phd proposal final(4)
TRANSCRIPT
Proposal for Doctoral Research:
"THE INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP ON EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY, EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION,
EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOURAND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
IN THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG METROPOLITAN MUNICIPALITY"
Student name : Petronella Frederika Smit Supervisor:
Student Number: 527241 Professor Richard Chinomona
[email protected] [email protected]
Contents
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................... i
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................1
2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY..............................................................3
2.1 Research Context........................................................................................3
2.2 Problem Statement......................................................................................4
2.3 Research Gap and Justification of the Study..............................................6
3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES........................................................................7
3.1 Theoretical Objectives.................................................................................7
3.2 Empirical Objectives....................................................................................7
4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS..........................................................................8
5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY..........................8
5.1 Leadership...................................................................................................8
5.2 Empowerment...........................................................................................10
5.3 Transformational Leadership.....................................................................11
5.4 Employee Workplace Spirituality...............................................................13
5.5 Employee Motivation.................................................................................14
5.6 Employee Citizenship Behaviour...............................................................16
5.7 Organisational Performance......................................................................18
6 HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT.............................................................20
6.1 Leadership Skills and Leadership Empowerment.....................................20
6.2 Leadership Skills and Employee Workplace Spirituality............................21
6.3 Leadership Skills and Employee Motivation..............................................22
6.4 Leadership Empowerment and Employee Workplace Spirituality.............24
6.5 Leadership Empowerment and Employee Motivation...............................24
6.6 Employee Workplace Spirituality and Employee Motivation......................25
6.7 Employee Workplace Spirituality and Employee Citizenship Behaviour. . .26
6.8 Employee Motivation and Employee Citizenship Behaviour......................26
6.9 Employee Citizenship Behaviour and Organisational Performance..........27
6.10 Conceptual Model.....................................................................................28
7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................29
7.1 Introduction................................................................................................29
7.2 Research Strategy.....................................................................................29
7.3 Research Approach...................................................................................30
7.4 Research Methodology.............................................................................30
7.5 Research Population.................................................................................31
7.6 Sampling...................................................................................................31
7.7 Sampling Methodology..............................................................................31
7.8 Sample Size..............................................................................................32
7.9 Research Instrument.................................................................................32
7.10 Data Collection Techniques.......................................................................32
8 DATA ANALYSIS APPROCH..................................................................33
8.1 Validity and Reliability...............................................................................34
8.2 Ethical Considerations...............................................................................34
9 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION..................................................35
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................36
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
APCFB The Assumptions, Perceptions, Conclusions, Feelings and
Behaviour
AVE Average Variance Extracted
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CFI Comparative Fit Index
CJMM City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality
COJ City of Johannesburg
CR Composite Reliability
CWB Counterproductive Work Behaviour
DA Democratic Alliance
ECB Employee Citizenship Behaviour
eNCA E-News Channel Africa
GFI Goodness-of-Fit
IFI Incremental Fit Index
OB Organisational Behaviour
OCB Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
OP Organisational Performance
RMSEA Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
SEM Structural Equation Modeling
TLI Tucker-Lewis Index
EI Emotional Intelligence
i
1 INTRODUCTIONIt has become evident that it is critical to identify factors impacting on the living
standards and quality of lives of communities, which is negatively affected due to the
absence, or poor quality services rendered by municipalities in South Africa. The
overall perception of local government in South Africa is that service delivery levels
are declining and that it does not only reflect poorly on the management of these
municipalities but has a critical impact on the Government’s ability to ensure that
quality services are delivered in the country.
The poor quality, or the lack of these services result into obstructing growth and
development of in business or industrial areas which limits job opportunities for
residents and further has a negative impact on the health and living standards of the
residents. These concerns have triggered the question as to what would have to
change to improve service delivery in the CJMM. The fact that leadership has the
ability to reshape the manner in which employees act can change the manner into
which the company performs, and thus raised the question as to what the effect of
leadership is on employee workplace spirituality, -motivation, - citizenship behaviour
and organisational performance.
The common vision of the future for the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan
Municipality (CJMM), as extracted from the CJMM Integrated Development Plan
2012/16 is: “to be a World Class African City of the Future - a vibrant, equitable
African city, strengthened through its diversity; a city that provides real quality of life;
a city that provides sustainability for all its residents; a resilient and adaptive society.
(COJ - Business Planning Department, 2012).
The underpinning values to achieve the City of Johannesburg’s (COJ) Vision and
Mission are to meet expectations by persistently contributing to the satisfaction and
well-being of customers, in a “passionate, courteous and knowledgeable manner; to
take pride in all the actions by providing the highest level of service; to consistently
act honorably and above reproach and keep promises made; and to maintain a high
regard for customers in daily engagements” (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013).
It is essential to understand, how leadership, may affect employee workplace
spirituality, motivation and citizenship behaviour, and how these elements may 1
impact on organisational performance which may hinder the CJMM in achieving their
visionary intentions. It is the aim of the researcher to determine what interventions
would be necessary to be most beneficial in assisting the municipality to curb the
problem of leadership and de-motivation, low performances and work effort and to
understand the underlying issues behind the problem, whilst creating awareness and
giving innovative insight to those who are already aware of this topic.
This probed the curiosity in that the researcher would like to attempt to prove that
leadership strongly influences employee workplace spirituality, motivation and
citizenship behaviour which may have a significant effect on the performance of the
CJMM. The researcher view it as essential to understand how the CJMM responds
to these elements and to determine what interventions would be necessary to be
most beneficial in assisting the CJMM to curb the problem of leadership and
ineffectiveness in this area; and to further understand the underlying issues behind
low perceived performance and service delivery problems, whilst creating awareness
and giving innovative insight to those who are already aware of this topic.
Thus, the focus of this research will be to examine the probability of a correlation
between leadership and the effect thereof on employee work effort, motivation,
employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance in the CJMM. The
researcher believes that the findings of this research will provide fruitful implications
to both practitioners and academicians.
On the academic side, this proposed study will make a substantial contribution to
leadership and organisational performance literature by systematically exploring the
impact of leadership on organisational behaviour in the CJMM in South Africa. In
particular, the researcher will attempt to prove that leadership must be recognised as
a significant antecedent and instrument to employee work effort, employee
motivation, employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance in the
public sector in South Africa.
On the practitioner’s side, the researcher will attempt to provide important feedback
on the mediating role of employee work effort, employee motivation and employee
citizenship behaviour in the leadership – organisational performance relationship in
South Africa’s public sectors.
The principal knowledge gap that will be addressed is the importance of leadership
and its elements that impact on both employees and the organisation in as far as it
has a potential influence on strategic objectives.
2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
2.1 RESEARCH CONTEXTThe context of the study is discussed in this section, namely the municipal industry
and performance quality.
As the foundation of the values of the CJMM’S Vision and Mission are to meet
expectations of customers by contributing to the satisfaction and well-being of these
customers, the CJMM needs to ensure that their employees are effective and
efficient in their daily tasks. (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013).
Whilst some municipalities are very well managed, the overall current state of local
government in South Africa is precariously classified by its “increasing outstanding
debtors, the qualified audit reports, poor systems (internally and externally), poor
performance, poor long-term planning, huge service delivery backlogs and queries,
increasing salary bills, unfunded mandates, government debt, concerns about
sustainability, and greater demands and expectations by all stakeholders” (COJ -
Business Planning Department, 2012).
The services provided by municipalities have a direct impact on the living standards
and quality of lives of the people in the community. For example, if a customer
relations agent, employed in the frontline, does not report a problem or query
correctly, or reports it late or not at all, and, the water is disconnected or refuse is not
collected regularly, it will create a contaminated, unhealthy and unsafe living
environment, and a highly dissatisfied citizen and frustrated community. The poorly
serviced areas can place a damper on the growth and development of businesses or
industries which will limit job opportunities for residents (City of Johannesburg, 2013).
Whatever the challenges, the municipality must deliver on its mandate, which is
essentially to improve the quality of life for all South Africans. Residents of
Johannesburg indicated that they wanted the City of Johannesburg (COJ) to ensure
that the municipality is efficient, effective and functional; is responsive to the needs of
its population; provides quality services and addresses basic service needs and
requirements; continues the schedule and need for transformation and change;
communicates and engages with residents on development plans and progress and
addresses service delivery backlogs (COJ - Marketing Department, 2013: 3).
The CJMM requires resources like finances, empowered managers, well-trained
employees and systems and equipment to deliver on its constitutional mandate (COJ
- Marketing Department, 2013: 3). One way to address the extent to which limited
resources affect the ability to deliver on its constitutional mandate, is to ensure that
service excellence is maintained, which affects query resolution, collections,
employee and organisational performance and accuracy of data.
The CJMM can be seen as a vehicle with interrelated, interdependent, and
interacting parts that work together to deliver the services required. Fitz-enz (2009: 8)
stated that “humans are the only element with inherent power to generate value as
all other variables (cash, assets, material, equipment and energy) add nothing until
some individual leverage that potential to add value by putting it into play.”
Based on the challenges impacting the delivery on the CJMM’s constitutional
mandate, and the fact that the value added by people impacts organisational
performance in the CJMM, the researcher identified the need to explore the extent to
which leadership skills and empowerment impact on employee workplace spirituality,
motivation, employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance, which
affect the quality of life of the residents.
2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENTMunicipal service delivery levels have not been able to meet the expectations of
customers in terms of quality demands, service levels and query resolutions by the
CJMM. As extracted in the Integrated Development Plan of the CJMM (2012: 11 -
12) the CJMM indicated that “the sustainability of service delivery remains critical.”
In South Africa, it is known that municipalities have “massive outstanding debts,
enormous back-logs of queries and bad reputations due to ineffective and inefficient
service delivery levels and performance” (Financial and Fiscal Commission, 2011:
81). This suggests that there may be hidden elements that should be investigated to
comprehend their impact on leadership and effect thereof on employee workplace
spirituality, motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and the effect thereof on
organisational performance to increased service delivery levels.
The CJMM will be chosen for this study as it is one of the municipalities where
“constant allegations of maladministration, wrong billing and poor service delivery”
are being published in various media, such as the D.A. Media release (Atkinson,
2012); E-News Channel Africa (eNCA, 2013); consumer comments (eNCA, 2013);
The Mail & Guardian (Bauer, 2012); Radio 702 (Robbie, 2011) and Carte Blanche
(Bingwa, Phirippides and Christoforou, 2010). The Financial and Fiscal Commission
(2011: 13) has found that a direct impact of the 2008/2009 recession has resulted in
a decrease of services due to a decline in payment levels and a decrease in the
quality of existing services and organisational performance.
The above has prompted interest in this research in order to find out to what extent
leadership skills and empowerment influences employee workplace spirituality,
motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and the effect thereof on
organisational performance in the CJMM.
In light of this problem area, the proposed study will strive to fill this research gap and
possibly demonstrate significant relations between leadership skills and
empowerment; employee workplace spirituality, -motivation and -citizenship
behaviour and organisational performance in the CJMM. By filling this gap in
academia, the study will further assist by contributing empirical literature, findings
and theories that may inspire further studies.
Additionally the study will contribute in assisting other Municipalities to apply lessons
learned throughout the country as the overall current state of municipalities in South
Africa is precariously “characterized by increasing debtor books, qualified audits,
poor employee and organisational performance, poor systems, poor long term
planning, huge service delivery backlogs, increasing salary bills, unfunded mandates,
government debt, concerns about sustainability, and greater demands and
expectations by all stakeholders” (Kumar, 2008).
2.3 RESEARCH GAP AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDYThe City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality (CJMM) has been criticized for
its inability to provide customers with excellent service, quick query resolutions and
accurate bills. The success of performance usually depends on a multitude of factors
where the efficiency of the CJMM employees are a major concern. Prior studies have
shown that various departments like the Contact Centers, Billing, Credit
Management, Customer Services and Query Resolutions are high-pressured and
stressful environments, doing routine work with very little control, intense
performance monitoring, meeting of performance targets, high turnover, and
absenteeism (Kwok, 2005: 3).
The aim of this study is to identify factors affecting the organisational performance
levels to assist CJMM to:
Improve and achieve optimal service delivery,
Increase customer satisfaction levels,
Improve brand image,
Improve query resolutions and collection rates,
Improve leadership abilities,
Improve organisational performance, and
To achieve strategic goals and objectives.
Further to the above, the proposed research will be beneficial to the CJMM since the
findings will assist in identifying the factors that influence service delivery, customer
satisfaction and organisational performance in the CJMM. The research findings will
also guide the CJMM on the approach they need to follow to improve organisational
performance; to manage and improve on processes and procedures in order to
improve employee motivation and performance; and to improve leadership which
critically impact on the strategic targets of the CJMM. In addition, the findings will
also be valuable to the CJMM as they will be used to determine future strategies that
the company should adopt to organisational performance.
The lessons learned can further be applied to municipalities throughout the country
as the overall current state of municipalities in South Africa is precariously
characterized by “increasing debtor books, qualified audits, poor performance, poor
systems, poor long term planning, huge service delivery backlogs, increasing salary
bills, unfunded mandates, government debt, concerns about sustainability, and
greater demands and expectations by all stakeholders” (Kumar, n.d.).
3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVESThe aim of this study is to investigate to what extent leadership impacts on employee
work effort, motivation, performance and organisational behaviour in the CJMM.
3.1 THEORETICAL OBJECTIVESThe following theoretical objectives were developed:
To review literature on leadership skills and empowerment; employee workplace
spirituality, employee motivation and employee citizenship behaviour and organisational performance.
3.2 EMPIRICAL OBJECTIVESThe following empirical objectives were developed:
3.2.1 To explore the relationship between leadership skills and leadership
empowerment;
3.2.2 To examine the relationship between leadership skills and employee
workplace spirituality;
3.2.3 To examine the relationship between leadership skills and employee
motivation;
3.2.4 To explore the relationship between leadership empowerment and workplace
spirituality;
3.2.5 To explore the relationship between leadership empowerment and employee
motivation;
3.2.6 To examine the influence of employee workplace spirituality on employee
motivation;
3.2.7 To ascertain the influence of employee workplace spirituality on employee
citizenship behaviour;
3.2.8 To ascertain the influence of employee motivation on employee citizenship
behaviour;
3.2.9 To determine the effect employee citizenship behaviour on organisational
performance.
4 RESEARCH QUESTIONSThe research questions are as follows:
4.1 Does leadership skills affect leadership empowerment?
4.2 Does the leadership skills have an effect on employee workplace spirituality?
4.3 Does leadership skills have an effect on employee motivation?
4.4 Does leadership empowerment affect employee workplace spirituality?
4.5 Does leadership empowerment affect employee motivation?
4.6 To what extent does employee workplace spirituality affect employee
motivation?
4.7 How does employee workplace spirituality affect employee citizenship
behaviour?
4.8 How does employee motivation affect employee citizenship behaviour?
4.9 To what extent does employee citizenship behaviour affect organisational
performance?
5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
The literature review in this research proposal consists of relevant information about
various theories, concepts and models relating to factors impacting on organisational
behaviour, employee work effort and motivation and leadership as other factors
discussed by various researchers, authors and scholars. Due to unknown factors,
which will be identified during the research process, only some of the proposed
factors will be discussed briefly in this literature review.
The purpose of this study will be to identify challenges that affect organisational
behaviour stemming from employee motivation, work effort and leadership within the
CJMM.
5.1 LEADERSHIPLeadership as seen by Robbins and Judge (2013: 402) is “the ability to influence a
group in order to achieve a specific vision or set of goals”. Various other academics
has similar views whereas Kotter (2007: 97) highlights the significance of leadership
for driving successful change and Bass (2008: 25) states that leadership is “a link
between two or more members of a group that often includes structuring or
restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the members”.
Leaders seem to be facing more and more difficult tasks, which includes motivating,
performance managing and driving employees to be more effective and efficient.
Leaders apply critical thinking skills, vision, instinct, convincing rhetoric and
interactive communication methods, active listening and positive discourse whereby
he then facilitates and extracts the opinions and beliefs of followers motivating them
to move towards understanding and clarity, accepting the future state of the
organisation as a desired condition worth pledging their commitment toward goals
and objectives. The leader accomplishes this through ethical conduct and ensuring
that followers are better off as a result of his leadership initiatives. (Winston and
Patterson, 2006: 7).
Kotter (1996) conducted research on why efforts fail, and he found that “leadership is
the one most significant factor for failure in an organisation”. The role of a strategic
leader is to move the organisation from the current to the future state, creating
visions and opportunities for the organisation, inspiring and changing employees in
the organisation, instilling the required culture in the organisation and to mobilize and
focus resources to implement the strategy. (Buller, 1988: 50). This is why it is critical
that the leader has the ability and skills to fulfil this role.
Srivastava, Barton and Locke (2006: 1240) mentioned that “empowerment was
initially conceptualized as a facet of a relation or power sharing view”. The theoretical
origins of the view of leadership include the Ohio State leadership studies
(Fleishman, 1953) on consideration; work on supportive leadership (Bowers and
Seashore, 1966) and amongst others the training, partaking and delegating
behaviors included in situational leadership theory (Hersey and Blanchard, 1969).
The leader must use various tactics to be empowered: delegation, professional
mentorship, education, open door policy, integrity and trustworthiness (Belcher, n.d.).
To comprehend the effects of leadership on performance is essential as some
researchers perceive leadership amongst the key driving forces for improving
organisational performance. (Avolio, 1999; Lado, Boyd and Wright, 1992; Rowe,
2001; Obiwuru et al., 2011). “Transactional leadership assist organisations to
achieve present objectives more effectively and efficiently through linking job
performance to rewards and visionary leaders create a strategic vision,
communicating that vision consistently, and build commitment towards the vision”
(Obiwuru et al., 2011: 202). Mehra, Smith, Dixon and Robertson (2006) in Obiwuru
et al., (2011: 202) said that when organisations search for efficient methods to
empower them outperform competitors, they believe that the enduring approach is to
concentrate on the effects of leadership.
The challenge for creating empowering workplaces might be present in in the role of
effective leadership. Managers craft the conditions for employees' work by defining
the quality of information, support, and resources in organisations. Upon realising
that leaders are authentic, open and honest, involving employees in decision-making,
employees respond positively to their work, reporting increased performance, trust
and commitment to management. (Wong and Laschinger, 2012: 948).
It is evident from the above discussions that a leader influences the view, conduct
and performance of employees, which impact on strategic objectives of the
organisation. Managers and employees want well-matched results: results linked with
empowerment. This fact is central to innovation and creation of new opportunities by
identifying and aligning leadership to empowerment. This study will endeavour to
detect and focus on ideas, models and gaps to alter and empower leadership in the
CJMM, using literature theories as discussed to align and improve leadership in the
CJMM.
5.2 EMPOWERMENTEmpowerment, as a theoretical model, applied as management tool, has been
defined by scholars and experts in numerous ways. Bowen and Lawler’s (1992) in
Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) stated that empowerment is a notion which
comprises of “sharing information, rewards, knowledge and power with front line
employees”. The employees are called by Bateson and Hoffman (1999) in Cheung,
Baum and Wong (2010) “boundary-spanning workers” acting as mediators between
customers and the organisation.
These employees may make their own decisions and improve their abilities and skills
through development initiatives. Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) stated that
“management researchers strive to expand the conceptualization of empowerment
further than only discretionary power and job autonomy”. For example, Spreitzer
(1995) in Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) states that empowerment must be
“operationalized as a psychological construct” replicating an employee’s self-control
and self-efficacy; whereas Arnold, Arad, Rhoades and Drasgow (2000) claim that
empowerment should “seize the nature of the relationship between managers and
their subordinates”. Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010).
Apart from the above, severe uncertainty (for example, Baum 2006) has been
created on the “applicability of workplace empowerment, in its westernized form,
within cultures where managerial structures are, perhaps, more formal and power
distance is greater” (Cheung, Baum and Wong, 2010).
Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) found that empowerment is perceived to involve
trust from management as it permits employees to make decisions, deal with difficult
problems and to increase their productivity and performance. Empowerment further
enables employees to be flexible and to solve problems instantly which results in
higher job satisfaction and thus increased performance. Empowerment further assist
employees to appreciate and understand their full potential and assist managers with
solutions in the organisation. (Cheung, Baum and Wong, 2010)
It is evident from the research done by Cheung, Baum and Wong (2010) and other
academics that empowerment can have a negative or positive effect on an individual
and thus should be researched more in-depth to propose change in the CJMM to
enhance performance.
5.3 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP The transformational leadership theory will provide a framework to examine the
relationships of managers and peers leadership within individual and team outcomes
among employees in the CJMM. Limited research has been done to examine
mechanisms that link leadership and team performance (Srivastava, Bartol and
Locke, 2006: 1239). Results obtained in research done by Srivastava, et al., (2006)
showed that leadership was positively linked to both knowledge sharing and team
efficiency and effectiveness, which, in turn, were both positively related to
performance. Srivastava, et al., (2006: 1240) stated that several scholars reviewed
empowerment as an aspect of the relational or power sharing view.
What is transformational leadership? Leadership is multidimensional and contains
transactional, transformational and laissez-faire behaviors which include the absence
of leadership (Price and Weiss, 2013: 266). “Transformational leadership is more
positively associated with the effectiveness of the organisation and the satisfaction of
the customer (Avolio and Yammarino, 2013: 12)”.
Transformational leadership theory highlights the leader-follower relationship, making
it relevant to the study of employee performance in the CJMM (Price and Weiss,
2013: 266). Transformational leaders encourage and motivate followers to surpass
performance expectations by influencing followers’ beliefs and attitudes.
Transformational behaviors contain: “inspirational motivation (e.g., creating a vision),
idealized influence (e.g., modeling behaviors or values), individualized consideration
(e.g., considering followers’ individual needs), and intellectual stimulation (e.g.,
encouraging follower creativity)” (Price and Weiss, 2013: 266).
Transformational leadership has shown encouraging and positive effects on
followers’ motivation, commitment, satisfaction, efficiency, performance and other
outcomes; and can be applied to many domains including municipal environments.
Thus, managers and leaders who take part in transformational leadership behaviors
can provide a positive input and influence on the outcomes of individuals, such as
“proficiency, emotional responses, intrinsic motivation and team cohesion, goals and
objectives” (Price and Weiss, 2013: 266).
Studies of Transformational Leadership have shown improvements in total
organisational performance. A study relating to bank managers (Barling, Weber and
Kelloway, 1996) has shown substantial positive effects of Transformational
Leadership training, which included improved employee commitment to the
organisation, as well as improved financial performance. The same study proposed
that training managers resulted in improved Transformational Leadership behaviour
as perceived by their subordinates. A study done by Howell and Avolio (1993)
regarding managers in a large Canadian financial institution specified that
Transformational Leadership behaviours were directly interrelated to enhancements
in the business unit performance (Howell and Avolio, 1993).
Avolio and Yammarino, (2013: 27) concluded that they have evidence “that
transformational leaders are linked to organisational success, efficiency and
effectiveness, customer satisfaction and improved performance” which prompt the
interest for this research in discovering facets within the leadership of the CJMM.
5.4 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITYWorkplace spirituality is defined as an extremely high individual and moral construct
and most academics admit that “spirituality involves a sense of wholeness,
connectedness at work, and deeper values” (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson,
2003: 427). Workplace spirituality encompasses “the effort to find one’s ultimate
purpose in life, to develop a strong connection to co-workers and other people
associated with work, and to have consistency (or alignment) between one’s core
beliefs and the values of their organisation” (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson,
2003: 427).
Limitations identified include, amongst others that prior research focused on
describing personal spiritual practices at work and did not include the impact that
workplace spirituality have on employee’s individual work attitudes and behaviours
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427). These studies often anticipated
that workplace spirituality only has a positive impact, rather than empirically testing
the relationships (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427).
Focusing on three dimensions within employee work spirituality allows for a more
interesting study. “The three core dimensions consist of the purpose in one’s work or
meaningful work (individual level), having a sense of community (group level), and
being in alignment with the organisation’s values and mission (organisation level)”
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 427).
Jurkiewicz and Giacalone, (2004: 129) found that people are looking for ways to
combine their “personal and professional values with a desire to attain individual
fulfilment through their labour”. Ajala, (2013: 3), in his paper on the Impact of
Workplace Spirituality and Employees' wellbeing at the Industrial Sector: The
Nigerian Experience, said that the spiritual approach “recognizes that people work
not only with their hands but also with their hearts or spirit”. This implicates that
people are beings with feelings, emotions, spirituality which often makes decisions
based on the “way they feel”.
Ajala, (2013: 3) went further saying that “at the workplace, spirituality exists
horizontally”, which is based on a need to be of service to others and this is revealed
“by service orientation and deep concern for others at work”.
Bass, (1990) and Champoux, (2000) in Ajala, (2013: 3 - 4) stated that showing
concern and high quality interpersonal work relationships produces increased job
satisfaction, lower staff turnover, group cohesion, performance, efficiency and
effectiveness. Thus, spirituality gives employees a sense of belonging, community
and relatedness which increases employees’ commitment, trust, feeling of belonging,
productivity, motivation and effectiveness (Ajala, 2013: 3 - 4).
Spirituality, can thus be perceived as “feelings within” which triggers the survival
instinct of individuals. Turner (1999) stated that spirituality “is pertaining to our
meaning and dreams, our patterns of thought, our emotion, feelings and behaviours”.
“Literature correlating workplace spirituality-related factors with performance can be
shown to triangulate three areas: Motivation, Commitment, and Adaptability”
(Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135).
As workplace spirituality is linked directly to “motivation, commitment and
adaptability” (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) which drives
performance, the researcher would like to explore factors hindering workplace
spirituality in the CJMM and propose methods, models and processes to improve
workplace spirituality.
5.5 EMPLOYEE MOTIVATIONNumerous researches relating to motivation and organisational identification, job
design and satisfaction, moods, emotions, environmental and hygiene factors can be
explored in this research. Some applicable models and theories discussed are
summarized below:
5.5.1 MASLOW’S HIERARCH OF NEEDS
Maslow (1943: 370-396) said that management need to understand that employees
has a goal of self-actualization. As the employee grows and moves to the higher
levels they will require deeper levels of learning, motivation and commitment. Taylor
(1856 – 1917) in turn said that workers are motivated mainly by compensation
whereas Mayo (1880 – 1949) believed that money is not the only tool to motivate
workers but their motivation could be increased by having their social needs met
whilst at work. (Maslow, 1943, pp. 370-396)
Here the Human Relation School of thought was introduced, focusing on managers
caring for workers, treating them better, listing and appreciating their opinions and
appreciating that workers enjoy interaction in the workplace. Maslow (1908 – 1970)
and Herzberg (1923) thereafter introduced the Neo-Human Relations School during
1950, focusing on the psychological needs of employees. (Tutor-2-You, 2015).
5.5.2 SCHEIN’S ICEBERG
Schein indicated how difficult it is to “see the assumptions that underlie our
behaviours and if changes in behaviours or artifacts are sufficient (i.e., at the tip of
the iceberg), then no further effort is necessary” (McLean, 2009, p. 8). The
researcher would like to explore if these underlying behaviours have an impact on
motivation and what are the consequences.
The CJMM should analyse and understand the hidden and unknown factors of
behaviour and assumptions that affects motivation and work effort of employees.
This analysis can be done by deployment of statistical research methodologies.
Some important satisfiers or motivators may include amongst others, responsibilities,
achievement, growth opportunities, career and development plans, coaching and
feedback, feelings of recognition, life- work balance and are the key to job
satisfaction and motivation. The researcher will explore some of these factors to
identify what people really do in their jobs to recommend improvements, thus
increasing job satisfaction, motivation, work effort and performance.
5.5.3 THE ASSUMPTIONS, PERCEPTIONS, CONCLUSIONS, FEELINGS AND
BEHAVIOUR (APCFB) PSYCHOLOGY MODEL
Cognitive-behavioral theories are best viewed as a set of interrelated theories, which
developed from theoretical works, scientific experiences, and empirical research of
behavioral and cognitively psychologists. These individual theories are related
through common perceptions, methods and research approaches, but preserve a
multitude of views regarding the role cognitions play in behavior change. The
APCFB Psychology Model, seen as a cognitive model, describes the way in which
assumptions, beliefs, and values affect the perceptions people have (Silbiger, 2005:
125). Whilst this model describes how feelings drive behaviour the researcher would
try to test the probability that these perceptions drive motivation, work effort and
performance.
The researcher highlights the fact that motivation is based on various models and
theories which relate directly to organisational identification, job design, trust,
ownership, satisfaction, moods, emotions, environmental and hygiene factors which
will be explored in this study in the CJMM.
5.6 EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOURBolino and Turnley, (2003: 61) noted that in has been confirmed in recent empirical
studies by several researchers who examined organisational performance that
Employee Citizenship Behaviour (ECB) produces tangible advantages for
organisations. In addition, the studies yielded positive correlations between ECB,
performance, revenue, customer satisfaction and quality of service delivery levels.
(Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61).
Further to the above, Bolino and Turnley, (2003: 61) found that it is not likely that
ECB will improve organisation performance directly. ECB will also be responsible for
a “source of competitive advantage that is maintainable in the long run”. They state
that it is critical that organisations and their leaders have a comprehensive
understanding of the elements that will influence employees to be willing to go the
extra mile. (Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61).
Apart from the above discussion, work performance splits into task and non-task
performances where positive non-task performance is generally referred to as
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) or pro-social behaviour. Contrary, at the
same time, negative non-task performance is referred to as Counterproductive Work
Behaviour (CWB) (Sackett et al., 2006: 441 - 443). Employees who take part in OCB
are unlikely to engage in CWB and vice versa (Ariani, 2013: 49).
ECB is defined as “contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social
and psychological context (of the organisation) that support task performance”
(Pitzer-Brandon, 2013: 7). Organ, (1997: 91) in Pitzer-Brandon (2013) presented this
definition in an article that studied present literature on ECB. The definition provides
an extensive description of ECB with few limitations.
Insecurity in the workplace is a personal level of perception particularly related to job
loss and the perceived stability and continuation of an individuals’ employment with
an organisation. The perception of having a job, but not knowing if it is secure, has
been classified as the most stressful burdens on an employee. Currently in the
unstable economic environment, it seem to be increasingly common. Job satisfaction
is perceived as an emotional state resulting from the evaluation of job experience,
whereas job insecurity stems directly from lower job satisfaction that is associated
with deviant behaviour, such as decreased work effort, working slowly, taking longer
breaks and arriving later than permitted. Furthermore, Resisel et al., (2010: 75 - 86)
found a negative relationship was found between job insecurity and OCB.
Some factors, amongst others, identified as elements that create citizenship are
“satisfied workers; transformational and supportive leadership; interesting work and
job involvement; trust; organisational justice; psychological contract fulfilment;
organisational support; employee characteristics; human resource management
practices that accentuate good citizenship and fair and transparent recruitment and
selection processes, training and development and informal systems encouraging
ECB” (Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61 - 65).
It was also found that team effectiveness and OCB are outcomes vital for team
success. As teams are vital to the organisations’ success, it is critical to establish
sound relationships with employees and ensure that they are content and happy in
their environment. This has a critical impact on the strategic objectives of an
organisation as individuals are the key to excellent performance. Organisations,
increasingly use teams to strengthen their competitive advantage, increase
productivity and response times, improve innovation and creativity, and improve their
decision-making (Mahembe and Engelbrecht , 2014). Mahembe and Engelbrecht,
(2014: 1 - 2) believed that “effective team functioning is one of the major
determinants of organisational success”.
ECB can thus be seen as a “team process variable that has a dynamic impact on
team effectiveness” (Mahembe and Engelbrecht , 2014: 1 - 2). This form of behaviour
is vital in a team situation as it specifies the degree in which individual members of
the team are capable and keen to engage in the organisational environment
(Mahembe and Engelbrecht , 2014: 1 - 2).
ECB, as a tool to enhance organisational performance to meet strategic objectives
are critical in ensuring a competitive advantage and as ECB can be applied to
strengthen the competitive advantage, increase productivity and response times,
improve innovation and creativity, and improve decision-making processes this study
will explore factors impacting of ECB to propose improvements to the CJMM and
other municipalities.
5.7 ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCELloyd, (1990), in (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) said that
“organisations with high levels of workplace spirituality outdo those without it by
86%”. Lloyd, (1990), in (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, 2003: 135) went
further, saying that these organisations expand faster, increase effectiveness and
efficiencies and produce higher returns on investments. On a personal level,
generalised benefits of a “spiritual culture include increased physical and mental
health of employees”, progressive personal progress through something larger than
oneself, and a heightened sense of self-worth (Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson,
2003: 135 - 136).
Organisational Performance (OP) has been defined as the ability of an organisation
to achieve pre-determined goals and objectives like high profitability, quality products
and services, large market share, excellent financial results and stability and
sustainability. OP can also be measured against rivals in the same environment
where growth, market share, profit, development and brand can make a difference.
(Obiwuru et al., 2011: 101)
Numerous studies have been done on OP (Insync Surveys (Pty) Ltd, 2012; The
Institute for Employment Studies, 2015; Tamkin P, 2005; Dess and Robinson, 1984).
Researchers constantly include performance of an organisation when investigating
organisational structures, strategy and planning. It has been identified by Dess and
Robinson (1984: 265) that OP must address two basic issues being “the selection of
a conceptual framework from which to define OP and the identification of accurate,
available measures that operationalises OP”.
Dess and Robinson (1984: 265) went further saying that nevertheless of the structure
chosen to conceptualise OP, it is evident that OP is a complex concept and inherent
difficult to research and even when focussing on economic dimensions researchers
frequently encounter difficulties in obtaining accurate results.
The Chain of Impact Model (Tamkin P, 2005) was developed to measure the impact
of HR practices, psychological factors and employee capability on organisation
performance (Tamkin P, 2005). Innovation in this model relates to enhanced
practices, processes, products and services. These enhancements drive productivity
and profitability. In the case of a municipality, when measuring performance, the goal
is to maximize the beneficial impact on society.
The atrociousness and diversity of challenges which the CJMM faces include, among
others, “poor productivity, high levels of absenteeism, diversity management, poor
leadership, corruption, unhappy staff, and lack of transformation, and they inform the
construction, classification and comprehending of applicable principal organisational
behavioural concepts”. These factors and uncertainties in the CJMM could be
implicitly resolved only if management in the municipal environment comprised of
people with proper qualifications and experience, excellent personal skills, general
ability and the right attitude for the job to improve organisational performance
(Opperman, 2007: 69). This study would explore reasons for these concepts in the
CJMM to assist the CJMM to improve performance in the future.
The literature discussions above will provide an opportunity and basis for the
proposed research to further unpack issues to enrich and enhance the study.
6 HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
6.1 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENTBandura, (1986) defined successful leaders as individuals who are able to motivate,
invigorate and to empower others. As employees are enthusiastic and empowered,
their ability to perform their duties increase as it positively affects their “task initiation
and task persistence”. He went further stating that empowered people “get more
involved, take on more difficult situations, and act more confidently”. Empowered
people thus work harder, use more effort and are more determined to complete their
tasks. Leaders with empowerment skills can transfer their ability to their subordinates
with greater ease and confidence. (Personal Success and Leadership Institute,
2000).
Leaders are expected to eradicate and reject leadership styles that controls and
dominates employees which historically assisted them to take charge and act
powerful. These disempowering behaviours “often result in personal feelings of
insecurity or as a result of environmental forces” (Gurden, Crissman and Susan,
1992: 6). A critical part of this process is to assist leaders to have a better
understanding of their inner self, their behaviour and actions and the impact of their
actions on others. (Gurden, Crissman and Susan, 1992: 6). It is thus critical that
managers have leadership skills that can empower employees.
The central question is how can leaders obtain the skills to empower, motivate and
activate people? To gain the necessary leadership skills a manager should look at
“personal empowerment” which is a critical, fundamental skill, concerned with self-
preservation (SkillsYouNeed, 2015). “Personal development skills enable an
individual to set personal goals and to achieve personal empowerment”
(SkillsYouNeed, 2015).
A strong, effective and efficient leader can be developed through training in
personal development. These skills will assist the manager make appropriate and
positive choices and decisions in the future. Some of these skills are:
assertiveness for self-development; time management; stress and stress
Management to balance work-life; anger, anger management and aggression
which can be activated for example by stress, defeat and feelings of wrong-doing.
(SkillsYouNeed, 2015)
Other important management skills includes, Project Management; Change
Management, Delegation and Risk Management (SkillsYouNeed, 2015).
Kuokkanen and Leino-Kilpi (2000) in Stander and Rothmann, (2009: 196)
differentiate between three approaches to empowerment: the feministic theory,
structural empowerment, and psychological empowerment, which is all based on
empowering of employees.
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H1: There is a positive relationship between leadership skills and leadership
empowerment in the CJMM.
6.2 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY “New awareness of the significance of spirituality contributes to the improvement in
innovative and creative abilities of human capital, improved authenticity in
communication and increased ethical and moral behaviour” (Naidoo, 2014: 1). As
organisations wish for increased employee commitment Naidoo’s (2014: 1) research
includes dimensions of the emotions and inner self that, traditionally have been
ignored in organisations.
“Workplace spirituality has potential for leadership development as it allows
employees and leaders to act from personal truth, integrity, values and ethical
practice”. Spiritual leadership includes not only the leader, but the follower and
entails looking into fundamental needs of both, so that they become more
organisationally committed and productive. (Naidoo, 2014).
Naidoo (2014: 1) goes further saying that “with the accelerating force of global,
societal and organisational change comes the call for a more holistic leadership that
integrates the four fundamental arenas that define the essence of human existence:
body (physical), mind (logical or rational thought), heart (emotions, feelings) and
spirit”.
McKee et al., (2011) stated that spiritual leadership is a critical ingredient to enable
continued success of an organisation and successful transformation initiatives to
guarantee a competitive advantage in today’s market environment.
Empirical research on leadership usually focus on “leadership behaviours, power
dimensions, traits, skills and situational contexts. Lately new areas of research have
emerged that recognise leadership as the manifestation of a leader’s spiritual core”
(Naidoo, 2014: 8). These theories also studied leadership as a collective
phenomenon (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000), including the concern of leaders with
employees’ intellectual, inquisitive, observing, appreciating and a teamwork abilities
(Naidoo, 2014: 8).
These studies suggest that the spiritual domain is an essential element of leadership
and highlight spirituality as critical component in the integrated leadership
development model (Sanders, Hopkins and Geroy, 2003). In principle this integrated
model describes that as development transpires, a shift occurs demonstrating higher
levels of internal locus of control whereby human growth is accomplished through
interaction of individuals, the community and the environment. This support the
notion that leadership skills positively influences employee workplace spirituality.
(Naidoo, 2014: 8).
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H2: There is a positive relationship between leadership skills and employee
workplace spirituality in the CJMM.
6.3 LEADERSHIP SKILLS AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATIONGoleman (2003: 229) said that “IQ and technical skills are vital, but emotional
intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership”.
The most effective and efficient leaders are similar in one critical way: they all poses
a high degree of emotional intelligence (EI). The components of EI are self-
awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. These components
enable the leader to motivate and drive employees to achieve their objectives as the
leader will be able to:
Recognize and appreciate his moods, emotions, and drives, as well as their
effect on others;
Control and redirect disturbing impulses and moods and think before he acts;
Have passion, working for motives that go beyond money or status and he will
have a tendency to chase goals with energy and persistence;
Have the aptitude to comprehend the emotional side of people and treat them
in line with their emotional reactions; and
Be proficient in managing relationships and building networks which create
motivation, trust, loyalty and commitment (Goleman, 2003: 240)
In the article of the Personal Success and Leadership Institute (2000) they refer to
the research of Bandura, (1986) and highlights the fact that that coaching and
counselling. The leader should be able to direct, support and guide employees to be
motivated to master their tasks and achieve their objectives. Employees will feel
more motivated and proficient when they are empowered intellectually. (Personal
Success and Leadership Institute, 2000). Another vital skill is that of oral persuasion
and motivation. The leader should also be a successful role-model from which
employees can observe and learn. (Bandura, 1986).
Motivation is related with high levels of levels of employee participation which consist
of decision making; sharing of information; informal leadership projects; prospects to
increase responsibilities and an opportunity to apply knowledge and talents. It has
been proven that the level of employee motivation is directly associated to the value
and quality of work output which is directly associated with leadership effectiveness.
(Whitaker, 2012).
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H3: There is a positive relationship between leadership skills and employee
workplace spirituality in the CJMM.
6.4 LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT AND EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY
Empowering leadership is defined as the “leader’s empowering style of behaviour, as
well as the process of implementing conditions that increase employees’ feelings of
self-efficacy and control, leaving an employee with a feeling of power and motivation,
which will result in increased work effort and performance” (Ching, 2012: 8).
Korac-Kakabadse, (2002: 151) stated that ‘‘unless organisations harness the
complete, whole individual as well as the enormous spiritual energy that is the core
of everything, they will not be able to produce world-class products and services’’.
As leadership empowerment enables an employee to feel powerful, motivated and
committed (Ching, 2012: 8), the company should embrace the whole individual to
enable them to yield excellent performance (Korac-Kakabadse, 2002: 151).
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H4: There is a positive relationship between leadership empowerment and
employee workplace spirituality in the CJMM.
6.5 LEADERSHIP EMPOWERMENT AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATIONEmployee commitment and involvement, which boosts motivation is a key factor to
organisational currently (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196). Employee
empowerment on all hierarchical levels intensifies their sense of control and
motivates them to engage in tasks at work, which in turn yield positive managerial
and organisational outcomes. “Various studies have shown that psychological
empowerment mediates the relationship between structural empowerment and
innovative behaviour” (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196), and “between work
redesign and organisational commitment” (Chen and Chen, 2008).
Psychological empowerment has further been positively connected with
performance, content, satisfaction, creativity, innovation and initiative, embracing
risks and coping with uncertainty (Stander and Rothmann, 2009: 196).
Psychological empowerment relates directly to the time that leaders should spend on
“getting to know people, setting targets, identifying development needs, facilitating
personal development plans and giving positive and corrective feedback” (Stander
and Rothmann, 2009: 202). These actions from leaders will result in an increase in
employees’ levels of self-efficacy, workplace spirituality and motivation, feeling that
they make a difference in the workplace.
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H5: There is a positive relationship between leadership empowerment and
employee motivation in the CJMM.
6.6 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND EMPLOYEE MOTIVATIONWorkplace spirituality is defined as a “framework of organisational values that leads
to a sense of the divine existence and interconnectedness of all life, so that
employees experience personal fulfilment on the job” (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz,
2003: 99). “This sense of divine existence, includes passion, the need for belonging
and ownership, the want to be part of the community and to have social connections
which provides a foundation for a theory of workplace spirituality. Workplace
spirituality is thus encompassed within an all-inclusive framework of entwined
cultural, organisational and personal values.
Workplace spirituality influences “motivation, performance, productivity and other
relevant effectiveness and performance criteria” (Naidoo, 2014: 2 - 3). Evidence
exists that supports a correlation between workplace spirituality and enhanced
individual creativity (Naidoo, 2014: 2), improved motivation, honesty and trust
(Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003; Fry and Slocum, 2008), and a greater sense of
individual fulfilment (Burack, 1999), as well as increased performance and
commitment to organisational goals (McKee et al., 2011).
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H6: There is a positive relationship between Employee workplace spirituality and
Employee motivation in the CJMM.
6.7 EMPLOYEE WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY AND EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR
Milliman , Czaplewski and Ferguson, (2003: 426) defines workplace spirituality as
“the recognition that employees have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community”.
Employee workplace spirituality thus refers to the manner in which we express our
spirituality at the workplace, both for personal support and also in ethical, just
decision making (Donnenwirth, 2013: 2). Rapid change and workplace uncertainty
can unsettle an employees’ sense of stability which result in workers seeking for the
inner centre of spirituality which can impact on their behaviour. (Donnenwirth, 2013:
5).
Individuals consist of body, mind, heart and spirit (Fry, 2003) and this have
developed the concept that the human, spiritual, and natural sides of individuals
cannot be disjointed and therefore theories are constructed and verified based on
spirituality in the workplace. (Suárez, 2015: 9).
Elements that create citizenship are “satisfied workers; transformational and
supportive leadership; interesting work and job involvement; trust; organisational
justice; psychological contract fulfilment; organisational support; employee
characteristics; human resource management practices that accentuate good
citizenship and fair and transparent recruitment and selection processes, training and
development and informal systems encouraging ECB” (Bolino and Turnley, 2003: 61
- 65).
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H7: There is a positive relationship between Employee workplace spirituality and
Employee citizenship behaviour in the CJMM.
6.8 EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION AND EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOURECB has a robust relation with individual, team and organisational performance
which influences the overall productivity of the organisation. Studies have revealed
that an individual’s motivation can be related to their ECB citizenship behavior and
consequently significant relationships have been found between employee ECB’s
and their sources of motivation (Raghoebarsing, 2011: 2).
According to Raghoebarsing, (2011: 8) statistics revealed a significant correlation
between three measures of motivation and employee citizenship behavior.
Raghoebarsing, (2011: 8) went further indicating that various other researchers
found a significant correlation between sources of motivation and leaders behaviors,
a relationship between “sources of motivation and leader-used influence tactics,
transformational leadership behaviors and follower compliance” (Barbuto and Scholl,
1999; Barbuto, Fritz and Marx, 2000).
Employee’s intentions may drive their behavior, but also their discretionary, non-task
behaviors. Content-based motivation theories are generally constructed on Maslow’s
(1943) hierarchy of needs model. The mostly used and accepted grouping of work-
related motivation theories are those of McClelland’s (1961, 1985) model of
categories of motivation (Raghoebarsing, 2011: 20).
Raghoebarsing, (2011: 21) went further identifying that Leonard, Beauvais, and
Scholl (1999) found a “new model of motivation sources, drawn from existing
literature, which consist of five elements, namely: intrinsic process, instrumental, self-
concept-external, self-concept-internal, and goal internalization”. This theory links
directly with ECB as they are both focused on the individual and the behaviour in
terms of their inner self.
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H8: There is a positive relationship between Employee motivation and Employee
citizenship behaviour in the CJMM.
6.9 EMPLOYEE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Organisational change originates with an inclination of leaders to study their personal
values and behaviours. It is vital to recognise the down side of leadership: “power,
greed, the lure of wealth and the temptation to self-delusion, over-control and vanity”
(Naidoo, 2014: 6). Four essential leader personality traits that followers respect and
which increases the credibility of the leader in motivating employees to perform
include honesty, being progressive, inspiring in a quest of a shared vision, and
proficiency, skills and capabilities (Kouzes and Pozner, 1993). When employees see
their leader having high credibility, they are significantly more inclined to be
organisationally committed and productive and thus their ECB will result in higher
organisational performance. (Naidoo, 2014: 6)
ECB is an efficient and effective method of applying human capital to regulate
organisational performance where people achieve their objectives. ECB is an
important source of a sustainable competitive advantage. It is vital for organisations
to perform optimally that employees perform additional activities that are not officially
written down as this behaviour contributes to high productivity and excellence
Thus, based on the literature and empirical evidence in the various research papers,
this study therefore hypothesises that:
H9: There is a positive relationship between Employee citizenship behaviour and
Organisational performance in the CJMM.
6.10 CONCEPTUAL MODELDrawing from the literature, in particular the literature discussed above, a research
model was conceptualised, and hypothesised relationships between the research
variables were developed. Figure 1 below illustrates the proposed conceptual model.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
Source: Researcher’s Conception
7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
7.1 INTRODUCTIONA research design consists of a processes in which the research is done. According
to Creswell (2014), a research design is a “plan for construction conceptual research
problems to the pertinent empirical research”. The researcher further highlights the
significance of comprehending the type of data required, the means of collecting this
data and processes analysing the data and how this relates to obtaining the results
required in order to answer the research question.
7.2 RESEARCH STRATEGY
A research strategy includes the tools and mechanisms that are accepted by the
researcher in addressing the research question. According to Saunders et al., (2007),
an applicable approach should enable the researcher to response to the research
question and attain the research objectives. The seven research strategies which
are not mutually exclusive and are applied in research works are: surveys;
experiments; grounded theories; ethnographies; archival and action research and
case studies. The researcher will develop, structured, close-ended questionnaires to
have control and guidance for answers, consisting of a list of predetermined answers
from which partakers can choose. (Nouri, 2012: 23-24). These questionnaires will be
e-mailed to CJMM employees due to the wide geographical area and various
departments that must be included in the research study.
7.3 RESEARCH APPROACHResearch is defined “as a comprehensive and careful revision and investigation, in
order to find new facts or information” (Nouri, 2012: 3). The philosophy paradigm
that will be applied in this study, is the positivism methodology, utilising the
quantitative research approach. The quantitative research design is based on “the
fact that findings are objective, reliable, valid and reproducible” (Curtis and Drennan,
2013: 133). The researcher propose to explore factors in the CJMM that affect
organisational performance with the intention to propose different tools, policies,
processes or methods to efficiency and effectiveness.
A quantitative approach is perceived as comprehensive and applicable to these
research scenarios in which the research concepts and phenomena of interest are
defined well and the relationships between the variables are established. The
qualitative approach is predominantly applicable where the research can be
embedded in present theories in order to identify an analytical model and/or
hypotheses a priori and tested through the research. Quantitative methods are also
appropriate where the study need to develop and empirically test quantifiable
measures of new variables. (Morris, 2009: 88 - 90).
It is the researcher’s opinion that the abovementioned features of quantitative
research design are appropriate for this study to add value to the proposed
research analysis.
7.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGYFrankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, (1997: 201) define research methodology as a
“technique with unambiguous rules and procedures upon which research is created
and against which claims for knowledge are appraised”. Denzin and Lincoln, (2000:
20) determined that research methodologies are “a system of investigation and
analysis that give direction to a set of processes”.
Comprehending and applying a relevant research methodology into the study is vital
in order to pinpoint the unit of analysis and use compatible methods that will provide
the intended results.
The research methodology will comprise of the following distinct phases:
7.4.1 Internalizing the research questions
7.4.2 Collection of data from the questionnaires of the target population, and
7.4.3 Distribution of the questionnaires
7.5 RESEARCH POPULATIONThe population as described by Burns, Grove and Gray, (2013: 776, 779) refers to all
“individuals that meet the sample criteria for inclusion in the study whereby sample
refers to a split of the population that is selected for the study”. Officials working
within the CJMM will form the main body of the population for this research study.
7.6 SAMPLINGA sample is a subset, part or measurement of the total population. Due to the large
population within the CJMM, the researchers’ target population is very large and
unmanageable, and thus a sample in the core departments will be selected to study
and understand the target population. Sampling is viewed as a “rational method of
making statements regarding the total population, based on the findings about a
smaller population”. (Regenesys Business School, 2013: 39 - 42).
A sampling frame is a complete list in which each unit of analysis is mentioned only
once (Welman, Kruger and Mitchell, 2005: 57). It is impossible to judge the
representativeness of the sampling frame until a complete listing of the population is
available and therefore the researcher will be requested an extraction of CJMM
employees from the Human Resources Department.
7.7 SAMPLING METHODOLOGYAs time and resource constraints will be an element in deciding which employees to
use for the questionnaires, the researcher will opt to target employees in Core
regions of the CJMM utilising purposive and simple random sampling techniques to
gather data.
Simple random sampling is the most basic of the probability sampling methods, the
target population is defined, the sampling frame is established and each element of
the sampling frame has an equal chance of being included in the sample. There are
a number of simple random methods, such as the lottery technique (fishbowl
technique) and the random number table (Maree and Pietersen, 2012: 172 - 174).
The researcher will apply a simple random number sampling technique to enable
equal chance of selecting the customers whilst the purposive sampling would be
used due to the sensitive nature of seeking to get the views of CJMM employees.
7.8 SAMPLE SIZEThe CJMM in has approximately 6,000 employees. The researcher will select
approximately a sample of 1,300 employees (The Research Advisors, 2006).
7.9 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTThe researcher will develop structured questionnaires to have control and guidance
for answers. These will be closed-ended questions and will consist of a list of
predetermined answers from which participants can choose. (Nouri, 2012: 23-24).
These questionnaires will be given to CJMM employees.
The questionnaires distributed to candidates will contain the same questions which
they have to complete in the same order (Sappsford and Japp, 2006: 97). The
questionnaires will comprise of a list of questions that formed the basis for the
research objectives.
7.10 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUESThe researcher will select a data collection procedure bearing in mind its overall
suitability to the research, along with other “useful factors, such as the expected
quality of the collected data, the estimated costs, the predicted non-response rate,
the expected level of errors and the length of the data collection period” (Biemer et
al., 1991).
All approaches for data collection necessitate some structure and the estimate is
between highly- and less-structured methods. “Highly structured methods, where
questions are involved, require a careful methodology in order to retain the interest
and attention of the candidate” (Sappsford and Japp, 2006: 57, 93-97). Primary data
will be collected for the research via e-mails.
The researcher will, after collection of the completed questionnaires, examine
possible relations between leadership skills and -empowerment, employee workplace
spirituality and –motivation and employee citizenship behaviour which impacts on
organisational performance in line with the objectives of the research proposal.
It is vital that the researcher to comprehends the organisational culture in the CJMM
which is severely informed by the organisational structures and influenced by political
decisions. Culture can also have a large impact on employee motivation and
performance in the CJMM. In addition, there are several operational functions and
systems within the CJMM which may impact on employee workplace spirituality and
– citizenship behaviour. These numerous processes are part of the value chain of
the CJMM and are a key factor in meeting objectives.
8 DATA ANALYSIS APPROCHData analysis is seen as a critical undertaking that require precision to ensure high
scoring and accurate research work. Statistical analysis contains the means to
reduce large sets of data into more practical and comprehensible sets, making it
easier to interpret.
This study will use a two-step technique to analyse data collected on the research
constructs as presented by Chinomona (2013). The first phase is where the precision
of multi-item construct measures will be evaluated, followed by a test of the research
model and hypotheses. In these data analysis stages, this proposed study leans
towards the use of the structural equation modelling technique (SEM). A confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) will be performed thereafter to test the measurement models
for overall goodness of fit (Hooper, Coughlan and Mullen, 2008). In addition, model fit
assessments would be used, including χ2 which is the ratio of chi-square value over
degree of freedom (χ2/df), the values of Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted
goodness of fit index (AGFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI),
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI).
8.1 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITYThe classifying element of good research is the reliability and validity of the data.
Notwithstanding the research approach, “the purpose of validity is to examine the
quality of the data and the outcome or results” (Thompson, 2010: 54 - 55). In
quantitative research this suggests that the researcher can pull important conclusions
from the results to a population, whilst reliability means that participant scores are
reliable and constant.
Thompson (2010: 54) further said that reliability is a study of the stability between a
set of independent observations that are interchangeable and can be defined as “ the
degree to which test scores are free from errors of measurement” where
measurement errors reduce reliability and thus the generalisation of the results
obtained for a researcher from a distinct measurement.
This proposed study will use two tests to assess reliability, namely composite
reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE). As data analysis involve
structural equation modelling (SEM), for purposes of confirming reliability (Hair (Jnr)
et al., 2009) suggested using CR. CR computes internal consistency at an item level,
using factor loadings from individual items produced from a structural model (Kline,
1998).
Validity refers to the relevance, suitability and practicality of evidence that is used to
back understandings. Decisions taken and actions based on the assessment scores
also contribute to validity. Therefore, establishing validity for a survey testing focuses
on the use to which the instrument is put and not on the study itself. (Thompson,
2010: 54). Validating and authenticating the research will include collecting evidence
for assumptions with regards to the influence of leadership on employee workplace
spirituality, motivation, citizenship behaviour and organisational performance.
8.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONSIn collecting the data to achieve the objectives of this study, it will be important to
place emphasis on ethics.
The research will be guided by the principles of:
(a) The right to freedom of choice, expression and access to information;
(b) The right to privacy, confidentiality and anonymity of the interviewees;
(c) Informed consent by population;
(d) Strive to achieve and maintain a professional level of competence at all times;
(e) Be responsible and act with integrity;
(f) Be authentic, honest and true;
(g) Avoid conflicts of interest at all times and handle conflict situations
constructively (Cummings and Worley, 2009: 70-72).
The researcher will make sure that the target population is educated regarding the
research objectives and that consent is obtained to distribute and complete
questionnaires for the research project. Participants will be informed on the
approach which will protect their confidentiality and privacy by issuing a cover letter
and thereafter verbally during the interview processes. The right to freedom of
choice, expression and access to information will be guaranteed through voluntary
participant involvement; with a choice to withdraw or terminate their participation in
the research at any time without fear of prejudice.
9 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATIONThe dissertation will be structured as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction and background to the study
Chapter 2: Research context
Chapter 3: Literature Review: Theoretical framework and Empirical Evidence
Chapter 4: Conceptual Model and Hypothesis Development
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methodology
Chapter 6: Data Analysis
Chapter 7: Discussion and Presentation
Chapter 8: Conclusions and recommendations.
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