personality and sport performance september 3, 2002
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Definitions
• “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him/her unique” (Hollander, 1971)
• Collection of traits; consistent
• Construct of personality (Hollander, 1971; Martens, 1975)
Structure of personality
• Psychological core
• Typical responses
• Role-related behaviors
• All are influenced by the social environment – Role-related behaviors most influenced by
environment
Psychological Core
• Indicative of what the person is “really” like
• Basic attitudes, values, etc.
• Centerpiece of personality
• Most difficult to change
• We would want to understand this to make any further assumptions about a person
Typical Responses
• Usual manner in which we respond to different environmental situations
• Frustration, anxiety, humor, etc.
• We use a person’s typical responses to determine their psychological core
• May be based on one-time response
Role-Related Behavior
• Most superficial aspect of personalities
• Engage in these behaviors to fit the environment we perceive
• As our perceptions change, our superficial behaviors change
• Not a good indicator of a person’s psychological core
Problems with Personality Structure
• What is influence of underlying personality?
• If a person can act so differently based on situation, how much influence does personality really have?
Theories of Personality
• Hippocratic/physiological
• Psychodynamic
• Social Learning
• Trait Theories
• Interactionist
Hippocrates/Physiological
• Hippocrates (400 B.C.)– personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black
bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm)
• Phrenology– Bumps on skull
• Physiognomy– What animal does the face most closely
resemble?
Psychodynamic
• Freud was the most renowned psychodynamic theorist
• Free association
• Personality explained through three components– Id– Ego– Superego
Components of Personality
• Id– Irrational; operates from “pleasure principle”– Usually sexual or aggressive instincts
• Ego– Logical, reality-oriented
• Superego– Conscience, internalized moral standards
Defense Mechanisms for Ego
• If too much conflict exists between the three parts of the personality, ego may have to “defend itself”
• Repression
• Rationalization
• Projection
• Displacement
Social Learning
• Human behavior is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation
• Behave as we learned how
• Effect of personality traits should be minimal
• Based on stimulus-response theory
• Stimulus-->organism-->response
Social Learning
• Two primary mechanisms through which individuals learn socially:– Modeling– Social reinforcement
Modeling• Bandura’s social learning theory (1963)
• Imitative behavior/vicarious learning
• Vicarious learning requires:
– An observer
– Actor who serves as the model for the behavior
– Modeling cues (components of model’s behavior)
• Bobo Doll Study (1965)
• Examples in sport (LLWS, etc.)
Social Reinforcement
• Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated
• Verbal/nonverbal communication may affect response
• Positive reinforcement (give a positive)
• Negative reinforcement (remove a negative)
• Punishment (apply a negative)
Trait Theories
• How do people with varying degrees of traits tend to behave?
• Traits = relatively stable characteristics exhibited over time & across situation
• Typically generalizable & used to predict behavior in a variety of situations
• Convergence indicates expression of a trait (shyness, anxiety, etc.)
Trait Theories
• States = Feelings and thoughts related to a particular time and/or situation
• Anxious before competition• Trait theories widely researched, but generally
criticized• Mischel (1968) argued people do not behave as
predictably as trait theorists suggest--situations influence
• Traits do play some role (and predispose for states)
Interactionist Theory
• Person and environment both interact to create human behavior
• Personality is exerted in some places and not in others (e.g., hockey player)
• Behavior expectancies are significant, but stresses individual differences (how much does an individual value a reward)
• Recognizes potential influence of personality & situation
Assessing Personality
• Three major techniques for assessment
• Sometimes linked with specific theories:– Rating scales– Unstructured projective tests– Questionnaires
Rating Scales
• Use of a judge to observe individual in some situation
• Checklist or scale (maximum objectivity)
• Interview or observation of performance
• If performed properly (well-trained & systematic), can be reliable & valid
Unstructured Projective Procedures
• Used to identify traits (or motives)
• Allow subjects to reveal inner feelings & motives
• Closely associated with psychoanalytic
• Rorschach Test (1954), Thematic Apperception Test (1947), Sentence Completion Test (1954)
Structured Questionnaires
• Pencil-and-paper, T/F, Likert-type scales
• Some designed for abnormal, some normal• MMPI (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria,
masc.-fem., lying)
• Cattell 16 PF (introversion-extroversion, anxiety, tough-mindedness, and independence)
• Athletic Motivation Inventory (leadership, aggression, trust, coachability, etc.)
Use in Sport
• Rating scales & projective procedures not used frequently in sport/exercise
• Questionnaires (16 PF) used more often to help athletes identify strengths & weaknesses
• Used to develop intervention strategies & identify athlete belief system regarding their personalities