocreatefiguresandintheexample

below,hasclippedthemcrudelytoanunexceptionalchair.

iv.

Lucas,S.1997.PaulineBunny[mixedmediasculpture]

Post‐modernistworksveryoftencontaincontradictionsandarecreatedwitha

viewtobreakingwithconventionverymuchinmind.Assuch,photographers

whointentionallybreakthetraditionalrulesofthecraftcouldbeseenasmaking

aninherentlypost‐modernrebellion.

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Formalism

Becauseimagesthathavedifferinglevelsofrealismarebeinganalysed,itwould

makesensetoconsider,asformalisttheorydoes,theimagewithnoregardfor

thatofwhichitisanimage.

v.

Still,1947,1947­R­No.1[oilpainting]

”IfStill’slargestpainting,andespeciallyhishorizontalones,failso

oftentorealizethemonumentalopennesstheypromise,itisnotonly

becausehewillchooseasurfacetoolargeforwhathehastosay;itis

alsobecausetoomanyofhissmallercolourareaswillfailreallyto

functionasareasandwillremainsimplypatches”(Greenberg.1962)

Greenbergonlyeverdiscussestheartworkitself;hebelievsthatthepieceisall

thatmatters.Ifthistypeoftheorywereappliedtophotographythenitwouldnot

matterifruleswerefollowedorbrokenastherelationshipbetweentheimage

12

andthesubjectwouldbeirrelevant;allthatwouldmatterwouldbethefinal

imageandthiswouldbeassessedintermsofhowtonesandcoloursinteracton

theprint,thesizeoftheprintandthetypeofpaperithasbeenmadeon.

Greenbergarguesthatitisintheinspirationandconceptionthatthevaluein

artworkslie.

vi.

Newman,1949,Dionysius[oilpainting]

“Newman’spictureslookeasytocopy,andmaybetheyreallyare.But

theyarefarfromeasytoconceive,andtheirqualityandmeaninglies

almostentirelyintheirconception.”(Greenberg.1962)

Greenberg’s,oftencontroversial,theorieswillbeappliedtophotography,

investigatingif,inanagewheretechnologyallowsanyonetomaketechnically

proficientimages,itisthemoreconceptual,rulebreakingoneswhichstandout

fromthecrowd.

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LiteratureReview

Impressionism

InthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyFrancesawagreatdealofsocial

unrest;severalrevolutions,theCoupd’Etat,theFrancoPrussianWarandthe

Commune.ThingswerechangingforFrenchartistswithintheartscenetoo‐in

1859thewell‐knownandrespectedSalonexhibitionincludedaphotography

sectionand,in1862,Frenchcourtsdeclaredphotographyasanartform.

“…thecamerawastoabrogateoneofthe,admittedlyminor,functions

withwhichartists…hadalwaysbeenentrusted:asdocumentersof

eventsandappearances.”(Denvire,1992.P14)

Whilesomepaintersinitiallymetphotographywithdisdain,theImpressionists

realisedthat,astheywerenolongerrequiredtoproducerealisticdocumentary

works,theywerefreetopursueartforthesakeofart.

Impressionistpainterswereleavingtheirstudiostoworkoutside;theywere

workingwithmorespeed,inordertocapturesubjectswhonolongersatrigid

forthem.Theywerebecomingmoreconcernedwithtime,lightandspaceandno

longerwantedtopaint‘things’butrather,thelightasitfellonthesethings.The

popularisationofthesteamengineopenedtheImpressionist’smindstothe

natureofvisualperceptionastheynoticedhowthingsappearedtoblurwhen

theytraveledathighspeed.Thesteamenginealsofounduseinprintingpresses,

meaningthatbooksandjournalsbecamemoreavailablethaneverbefore.Much

waswrittenaboutart,andalsoscientificadvances,whichopenedthe

Impressionists’eyesandmindstothinkingaboutthenatureofsightand

perception.

FurthersocialchangeshappeninginParisstrengthenedthenewImpressionist

movement.Anincreaseinlevelsofwealthpromptedmoresocialdiscourse,

interestinartandthebirthoftheartdealer.

Somepaintersevenembracedphotographyasanaidfortheirart.Meissonier

andDegasworkedwithscientificallyconcernedphotographerslikeMuybridgein

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ordertostudystructure,formandmovementinawayneverbeforepossible.

(Denvire,1992,.P15)Fromthisitcanbeseenthatevenwhenphotographywas

practicedwithscientificintentions,ithaditsplaceintheartworld.

vii.

Muybridge,E.1887.Jumpingahurdle;saddle;bayhorseDaisyPlate640ofAnimalLocomotion,1887[photograph]

viii.

Degas,E.1878‐80.HorseRacingBeforeStarting.[pastel]

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Inventionofphotography

Beforerulesandthevalidityofphotographicimagesthatbreakthemcanbe

discussedtheremustfirstbeadefinitionofwhataphotographactuallyis.Isit

simplyarecordofamomentintimeandspace,awaytorememberaneventora

person’sfacewhererealismandaccuracyareparamount,orisaphotographic

imagejustascapableofbeingmoresignificantthanwhatlayinfrontofthe

camerainthewaythatapaintingorasculptureismoresignificantthanthe

sceneorsitterbeingportrayed?

Itishardtoanswersuchaquestiontodaygivenhowwidespreadand

commonplacetheuseofcamerasandphotographyhavebecomesoitmightbe

prudenttolookback,tothebirthofphotography,andassessthepurposeofits

invention.

Theinventionofphotographywas,perhapsunsurprisingly,precededbythe

inventionofthecameraormoreaccurately,thecameraobscura.

“ThetermcameraobscuracomesfromtheLatinmeaningdarkroom.

Thecameraobscurawas,indeed,aroomlargeenoughforpeopleto

enter.Theroomhadasmallopeningonthetoporonesideanda

whitesurfaceoppositethehole.”(Schranz.n.d.citedinStroebel,

1993,p75‐76)

Cameraobscurasexistedinoneformoranotherpossiblyasearlyasthe4th

centuryBCbutweremostlyusedtomakeobservations‐aboutthenatureand

propertiesoflightandtosafelyviewsolareclipses.In1558GiovanniBattista

DellaPortawroteinhisbook,MagiaeNaturalis(NaturalMagic),thatthecamera

obscuracouldbeusedasanaidtodrawingandbythe17thCenturyartistswere

makingregularuseamongstotheropticalaidsofthecameraobscura,apractice

thatresultedintheincreaseinlevelofaccuracyanddetailinartworksofthis

period.

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ix.

(Niépce,1826,ViewfromtheWindowatLeGras.[photograph]

Atthestartofthe19thcentury,asthecameraobscurawasbeingdevelopedasan

artist’stool,discoverieswerebeingmadeintheworldofchemistryrelatingto

howcertainmaterialsbehavedwhenexposedtolight.NicéphoreNiépce,an

amateurscientist,hadbeenexperimentingwiththelightsensitivepropertiesof

bitumenandhadusedlighttomakesomeetchings.Niépce’shandwastoo

unsteadytotracetheimagethatthecameraobscuraprojectedandhesoughtto

createapermanentimagefromtheprojectionofthecameraobscurausingwhat

hehaddiscoveredaboutbitumen.Usingapewterplatecoatedwithbitumen

dissolvedinlavenderoilandexposedtotheimagecreatedbyacameraobscura

createdthefirsteverphotograph.LaterNiépcewentontoexperimentwith

silvercompoundsbasedonJohannHeinrichSchultz’sdiscoverythatsilver

nitratedarkenswhenexposedtolightandheworkedwithLouisDaguerre,the

inventorofthedaguerreotype.(Alinder,n.d.,citedinSchranz,1993,p154‐156)

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PerceptionsofPhotography

Whileittooksomefurtherdevelopmentuntiltheimagecreatedbyusing

photosensitivematerialscouldequalthelevelsofdetailthatanartistworking

fromtheprojectionofthecameraobscuracouldachieve,Niépce’schemical

solutionimmediatelyremovedtheartist,andthustheirinterpretation,fromthe

imagemakingprocess.

“…itwaspossibletomakearecordofvisiblerealitynotlimitedbythe

patience,skill,andunderstandingofthemaker,arecordnotfiltered

throughthehabitsofhistrainedhand,hiseye,andhisvisual

memory.”(Thompson,J.2003.p5‐6)

InhisbookTruthandPhotography,Thompsonalsotouchesontheconceptof

inclusioninthephotographicimage;hecitesanessaybyphotographicpioneer

WilliamFoxTalbotwhichtalksaboutdetailswhichmighthavebeenleftoutofa

paintingordrawingbutwhichthephotograph,byitsmerenature,includes.

“Itfrequentlyhappens…‐andthisisoneofthecharmsofphotography

–thattheoperatorhimselfdiscoversonexamination,perhapslong

afterwards,thathehasdepictedmanythingshehadnonotionofat

thetime.Sometimesinscriptionsanddatesarefounduponthe

buildings,orprintedplacardsmostirrelevant,arediscoveredupon

theirwalls:sometimesadistantdial‐plateisseen,anduponit–

unconsciouslyrecorded–thehourofthedayatwhichtheviewwas

taken.”(Talbot,1844citedinThompson,2003,p5)

Becauseofitsmechanicalnaturephotographywasimmediatelyseenasbeing

moreobjectivethanpaintingandinpursuitofdevelopingitsimpartialitymany

peoplehavesoughttodevelopboththeequipment,andthecraftandpractices

involvedwiththemedium.

Thereweresomephotographershoweverwhosoughttonegatetheincreased

accuracyassociatedwithphotography.EdwardSteichenattachedavibrating

motortohiscameraandprintedusingthebromoilprocess–ahighlyskilled

techniquethatapplicationbyhandofinktoahardenedgelatinprintandvery

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rarelyproducestwoidenticalprints–toobscurefinedetailinhisimages.

Thompson(2003)writesthatSteichenandhiscontemporarycamera‐artists

aimedtocapture“thebeautiful–aqualitywhichresidesintheviewerandnotin

thethingviewed.”

x.

Steichen,1904,ThePond–Moonlight[photograph–bromoilprint]

xi.

Steichen,1903,SelfPortrait[photograph–photogravureprint]

Inthisself‐portraitSteichenlooksmorelikeapainterthanaphotographerashe

poseswithhispaletteandbrushandthisperhapssuggeststhathesawhimself

ratherasanartistthanasatechnician,workingthecameratomakerealistic

documents.Steichenwouldbebutoneexampleofmanypractitionerswho,at

19

thattime,wereproducingimagesusingphotographictechniquesbutwhosaw

themselvesashavingmoreincommonwithpainters.

xii.

Mortensen,1935,Fragment[photograph]Mortensen,aphotographerderidedalmostintooblivionbythegroupf64forhis

pictorialapproach,wasparticularlyfondofworkingoverhisimageswitharazor

blade;inFragmenthehasappliedamaskingfluidtothenegativetophotograph

hismodelwithoutherheadorarmsandlateraddedthenicksandscarswitha

blade.

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PhotographicRules

Althoughthemoderncameraisahugelyadvancedpieceoftechnologyandcan

producereasonablygoodimagesatalmostanyone’shandstherearestilllotsof

photographerswhochoosetolearnthecraftofphotographyandsetthingssuch

asexposureandfocusthemselves.Therearenumerousreasonsforchoosingto

dothisandthesecouldinclude,wantingtohavetheabilitytodealwithdifficult

lightingconditionswhichtheautomationsinthecameramightnotbeableto

adequatelyhandle,tofeelmoreconnectedwithandresponsibleforaworkorto

havetheabilitytoproduceanimagewhichisnotjustthecamera’sideaofa

representationofascenebutratherinwhichthephotographerhasmoreofa

hand.

Itwouldbealmostimpossibletoconsidertherulesofphotographywithout

referringtoAnselAdams,aphotographerwhowroteextensivelyonthesubject

ofthecraftofphotography.SucharethepopularityofAdams’booksthatthey

arestillconsideredtobea‘firstportofcall’forthosewhowishtolearntheirway

aroundacameraandthoughAdamsmakesregularreferencetonegativesand

printsitshouldbenotedthat,ingeneral,histeachingsareasapplicablenowas

everbecausethebasicfunctionsofthecamera,shutterspeed,aperture,focus,

focallengthetc,arejustthesamenowaswhenAdamswaswriting.

xiii.

Adams,1942,TheTetonsandSnakeRiver[photograph]

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InhisbookTheNegative,Adamsstatesthat,

“Ifthereissuchathingasaperfectnegative,itisoneexposedand

developedinspecificrelationtothevisualizedvaluesofthefunctional

orexpressiveprint.”(Adams,A.1981.p29.)

Thatistosaythatthecamerashouldbesetsuchthatwhenthephotographer

firestheshutter,theimagecaptured(bethatonfilmorbyadigitalsensor)is

appropriatetothewaythephotographervisualisedtheendimage.

ItshouldbenotedthatAdamsherereferstothefinaloutput,“print”,being

eitherfunctional;illustrativeofhowthesubjectorsceneappeared,or

expressive;possiblynotasthephotographedsceneorsubjectappearedbutas

thephotographerdesiresittoappear.InanotherpartofthebookAdamsrefers

tovisualisationas

“…aconsciousprocessofprojectingthefinalphotographicimagein

themindbeforetakingthefirststepsinactuallyphotographingthe

subject.”(Adams,A.1981.p1)

Heclaimstobe

“…convincedthatthebestphotographersofallaestheticpersuasions

“see”theirfinalphotographinsomewaybeforeitiscompleted,

whetherbyconsciousvisualisationorsomecomparableintuitive

experience.”(Adams,A.1981.p1)

Thesimplestformofvisualisation,andonewhichrelatesdirectlytothe

functionalintentionoftheprint,asAdamscallsit,wouldbetolookatthescene

orsubjectbeingphotographedandaimforasaccuratearepresentationofthat

aspossible.WhileAdamsandhiscontemporarieshadtorememberwhatthe

scenelookedlikeandwaituntiltheywerebackinthedarkroomandhad

developedandprintedtheirimagestoviewthem,themodernphotographer

usingadigitalcameracanviewtheimageimmediately,almostmissingoutthe

visualizationpartanddrawingdirectcomparisonbetweentheimageandreality.

Assuchaphotographerlookingtoassesshow‘correct’animagewasmight

consider:

22

• Focus–Istheimageinfocus?Ifselectivefocus(onlypartofimageisin

focus)isused,isthecorrectpartoftheimageinfocus?

• Blur/camerashake–Wastheshutterspeedsufficienttoensuretherewas

noblurringfromcamerashakeormotionblur?

• Whitebalance/colourrendition–Arethecoloursinthephotographthe

sameastheywereinreallife?

• Exposure–Isthereagoodmixoflightanddark?Istheredetailinallthe

areasoftheimageincludingthelightestanddarkestareas?

• Simplecomposition–Isthehorizonstraight?

Ifaphotographercanansweryestoallthosequestionsthentheimagein

questionwouldmostlikelybeanillustrativeandrealisticrepresentationofwhat

laybeforethecamerawhentheshutterwasfiredandifthiswastheaimofthe

photographertheycouldbesaidtohave‘correctly’composed,focusedand

exposedthatimage.

Inthecaseofthephotographerwhoaimstocreateanimagethatisarealistic

representationitiseasytodeterminewhatisandwhatisnotcorrectanddecide

whethertheimageisasuccess.Itismuchharderhowever,toassessthe

successfulnessofanimagewhenthephotographerhasaimedtodosomething

otherthanbeasrealisticaspossible.

23

ArtifactAnalysis

Subvertingtherules

Asmentionedpreviously,whilesomephotographersdidalltheycouldtofurther

therealisticandillustrativequalitiesofthephotograph,othersworkedtomake

photographswhichwerelessillustrative.Steichendidthisbyemploying

techniquesthatmadeanimagethatlookedlesslikeaphotographandmorelike

apainting;howeversomephotographerssoughttomaintainthephotographic

qualitiesoftheimagebuttosubverttherelationshipbetweentheimageand

realityandstillothershaveinvestigatedtechniqueswhichremovethecamera

fromthephotographicprocessentirely.

Post‐warJapanesePhotographyxiv.

Moriyama,1986,Midnight[photograph‐gelatinsilverprint]

24

xv.

Sugmoto,1997,ChryslerBuilding[photograph‐gelatinsilverprint]

xvi

Tomatsu,1969,Untitled[photograph]

Moriyama,SugimotoandTomatsuareallphotographerswhoseemtobe

unhinderedbyanyneedtomaketheirimagesconformtorules.Theyhaveafew

otherthingsincommonalso‐theyworkmainlyoutdoorsinurban

surroundings,inthestreet,theyareallJapanese,theywereallprolificinthe

1960sand70s.

“Economicrecoverywasnottheonlythinghappeninginthe1960sin

Japan.Likeelsewherearoundtheworld,lifechanged,andthe

InformationAge–orPost‐Modernism,orotherunfriendlyterms–

suddenlydawned.Inart,ideaswerebig(Conceptualism),andsome

25

Japanesewerethinkingveryhardaboutrecoveringtheirnative

traditionsinacontemporarymanner,andbyacknowledgingtheir

locale,havinginternationalrelevance.”(Davis,1995,p100)

Thesocialandpoliticalcontextthatsurroundspost‐warJapanesephotography

couldbeseenasveryreminiscentofthatwhichsurroundedtheemergenceof

Impressionism.TheImpressionistshadlivedthroughseveralrevoltsandawar;

post‐warJapanesephotographers,likethosementionedabove,hadlived

throughtheSecondWorldWarand,inparticular,thebombingofHiroshimaand

Nagasaki.TheImpressionistsleftthestudioandstartedworkingoutsideto

capturechanginglightandpeoplegoingabouttheirbusinessamongsta

developingcity;thepost‐warJapanesephotographerswerefascinatedbythe

regenerationoftheircountryafterthedevastationofthewarandtheinfluence

thatoccupyingAmericanforceshaduponthepopulation.TheImpressionists

benefitedfromtechnologicaldevelopmentsthroughtheincreaseincirculationof

booksandjournalsandtheabilitytotravelfasterandfartherthananyeraof

artistsbeforethem;post‐warJapanesephotographerswereexperiencingthe

beginningsoftheInformationAgewhichbroughtwithitanewwaveof

increasedcommunicationandknowledge.

TheideaofrecoveringnativetraditionscouldberelatedtoSugimoto’sseascapes

payinghomagetoKatsushikaHokusai‐Sugimoto’scompositionsareextremely

simpleandminimalist,echoingthetraditionalJapaneseminimalismthat

manifestsitselfinHokusai’scrispline‐workandselectivepalette.Thesubject

matteritself,thesea,ispresentinmuchofHokusai’swork.

Denvir(1992.P12)writesthattheImpressionistswerelabeledpolitically,and

morally,becauseofhowtheypainted,“tobearevolutionaryinartwastobea

revolutionaryineverything,”.Post‐warJapanesephotographersmayhavehoped

forasimilarreception,bybreakingtherulesofphotography,whichwouldhave

beenverymuchaWesternconstruct,theywererebellingandbeingseenas

rebellingagainstthepeoplewhohaddestroyedtheircountryandthenoccupied

it.

26

DaidoMoriyama

WhetherwithhishighlycontrastedvisionsoftheseediersidesofJapanesecity

nightlife­hisimagesofhisconquestsinTokyo’sLoveHotelsintentionally

defocusedorblurredtoobscureidentitiesorwithhisre‐photographedimages

fromnewspapersandadverts,Moriyama’simagesdifferfromthetraditional,

rulefollowingphotograph,mostnotablyintheirlackoffine,discernabledetail.

Moriyama’simagestendtobeofquickmoments;indeedKazuoNishiiciteshim

ashavingsaid,

“…mostofmysnapshotsIhavetakenfromamovingcar,orwhile

running,withoutafinder,andinthoseinstancesonemightsaythatI

amtakingthepicturesmorewithmybodythanwithmyeyes”

(Moriyama,n.d.citedinNishii,2001.P13).

xvii.

Moriyama,n.d.,Untitled[photograph]

InthisimageMoriyamausesthelightfromthestairwayentrancetoasubwayor

underpasstocontrastwiththedarknessofthestreet.Thesubwayentranceis

veryangularandhascastlargeshadowsonanearbywall.Theimageishighly

contrastedwithlargeareasofpurewhiteandpureblackwherenodetailcanbe

seenandtheimageisslightlyblurredfromthecamerabeingmovedduringthe

exposure.

Thehighcontrastinthisimagegivesitamysteriousquality;thebrightlight

emanatingfromundergroundseemsalmostotherworldlyandwhencomparedto

27

thedarknessofthestreetitisalmostasifthestairwayisanescapefromthe

griminessandseedinessofthecity.Moriyamahasincludednodetailsoflocation

here‐therearenosignsorshopfrontswhichwouldallowtheviewertoidentify

whetheritwasshotinJapanorawesterncountry.Thisgivestheimagea

universitality,thisescapetoapurer,brighterplaceisn’tasingularity,existing

onlyononestreetinonecity,itissomethingthatanyonemightfindintheircity.

Thecontrastalsoobscuresdetailswiththeresultthattheviewerisdrawninto

theimageastheytrytodecipherandunderstandit.Theblurintheimage

suggestsMoriyamawasonthemoveasheshotthis,perhapswalkingbrisklyor

beingconveyedinacar.Moriyamamighthaveusedthisblurtotellusthathe

passedbytheescapetoalighter,purerplace.Perhapshefeels,orwantsthe

viewertofeel,trappedinthecity.

xviii.

Moriyama,n.d.,OnTheBedII[photograph]

OnTheBedIIispartofaseriesofintimateportraitswherethesubject’sidentity

isalwayshidden.Theportraitsintheseriesallappeartobetakeninhotelrooms.

Inthis,intentionallydefocusedpiece,thefemalesubjectislyingnakedonabed

withherlegsspreadinquiteasexualpose.Theimageisdefocusedtothepoint

wherethesubject’sidentityiscompletelyobscured,asarethedetailsoftheir

bodyandthehotelroom.

Moriyamamightbeusingblurtoprotectthesubjectsidentity–Nishiiwritesthat

Moriyamatoldanotherphotographerwhoquestionedhimonhisapproachthat

heleftthewomeninthisseriesunidentifiedashepreferrednottobragabouthis

lovers–buthemighthavetakenittotheextenthehasinthisimageinorderto

28

depersonalizethesubjectandthusmakeanimageofasubjectwhichwould

normallystirfeelingsofvoyeurisminitsviewersmoreuniversallyacceptable.

ThisimageisindicativeofMoriyama’sdetail‐lessstyleandthisapproachhas

againherecreatedanimagethatislessaboutoneparticularwomaninone

particularhotelroomandmoresomethingthatanyviewercanprobablyrelate

to.Theapproachalsoleavesuswiththefeelingthatwhilethissceneis

somethingthatMoriyamahasexperienced,heperhapsfeelsdisconnectedfrom

it.

xix.

Moriyama,1969,Smash­Up[photograph]

Thisisaphotographofaposterpromotingroadsafety.Itisofhighcontrast,

probablymoresothantheoriginalimageandintheupperleftcornertheglossy

surfaceofthepostercanbeseenreflectingalightsource.

Moriyamamayhaveincludedthereflectionintheuppercorneroftheimagein

ordertomakeitclearthatthiswasare‐photographedimage,apracticethatwas

unheardofatthetime.Warholhadbeenappropriatingimagesfoundin

newspapersandmagazine,indeedverysimilartypesofimages,andreproducing

theminprintbutMoriyamawasoneofthefirstphotographerstouse

photographytoappropriatephotographicimages(Nishii,2001.P34).

29

xx.

Warhol,1963,OrangeCarCrashFourteenTimes[silkscreenprint]

A

Justashisotherworkveryoftenbreaksrulesofcompositionandfocus,by

pioneeringre‐photographyMoriyamawasgoingagainstwhatwasseenasa

normaluseofthecamera.

30

HiroshiSugimoto

xxi.

Sugimoto,2009,LightningFields131[photograph]

OfhisLightningFieldsseriesHiroshiSugimoto(2009)writes,

“Theideaofobservingtheeffectsofelectricaldischargeson

photographicdryplatesreflectsmydesiretore‐createthemajor

discoveriesofthesescientificpioneersinthedarkroomandverify

themwithmyowneyes.”

Sugimoto’sapproachisoneofcamera‐lessphotographyandtheimages

producedbreaksomanyrulesthattheyalmostdonotqualifyasphotographs.

Thisisanextremeexampleofanon‐traditionalapproachtophotographyand

Sugimoto’sLightningFieldsimagesaresodifferenttoanyotherphotography

thatitisdifficulttoanalysetheminthesamecontext.Infactitisdifficultto

analysetheminanysortofcontext.Theimagesarenotwellorpoorlyfocused;

theyarenotfocusedatallbecausenolenswasused.Thedegreeofrealismwith

whichthesubjectisrecreatedcannotbeanalysedbecausethereisnosubject.

Theseareimagesfortheirownsakeandtheonlytypeofanalysisthatcanreally

bemadeofthemwouldbeaformalone,tolookattheshapesandtones

containedwithinthem.OfcourseasD’Alleva(20120,p27)writes,theviewer

bringstheirowncontexttoeveryimagetheyviewandthiscanbeseeninthe

31

waythatanyonewhoviewsoneofSugimoto’sLightningFieldsimagestriesto

findfamiliarshapeswithinthechaosthathisprocesshascreated.

Sugimotoisnostrangertobreakingwithphotographictraditions,morethantwo

decadesbeforehewasmakinghisLightningFieldsimageshewaspaying

homage,inhisownway,toamuchearlierJapaneseartist,KatsushikaHokusai

withhisseascapesseries.

xxii.

Hokusai,c1820,TheBreakingWaveOffKanagawa[colourwoodblockprint]

xxiii.

Hokusai,1834,FujiSeenFromtheSea[colourwoodblockprint]

HokusaiwasaJapanesepainterandprintmaker,workingfromthelateeighteenthcenturyintotheearlynineteenth.

Hokusai’sworkhas,althoughitwouldnothavebeenpossibletosaywhenitwas

32

beingmade,averyphotographicnature.Hisimages,particularlyofthesea,show

lifefrozen,sharplyandwithgreatdetail.Atitsinceptionphotographyrequired

exposuresofhoursandassuch,fluid,fastmovingthingslikewaveswouldhave

beenrenderedasanindistinctblur.Notuntilthedevelopmentofhigher

sensitivityphotographicemulsionsmanydecadeslatercouldthecamerabeused

tocreatethetypeofimagethatHokusaihadmade.

xxiv.

Sugimoto,1990,IonianSea,SantaCesara,[Photograph]

FormostofhiscareerSugimotohasbeenmakingsimplecompositionsofthe

world’sseasforpartofhisTimeExposedseries.Althoughmostofhisseascapes

aremuchmoretraditionallyphotographicinappearancethanhisLightning

Fieldswork,theyarehardlywhatwouldbereferredtoasatypicalsubjectmatter

orcomposition.WiththehorizonplacedcentreofframeSugimoto’sSeascapes

aresplitintotwohalves,oneoccupiedbyanemptysky,voidofanydetail,and

theotherbyacalmsea.Thesearetheonlyelementsintheimages;evidenceof

human,oranimal,presenceisneverincluded.ThisworkofSugimoto’sisalmost

theantithesisofphotography.Oftenwithhiscamerafocusedpastinfinitysothat

theimageisincrediblyblurred,withdarkfiltersinfrontofthelenstocutdown

theamountoflightenteringthecameraandmakeexposuretimeshoursand

hourslong,theimagesarenotatallaboutcapturingwhatwasinfrontofthe

camerabutmoreaboutcapturingthetimethatsurroundsandpassesbythe

camera.Theironyofusingthecamera,apieceofapparatusmorethancapableof

33

freezingthemotionofthesea,tocreateanindistinctandblurredimage,

arguablymorepainterlythantheimagesofanartistworkingbeforethecamera’s

invention,willnotbelostonSugimoto.

xxv

Sugimoto,1982‐1996,Seascapes,[photographs]

Whilesomecriticsmightsaythatwaterandsky,especiallythestillwaterand

emptyskiesofSugimoto’sseascapes,aresubjectssounremarkablethattheydo

notmeritphotographingonce,nevermindoverandoverinthecourseofone’s

career,Sugimotowouldarguethat“theyvouchsafeourveryexistence.”(n.d.).

Byrepeatedlyphotographingtheseaandsky,alwayscomposedthesameway,

horizondividingtheframeintwo,Sugimotorevealsnuancesandsubtleties

impossibletocomprehendwhenviewingjustoneimage.Sugimotohasexhibited

andcollectedtheseimagesundervariousheadingsandtitles‐7days/7Nights,

TwiceasInfinityandEndofTimetonamebutafew‐allofwhichpointtothe

elementsofairandwaterbeingdeeplylinkedwiththepassageoftimeand

creationinhismind.

34

ShomeiTomatsu

xxvi

Tomatsu,1969,Kadena­cho,Okinawa,1969[photograph]

Inthisimage,madeduringhisfirstvisittoOkinawain1969asacorrespondent

forAsahiCamera(Jeffries.2001.P108.),Tomatsuhasintentionallyintroduced

blurbymovingthecameraduringtheexposure.Theimageishighlycontrasted,

likemuchofTomatsu’swork–andthatofmanyofhisJapanesecontemporaries‐

itbordersonchiaroscuro.Thesilhouetteofaplanedominatestheframeand

Tomatsuhasincludedsometreesorbushesinthelowerrightcornerofthe

frame.Althoughblurred,theplaneisidentifiableasaB‐52fromitsshapeandthe

presenceofthetreesimpliesthisimagewasshotincountrysideor,atleast,not

inanurbansetting.

Tomatsuisnotusingblurheretodescribeanythingaboutwhatishappeningin

theimageitselfbutmayhavebeenhintingatsomethingnotpictured‐the

turbulentnatureoftheAmericanoccupationofJapanatthistime.Hisuseofsuch

ahighcontrastfilmhasresultedinanimagethatisinlinewiththeminimalism

oftenseeninJapaneseartsandcraftshistorically.Thecompositionisalso

minimalist,thereisaplaneandsomegroundandsometrees.Thesimplicityof

thecompositionmeansthataswithmuchofTomatsu’swork,althoughdetails

areindecipherable,littleinformationisomittedthatwouldbepresentinannon‐

blurredversionofthesameimage.

35

AnselAdams

Adamswasamasterofthecraftofphotography.Thisiswellknown,andshould

beobviousfromwhatAdamscallsthe“optical‐imageaccuracy”(Adams.1981)of

hisimages.WhatislesswellknownhoweveristhatAdamsoftenusedhis

masteryofthephotographicprocesstocreatewhathetermed“departuresfrom

reality”(Adams.1981)inthetonalvaluesofhisimages.

SuchwasAdams’abilitywithhisequipmentthat,beforemakinganexposure,he

couldsetthecamerasuchastoproduceanegativewhich,whenprintedwould

renderspecificareasofhiscompositiontheexactshadeofgreythathedesired.

Adamscreatedhisdeparturesfromrealitybychoosingthetonesofhisfinalprint

nottoprovidethemostaccuraterepresentationofrealitybutinstead,torealise

hisvisionofthescene.

InthefollowingexcerptfromhisbookTheNegative(1981)Adamsdemonstrates

thedifferencesintonalitythatcanresultfromusingdifferentcolourfilterswhen

shootingwithpanchromaticglassplatesanddiscusseshowhechosethe

filtrationinthesecondexposuretobettercapturethevisualisationhehad.

xxvii

Adams,1981,TheNegative,p4‐5

Inthefirstexposure,madethroughayellowfilter,thereislesscontrast.The

differenceintonebetweenthefurthestawayridge,onthelefthandsideofthe

frame,andtheskyisminimal.Adamswritesthatherealised,withoutyetseeing

thedevelopedplate,thatthisexposure,

36

“Wouldnotexpresstheparticularmoodofoverwhelminggrandeur

thesceneevoked.(He)visualizedadarksky,deepershadows,anda

crisphorizoninthedistance”(1981,p5)

Adamsmadeanotherexposurethrougharedfilterandachievedtheresulthe

desired.

BestknownforhisblackandwhitelandscapesAdamswasofcourse

immediatelydepartingfromreality,forweseetheworld(whichAdamswas

photographing)incolournotmonotone.GiventhetimewhenAdamswas

workingitwouldhavebeenperfectlypossibleforhimtoshootincolour,infact,

heoftendidsoforcommercialclients.However,RichardWoodward(2009)

writesthatAdams“oncelikenedworkingincolortoplayinganout‐of‐tune

piano”andthatthecolourfilmsofthetimeweresocomplicatedthatevenAdams

hadtorelyonlabstoprocesshiscolourfilmforhim.Adams(1967)iscitedby

Woodward(2009)ashavingwritten,"Icanget—forme—afargreatersenseof

‘color'throughawell‐plannedandexecutedblack‐and‐whiteimagethanIhave

everachievedwithcolorphotography,”

37

Photographasacommunicator

Thischapterofthedissertationwilllookphotographsthataimtoinform.Itwill

considertheworkoftwophotographerswhoworkedconcurrentlyduringthe

SecondWorldWar.

xxviii

Capa,1944,OmahaBeach[photograph]

xxix

Rodger,1945,BoywalkinginBergen,Belsen[photograph]

38

Similarlyaged,CapaandRodgeroftenworkedcloselyandeventuallytogether,to

formtheagencyMagnum.Aswitnessedintheaboveexampleshowever,they

oftenproducedimagesofverydifferentstyles.

Baseduponthepurelytechnicalaspectsaspreviouslydiscussedinthis

dissertation,GeorgeRodger’simageontheleftwouldbemore‘correct’.Itis

sharplyfocused,shotwithanappropriateshutterspeedthathasensuredthere’s

nocamerashakethereareawiderangeoftonesanddetailinmostareasofthe

image.Theapertureusedhascreatedadepthoffieldsufficienttorenderthe

wholeimageinfocussothedetailsofthescenecanclearlybeobserved.

Incontrast,Capa’simagesuffersbadlyfrommotionblurandcamerashake;a

largeaperturehasbeenusedwhichresultsinthebackgroundbeingoutoffocus

andthereislittlediscernabledetailthere.Theimageisofmuchhighercontrast

thanRoger’sandthewaterandskydonotholdmuchdetailortexture.

Therecanbenodoubtthat,visually,Roger’simagecontainsmuchmoredetail

andassuch,moreinformation.Thelocationisclearlyidentifiableasaforest,the

bodiesthatlieatthesideoftheroadareevidenceoftheatrocitiesthathave

occurredinthislocationandthewaytheboyisapproachingthecamerasuggests

thephotographertobeafriendratherthanafoe.Capa’simageontheother

hand,showslittlemorethanasoldierwadingthroughwater.Infact,itisonlythe

soldiersfaceandhelmetthatcanbepositivelyidentified.Thereareobjectsand

structuresprotrudingfromthewaterinplacesbutitisimpossibletotellwhat

thesethingsare.Itisonlyoncewhereandwhenthisimagewastaken–the

context–isknown,thatitreallyhasanymeaning.

Ofcourse,itisnotnecessarythatthisinformationisexplicitlysuppliedwith

Capa’simageandthisisbecause,asD’Alleva(2010p27)writes,theviewers

supplytheirowncontext.Theyareabletoidentifytheman’shelmetasthatofa

soldier,asthesoldierisonlypartiallyvisibleitcanbededucedthatheiswading

throughwaterandthatheisinvolvedinsomesortoflanding.Someviewersmay

evenhavepreviousexperienceofthisimageinacontextthatsuppliedmore

informationaboutit.ThesethingscanallleadaviewertointerpretCapa’simage

asoneofanAmericansoldierlandingonabeach,probablyduringWW2.

39

Similarly,itisacombinationoftheviewer’sknowledgeandexperienceandthe

natureofthecomposition,theboywalkingpastthecorpsesasifitwasthemost

normalthingintheworldfordeadbodiestobelaidoutattheroadside,which

leadsyoutounderstandthatitisaphotographofaconcentrationcamp.

Contextcanalsojustifywhyoneimageismoretechnicallycorrectthantheother.

ByknowingthatCapa’simagewasmadeinthemidstofabeachlanding,when

therewasaveryrealanddefiniterisktohislifeaviewermightforgivehisless

thanperfectfocusingandtheblurwhichhasbeencausedbythecameraand

subjectmovingduringtheexposure.

Tolookatwhethereitherimagecommunicatesmoretotheviewerwemust

considercontextandassuch,realisethat,whileRogerwasworkinginthe

relativelypeacefulandsafesettingofaliberatedconcentrationcampandhadthe

timetoproperlycomposeandfocusanimageandwasfreetouseslower,lower

film,longerexposures,smalleraperturesandtopossiblyevenuseequipment

suchasatripod,Capawasworkingunderimmensepressure,takinghislifeinhis

handstododgebulletsandlandminesinordertophotographsoldiersasthey

engagedtheenemy.Hadhenotmadethechoicetouseafasterfilmwithmore

contrast,toprefocusandhopehewascloseenough,toshootatawideaperture

anduseashutterspeedthatresultedinablurredimagethenhisimagewould

not,couldnot,exist.ItisalsonecessarytoconsiderwhatCapa’simageasitis

conveys,thatitwouldnotifitwassharpanddetailed.Theblurindicatesmotion

andthistellsusthatthelandingwasafastpacedandfreneticevent.Capa’s

subjectortargetwasthesoldierandhehasmadehimthemostprominentpart

oftheimage,therestofthesceneisanindeterminateblurandthisallowsthe

viewertoconnectwiththesoldiermoredirectly.Italsoallowstheviewerto

relatetohowthesoldiermighthavebeenfeeling,lookingupthebeachfocusing

ontheenemy.InRoger’simagetheimpactcomesfromthedetaileddescription

ofviolencegonebefore;inCapa’stheimpactisfromtheurgencyandfrantic

natureoftheeventasithappens.

40

Thissurelyprovesthatwhenaphotographerbreakstherulesbynecessity,it

doesnotnecessarilymeantheresultantimagewillbeanylesssuccessfulinits

purpose.

IntheimagesdiscussedaboveitcanbeseenthatCapahadtomakecertain

choicesabouthistechniqueinordertogetanyimageatall.Giventhatwecansee

fromotherofhisphotographsthatCapaisveryableandwillingtotake‘correct’

images,thesechoicescouldbeconsideredascompromisesbutcompromises

withoutwhichtheimagesoftheOmahalandingscouldnotexist.

41

Breakingrulesasachoice

xxx.

Moriyama,1981,UntitledfromTokyoseries[photograph]

xxxi.

Winogrand,1969.LosAngeles,California[photograph]

Inthepreviousimagecomparisontheruleshadbeenbrokenasacompromisein

ordertorecordanimage‐followingtheruleswouldhaveprobablyresultedin

thephotographerlosinghislife.Inthecomparisonabove,itcanbeseenthat

breakingtheruleshasbeenacreativechoice.

Moriyama’simageishighlycontrastedwithmanyareasofsolidwhitehighlight

andsolidblackshadowwhileWinogrand’sismoretraditionalinitstonalrange.

TheskyandthehighlightscreatedbythebrightsuninWinogrand’sarepure

whiteoratleastclosetoit,buttherestoftheimagehascleardetailinit.Itis

42

sharplyfocusedandun‐blurredwhileMoriyama’simageshowsclearsignsof

camerashakeormovementwhiletheexposurewasbeingmade.Althoughthe

twoimagesappeartohavebeentakeninsimilarlyurbanenvironsandwith

similarnumbersofpeopleincludedinthem,Moriyamaseemsmuchless

concernedwiththepeoplethanWinograndwhohaschosentofacethegroupof

femalesastheywalkalongthestreetandhascomposedtheshottoincludea

beggarslumpedinawheelchairtotheleftoftheframeandagroupofpeople

sittingonabenchtotheright.Neitherphotographerhasheldtheircamera

straight,bothimagesaretiltedthoughWinogrand’smoreso,afactthatmight

seemtobeatoddswithhisimagebeingthemoreconsideredcomposition.

Moriyama’strademarklackofdetailmeansthatinhisimagethereareno

recognisablepeopleorlocations.Thisresultsinanimagethatcanbeuniversally

relatedto.ThelackofdetailalsoshowsthatMoriyamaisn’ttryingtodescribe

theplaceorthepeopleintheimagetous,noraretheyimportanttowhathe

wantstheimagetosay.Heistryingtotellussomethingaboutthatplaceorthose

people.Moriyamaisperhapstryingtostirafeelinginhisviewer,anemotionthat

theviewerattachestobeinginthecityatnight.Becauseitishardtopinpoint

thingsinMoriyama’simageandpositivelyidentifythemithasasenseof

disconnection,ofnotbeingentirelyincontrol.

Winogrand’simageontheotherhand,aswithmuchofhiswork,isallabout

tellingthevieweraboutthelocation,aboutthepeopleinthatlocationandabout

howtheyareinteracting.Amasteroftheartofsurreptitiouslyphotographinghis

subjectsWinograndhasnotchosenhisviewpointtodistancehimselffromthe

peoplesoastogounnoticedtakingthisimage,hewouldhavechosenhis

viewpointmeticulouslyforthecompositionhedesired.Theinclusionofthe

celebritystarsclearlyidentifythisasHollywoodBoulevardandthestreetsignin

thetoprightfurtherpinpointswherethisimagewasshot.Theglamorous

contextof‘Hollywood’ishugelyimportanttoWinogrand’sdepictionofthehow

peoplefromdifferentwalksoflifemingleandinteract.Winograndhaschosen

carefullythedirectioninwhichheisshootinginorderthatthefemalesinthe

middleoftheframeareflatteringlylitandhighlightedwhilethebeggarinthe

43

wheelchairandthefamiliesatthebusstopareleftinshadow.Hehasalsoused

thelongshadowscreatedbytheirlegstoenhancetheireleganceandsexuality.

InstarkcontrasttoMoriyama’simagetherearemanydetailstoabsorbin

Winogrand’s.WhiletheviewersmightimmersethemselvesinMoriyama’s

emotivedepictionofbustlingnightlifetheywouldbemorelikelytopicktheir

waythroughWinogrand’s,appreciatingthefashionsbeingworn,thewaythe

femalesarelookingatthebeggar,thecluestothelocation,thetypesofcarinthe

imageandsoon.ThusMoriyama’simagecouldbesaidtobemoreaboutthe

feeling,theemotionsandtheexperienceofbeinginthecityatnight,whereas

Winogrand’sismoreadocumentofhowpeoplewerebehavingandlivinginLos

Angelesin1969.Moriyama’simagedescribestheexperienceofbeinginacityat

nightandWinogrand’sdescribesthethingsthatwerehappeningatthejunction

ofHollywoodandVinewhenhepressedtheshutterin1969.

44

Photographingsubjectswithnoform

Theimagesthathavebeenpreviouslycomparedaremostlyconcernedwiththat

whichcanbeincludedintheimage‐objects,people,andplaces.Capa’sand

Roger’simagesaremainlydocumentaryinpurpose.Theyweretakenasarecord

ofthewar.Winogrand’simageisalsoquitedocumentary;itisagoodrecordof

howthedifferentpartsofsocietywereinteractingattheendofthe1960s.

Moriyama’simageismoreconceptual,itdealswiththeideaof‘thecity’ina

universalwayanditismadeinsuchawaythattherearehintsofthemeslike

disconnectionandlonelinessinitbutitdoesallthis,muchastheotherimages

do,inaveryselfcontainedway.Thatistosaythat,forthemostpart,the

conceptsthatunderpintheimageshavephysicalmanifestationsthatcanbe

photographed‐thedangerandviolenceofwarismanifestedinthesoldierin

Capa’simage,thedeathtollofwarinthedeadbodiesinRoger’s;classdividesin

societyaremanifestedinthepeopleinWinogrand’simageandisolationinthe

wayeveryoneisturnedawayfromthecameraandlackofdetailinMoriyama’s.

Someconceptshowever,cannotbesoeasilyrepresentedoraremoresuitably

representedbyasubtlerandmorecontextualapproach.Thatistosaythatthe

viewerislefttointerpretthesignifiersintheimageintheirownway.Itisof

coursepossibletophotographtheaccoutrementrelatedtotheseconceptsbut

manyphotographerstrytocapturetheessenceofthingslikespiritualityortravel

ratherthanthethingsassociatedwiththem.

45

TrentParke

xxxii.

Parke,2001,WhiteMan[Photograph](MinutestoMidnightseries).

Parke,theonlyAustralianintheMagnumgroup,isastreetphotographerwhose

workmakesregularuseofweatherconditionsandheworksmasterfullywith

naturallighttocreateimagesthathaveasenseofwonderandthefantastical.

InWhiteMan,Parkehascomposedasceneofeverydaylifeonacitystreet.The

sceneisquitedimlylit;possiblyitisonacoveredplazaandthereisanarrow

shaftoflight,presumablythesunlightbeingflaggedbybuildingsoutofframe,

cuttingthroughthescene.Parkehasmadeanexposureasamanwalksthrough

theshaftoflightandhascompletelyoverexposedthisman.Theoverexposed

manistheonlyoverexposedpartofthescene;therestiswellexposedwith

detailinthehighlightsandshadows.Thescenewouldberatherunremarkable

wasitnotfortheoverexposedman;thereisnothingoutoftheordinary

happeninginthesceneandthepersonthatParkehaschosenisalso

unremarkableandisn’tdoinganythingoutoftheordinary.Themaniscastinga

longshadowsoitcanbededucedthatthisimagewasshotintheearlymorning

orintheevening.Otherthanthenumberofpeopleincludedintheimage

suggestingittobeanurbansetting,therearenotreallyanycluesastothe

locationofthisimage.

Parkeoftenpicksoneortwopeopleoutofmanywithinthesceneheis

photographingandheusesweatherandlighttogivethesepeoplepresenceand

46

suggestimportance.Hisworkoftenincorporatesreligioussymbolsand

signifiers.InthecaseofWhiteMan,theoverexposureofthemannotonlydraws

theviewer’sattentiontothisfigurebutalsosuggestssomethingabouthimthata

morenormalexposurewouldnot.Themanisoverexposedtothepointthathe

appearstobeglowingandheisanalmostcompletelywhiteshape.Thiscould

suggestpurity,innocenceandperhapseventhatthismanmightbeaspiritor

angel.Thedecisiontomaketheexposurewhenthatparticularmanwasstepping

throughtheshaftoflightwouldnothavebeencoincidental;Parkewouldhave

selectedhissubjectcarefully.Inchoosinganelderlylookingman,Parkemight

havebeenplayingontheconceptofdeathandafterlife.Theoverexposedmanis

creatingalongandverysolid,darkshadow.Parkewouldalmostcertainlyhave

chosenthelocationhedidinordertoincludetheshadow.Theshadowisa

popularmetaphorforthedarksideofthepsycheandisinstarkcontrasttothe

pure,whitelightemanatingfromthemanhimself.Theuseofthissymbolism

furtherstrengthensthenuminousaspectoftheimage.

xxxiii.

Parke,2003,ClothesLine[photograph]

InClothesLine,Parkemakesmuchmoreobvioususeofreligioussymbolism.

Againusingoverexposuretodrawattentiontothemostimportantelementof

thecomposition,Parkehasalsoincorporatedtheuseofweatherandincluded

47

plentyofruralcontexttocreateanimagethatspeaksofstruggleandreligious

belief.

InmostofParke’simagesitwouldappeartobefullypossibleforamore

standardexposuretobemadewherethereisnooverexposure.However,itcan

alsobeseenthatthereisnoimportantdetaillostwhereParkehasoverexposed.

ItisimpossibletotellhowthemaninWhiteManisdressedbutwecan

determinethatheiselderlybyhispostureandstickandthatheismalebythe

generalshapeofhimandalsobytheimagetitle.Wedon’treallyneedtoknow

anymore.SimilarlyinClothesLinetherearenoimportantdetailsomitted.

WithouttheoverexposedelementsParke’simageswouldnotbeaspowerfulor

successfulandtheycertainlywouldn’tcontainthesamesenseofother‐

worldlinessandpresence.TheelementsthatParkeusesassymbolsand

signifierscouldstillbeincludedatnormalexposurebuttheywouldn’tcatchthe

viewer’sattentioninthesamewayorhavethesamepower.

48

ThomasJoshuaCooper

xxxiv.

Cooper,2004,LastLight–FurthestSouthwest–TheSouthAtlanticOcean.TheCapeofGoodHope#2[photograph]143cmx108cm.

ThisimageofCooper’sisadarkcompositionmainlyoftheseawithalittlebitof

rockylandatthebottomoftheframe.Theseaisdarkandblurredandtherocks

arealsoinshadowandhavelittledetailvisible.

WereitnotdiscerniblefromthedarktonesinCooper’simage,thetitlemakesit

clearthatthiswasshotatdusk.Cooperhasattachedalonganddetailedtitleto

thisimageandthisisbecauseitbelongstoaseriesofimagesmadefromthe

extremeedgesofthelandmassesthatsurroundtheAtlanticOcean.

AswiththeworkofMoriyama,Sugimotoandothersalreadydiscussed,Cooper’s

imagesoftheAtlanticOceanaresparseondetail.Anomaloustothemajorityof

landscapephotographers,Cooperdoesnotuseaparticularlywide‐anglelensso

hisimagesoftheOceancontainlittlecontextandhiscompositionsarealmost

abstract.Thegeographiclocationisindiscerniblefromtheimage‐theviewer

reliesuponthetitletoknowwheretheimagewasmadeandthelocationis

49

important‐Cooperhimselfismakingajourney,aroundtheworld,tocomplete

theprojectandmanyoflocationshavetiestohistoricalshippingroutesor

memorializesignificantjourneyssuchasMagellan’sround‐the‐worldvoyageand

Columbus’maidenexplorativejourney.

Cooperusesextendedexposuretimestointroducemovementintohisimagesof

theOceanandwhileitdoescreateanaestheticallypleasingimagehedoesnotdo

soforpurelyaestheticpurposes,neitherdoeshedoittodocumentanything

abouttheOceanatthattimeorplace.Heusestheextendedexposurestobring

conceptsliketimeandtravelintohisimages,thingsthatcannotbephysically

representedinanimage.

xxxv.

Prior,n.d.,RockHallFishingStation,StCyrus[photograph]

WhilethisColinPriorimagebearsmanysimilaritiestoCooper’sAtlanticOcean

imagesitisverydifferentinitspurposeanditsmeaning.Priorhasphotographed

asimilarlocationtoCooper,withsimilarextensionoftheexposuretoblurthe

wavesandintroducemovement.Prior’sisamoretraditionallandscape

composition;horizonislevelandmiddleofframeandawide‐anglelenshasbeen

usedsomoreofthelocationisvisibleandasitisincolourthereisnotthe

immediatedeparturefromrealismthatCooperhasmadebyusingblackand

white.Theuseofanextendedexposuretoblurthewavesdoeshowevermean

thatPrior’simageisnotatruerepresentationofthescene;Priorhasuseda

functionofthecameratocapturesomethingnotvisibletothenakedeyeand

50

similartoAnselAdam’swork,itisprobablethatPrior’simageisquitedifferent

tohowthesceneactuallylookedwhenhemadetheimage.

Bothphotographershavechosenarockyshorelinelocationandbothhaveuseda

longexposuretobringmovementintotheirimages‐howeverthetwo

photographersproducedtheirimagesforverydifferentpurposes.Cooper’s

imagewasmadeaspartofaverypersonalprojectthroughwhichthe

photographerhopestoacknowledgeandpayrespecttothehistoryofwestern

culture(Auping,p44‐47),whereasPrior’simage,aswithmostofhisworkwould

havebeendestinedformassreproductionandretailintheformofprintsand

calendars.Becauseofthecommercialnatureofhiswork,itcouldbesurmised

thatPrior’sonlyconcernwhenmakingthisexposurewouldhavebeenhowwell

itwouldappealtohispotentialbuyers.

51

Conclusion

Atitsinventionphotographytookoverfrompaintingasthederigeurmethodof

visualdocumentation.Becauseofthisandasestablishedinchapter6,therules

ofthemediumweredevelopedwiththeintentionoffurtheringphotography’s

illustrativeanddocumentaryfunctions.Wherearecordwasrequired,

photographywaspreferredforitsobjectivity;becauseitsmechanicalnature

removedtheinfluenceoftheartistfromthefinalimage,anditsreproducibility;

multiplecopiesofphotographicimagescouldbemademuchmoreeasilythan

hadbeenpossiblewiththetypesofmediausedpreviously.Whenthisis

photography’spurposeitcanbeseenthatruleshelptoproduceimagesthatbest

fulfillthebrief.

However,bylookingattheworkofpractitionerslikeAdamsandPrioritcanbe

seenthatevenwhenalltherulesareseeminglyfollowed,theresultingimageis

notnecessarilyatruerepresentationofreality.Thusonemightaskthatif

followingtherulesdoesn’tresultinarealisticimage,whybotherwiththerules

atall?

WhenAdams’teachingsarefurtherinvestigatedthough,itcanbeseenthatwhile

hisownworkwasveryrealistic,thethingheconsideredmostimportantwas

thatthefinalproductofthephotographicprocessbeinlinewiththe

photographer’spre‐visualisedimage.Foraphotographertobesuccessfulin

realisingtheirvisualisationtheymusthaveagoodknowledgeofhowthecamera

worksanditwouldbeherethatruleswereimportant,notfromthepointofview

thattheyneedbemeticulouslyfollowed,butmorethatonemustknowthings

likewhatshutterspeedwillcreatecamerashakewithwhatfocallengthand

whatdynamicrangetheirmediumhasinordertobeabletoaccuratelypredict

theoutcomeoftheirownphotographicpractices.Inthiscaseitwouldbemore

appropriatetoconsidertherulesnotasrulesbutasguidelines.

Itcanalsobeseenbylookingatmanypractitioners’workthatthereisa

differencebetweenbendingtherules(onemightconsiderAdamstobebending

theruleswhenheusesdifferentcolouredfilterstochangethecontrastsand

52

texturesinhisimages)andbreakingthem(whenthecameraismovedduring

theexposuretointroduceblur).Moreimportantly,itcanbeseenthatbreakinga

ruledoesnotmeananimageisbadorwrong.

WhenCapa’sOmahaBeachwasanalyseditbecameapparentthatcontextof

whereandwhentheimagewasmademeantthatruleshadtobecompromisedin

orderforanyimagetobecaptured.ItwasalsodiscoveredthatCapa’srule

breakingimagetellsaverydifferentstorytoRoger’smoretraditionalone.

AlthoughCapa’simagecontainedlessinformationthanRoger’sitmadeitspoint

justasclearly.

Whenrulesarebentandbrokenintentionallyitcanbefordifferentreasonstoo.

Inbothofthefollowingimagesthecamerahasbeenintentionallymovedduring

theexposure,bothimagescouldhavebeencapturedwithastationarycamera

buttheeachphotographerhaschosentousemovementfortheirownreasons.In

thefirstimageithasbeendoneusingatechniquecalledpanning‐theresulting

imagegivesamuchbetterideaofthespeedatwhichthechickenisrunningthan

animagewhichcompletelyfrozeallmotionwould.Inthesecondimagetheblur

hasbeenusedtosymbolizeturbulenceinthesocialandpoliticalcontextthe

photographerwasworkingin.IfweconsiderAdams’(1981.p29.)adagethatthe

perfectnegative“isoneexposedanddevelopedinspecificrelationtothe

visualizedvaluesofthefunctionalorexpressiveprint.”thenneitherofthese

imagesismoreorlessperfectthantheother.However,totheuninitiated,

Gaspar’simageismoreeasilyinterpreted,Tomatsu’srequiresmoreofan

understandingofthephotographer’scontextandintentandassuch,mightbe

morereadilydismissedaspoortechnique.Thismisinterpretationmightalso

occurbecauseasmallpartofGaspar’simagedoesconformtotherules;the

chicken’sheadissharp,whereasTomatsu’simageisblurredinitsentirety.

53

xxxvi.

Gaspar,n.d.,AChickenRunning[photograph]

xxvi.

Tomatsu,1969,Kadena­cho,Okinawa,1969[photograph]

Photographyisatechnologyrichindustryandtherearecamerasandsoftware

optionsavailabletodaytoeveryonethatenablesthemtoproducetechnically

proficientimages.Theabilitytotakesharp,highresolutionphotographsevenin

poorordifficultlightingconditionsarenolongertherealmofthewellstudied

andlongexperiencedprofessional.Manyphotographersbelievethatthis

dumbing‐downofthephotographicindustryisabadthing,othersarerealising,

aspaintersdidattheturnofthelastcentury,thatthisriseinnewtechnologyis

freeingthemfromproducingpurelydocumentary,realisticimages.Justas

painterswerefreedtoproduceartforart’ssake,photographersarenolonger

54

constrainedtoproduceimagesthatstriveforultra‐realisticrepresentationsof

thethingstheyphotograph.

Greenberg(1962)statedthatAbstractImpressionistworksmight,“lookeasyto

copy,andmaybetheyreallyare.Buttheyarefarfromeasytoconceive,andtheir

qualityandmeaningliesalmostentirelyintheirconception.”Thephotographic

equivalentofthisisthatwhilepropertechniquesarenoweasytocopy,itisnot

soeasytoconceiveandcreateimagesthataremoreaboutconceptandmeaning

thantechnicalchecklists.Whereoncethemastersofphotographymadeimages

thatwereuniqueintheirtechnicalbrilliance,today’sphotographersmustlook

forotherwaysinwhichtomakethemselvesstandoutfromthecrowdandoneof

theeasiestwaystodosoistorebelagainstthenorm.

Thisresearchhasshownthatwhilerulesareavalidpartofphotographyfor

manypeopleandusefultoknow,ifnotadheretoformost,theyarenotthebeall

andendallofphotography.Rulescanformabasisfornewphotographersto

buildtheirunderstandingofthecraftuponandanyphotographerwhovisualises

theirfinalimagebeforeorastheyshootmustunderstandhowwhattheyare

doingwillaffecttheimage‐rulesareagoodwayofdoingthis.Thewordrule

howeverhasverynegativeconnotations,andthisdissertationhasshownthat

successfulimagescanbecreatedwhetherrulesarefollowedorbroken.

55

Listofplates

i. Moriyama,1987,TightsinShimotakaido[photograph]43x36cm.

ii. Tomatsu,1961,Nagasaki:Meltedbottle[photograph]21cmx20cm.

iii. Adams,1927,BridalveilFall[photograph]15”x12”.

iv. Lucas,1997,PaulineBunny[mixedmediasculpture]950x640x900mm

v. Still,1947,1947­R­No.1[oilpainting]175cmx165cm.

vi. Newman,1949,Dionysius[oilpainting]170cmx124cm.

vii. Muybridge,1887,Jumpingahurdle;saddle;bayhorseDaisyPlate640of

AnimalLocomotion,1887[photograph]approx19”x24”.

viii. Degas,1878,HorseRacingBeforeStarting.[pastel]40cmx88cm.

ix. Niépce,1826,ViewfromtheWindowatLeGras.[photograph]20cmx

25cm

x. Steichen,1904,ThePond–Moonlight[bromoilphotograph]16”x20”

xi. Steichen,1903,SelfPortrait[Photogravure]21.4cmx16.2cm

xii. Mortensen,1935,Fragment[photograph‐bromoil]dimensionsunknown.

xiii. Adams,1942,TheTetonsandSnakeRiver[photograph]20”x16”.

xiv. Moriyama,1986,Midnight[photograph‐gelatinsilverprint]23”x18.5”

xv. Sugmoto,1997,ChryslerBuilding[photograph‐gelatinsilverprint]14”x

11"

xvi. Tomatsu,1969,Untitled[photograph]11.4”x9.6”

xvii. Moriyama,n.d.,Untitled[photograph–gelatinsilverprint]dimensions

unknown.

xviii. Moriyama,n.d.,OnTheBedII[photograph–gelatinsilverprint]

dimensionsunknown.

xix. Moriyama,1969,Smash­Up[photograph–gelatinsilverprint]24.2cmx

16.8cm.

xx. Warhol,1963,OrangeCarCrashFourteenTimes[silkscreenprint]13’8”x

8’9”.

xxi. Sugimoto,2009,LightningFields131[photograph]dimensionsunknown

xxii. Hokusai,c1820,TheBreakingWaveOffKanagawa[colourwoodblock

print]10”x15”.

56

xxiii. Hokusai,1834,FujiSeenFromtheSea[colourwoodblockprint]

dimensionsunknown.

xxiv. Sugimoto,1990,IonianSea,SantaCesara,[Photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxv. Sugimoto,1982‐1996,Seascapes,[photographs]dimensionsunknown.

xxvi. Tomatsu,1969,Kadena­cho,Okinawa,1969[photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxvii. ExcerptfromAdams,1981,TheNegative,p4‐5[book]

xxviii.Capa,1944,OmahaBeach[photograph]34.1cmx22.6cm.

xxix. Rodger,1945,BoywalkinginBergen,Belsen[photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxx. Moriyama,1981,UntitledfromTokyoseries[photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxxi. Winogrand,1969.LosAngeles,California[photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxxii. Parke,2001,WhiteMan[Photograph–gelatinsilverprint](Minutesto

Midnightseries)30cmx45cm.

xxxiii.Parke,2003,ClothesLine[photograph–gelatinesilverprint]30cmx

45cm.

xxxiv. Cooper,2004,LastLight–FurthestSouthwest–TheSouthAtlanticOcean.

TheCapeofGoodHope#2[photograph]143cmx108cm.

xxxv. Prior,n.nd.,RockHallFishingStation,StCyrus[photograph]dimensions

unknown.

xxxvi.Gaspar,n.d.,AChickenRunning[photograph]dimensionsunknown.

57

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