Personal values and mallshopping behaviour

The mediating role of intention among Chineseconsumers

Yuanfeng Cai and Randall ShannonCollege of Management, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify underlying personal values that determine themall shopping behaviour of Chinese consumers and to propose shopping intention as an additionalmediator that enhances the value-behaviour link.

Design/methodology/approach – A self-administered web-based survey with conveniencesampling was used to collect the data. A structural equation modeling technique was used to testthe proposed model.

Findings – Chinese mall shoppers’ behaviours were found to be explained by value orientationswhich were both similar and different from their counterparts in the West. While Western mallshoppers are more likely to be directed by social affiliation and self-actualising values in previousstudies, Chinese mall shoppers are more likely to be influenced by self-transcendence andself-enhancement (similar to self-actualising) values in the present study. Additionally, shoppingintention was found to improve the predictive power of consumers’ attitude toward mall attributes interms of shopping frequency and money spent in the mall.

Research limitations/implications – The main limitation of this study is related to measurementerror, derived from using simplified instruments to measure personal values. In addition, bothpersonal values and attitudes are abstract constructs, which are difficult to measure; therefore thismay also contribute to a larger error variance.

Practical implications – The results of this study are especially beneficial for mall developers andretailers for crafting effective positioning strategies and guiding their communication strategies in theChina market.

Originality/value – The proposed model makes a theoretical contribution by testing a Westerntheory in a non-Western context. In addition, the proposed model helps researchers better understandthe value-behaviour relationship in a more comprehensive framework.

Keywords Mall shopping, Personal values, Attitudes, Shopping intention,Chinese consumers; Schwartz Value Survey, Shopping, China

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionWhile the mall industry appears to be saturated in many of the developed Westerncountries today, the mall industry in China is witnessing fast growth through the flowof both local and foreign investment (Chu and Kuwako, 2010). However, it is reportedthat about 22 per cent of existing malls have failed in their performance (Zikoo, 2008).One possible reason is the homogeneity of the malls in terms of products and servicesprovided (Templin, 1997; Wong et al., 2001). Thus, a key issue for mall managers is tocreate a feasible competitive marketing strategy that is not easily duplicated bycompetitors.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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Received 18 September 2010Revised 5 December 2011Accepted 10 December 2011

International Journal of Retail& Distribution ManagementVol. 40 No. 4, 2012pp. 290-317q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0959-0552DOI 10.1108/09590551211211783

It is suggested that a mall image reflects the total value of a shopping centre, as amore favourable and unique image should create a competitive advantage that isdifficult for competitors to duplicate (Steenkamp and Wedel, 1991; Howard, 1997), asshoppers seek image congruity between the retail image and their self-image todetermine their retailer patronage (Martineau, 1958; Sirgy et al., 2000). According toMartineau (1958), a store image is formed by shoppers’ perceptions of both the store’sfunctional qualities and psychological attributes. The psychological attributes areintangible emotional perceptions received by shoppers (Martineau, 1958), thus aremore subjective and difficult to compare. Values could serve as a type of psychologicalattributes that work as a basis for developing clear-cut attraction to shoppers, asconsumers have been found to express their values through shopping (Michon andChebat, 2004; Bjerke and Polegato, 2006). Additionally, values have been considered asone of the most important psychological constructs by many social psychologists (e.g.Feather, 1990; Schwartz, 1992). Thus, values could be critical psychologicalcomponents of mall image. If the functional qualities of malls are viewed as similar,consumers may be more likely to patronise a mall with an image that reflects theirunderlying values rather than a mall that does not stress such values.

Over the decades, it has widely been acknowledged that personal values can serveas grounds for behavioural decisions in consumption behaviour (Tai, 2008; Doran,2009; Durvasula et al. 2011). Consumption behaviours are viewed as a means toachieving desired end-states or values (Michon and Chebat, 2004; Wagner, 2007).However, the major criticism of examining a simple relationship between values andbehaviour is that values are relatively abstract, thus are viewed as distal determinantsof behaviour that can only affect behaviour through a number of less abstract or moreproximal determinants, like attitudes and beliefs (e.g. Thogersen and Grunert, 1997;Shim and Eastlick, 1998; Shim and Maggs, 2005; Hartman et al., 2006). Accordingly, avalue-attitude-behaviour (VAB) hierarchy was developed and has been validated inseveral studies with respect to healthy food consumption (Homer and Kahle, 1988;Grunert and Juhl, 1995), environmental behaviour (McCartly and Shrum, 1993;Thogersen and Grunert, 1997), and e-shopping behaviour ( Jayawardhena, 2004). Inrecent years, different mediators have been explored to explain the value-behaviourrelationship. For instance, Hartman et al. (2006) develop a value-innovativeness-behaviour hierarchy to explain web consumption behaviour of adolescents.

However, the testing of the model in a mall setting has been limited (Shim andEastlick, 1998). Although several researchers have identified what underlying valuesmay determine consumers’ mall shopping behaviour (e.g. Shim and Eastlick, 1998;Erdem et al., 1999; Stoel et al., 2004), few have systematically articulated how thesevalues influence mall shopping behaviour with theoretical support. Additionally, asthe findings of these studies are mainly derived from a Western context, it is unclearwhether similar values and patterns in which values influence behaviour will be foundin a Chinese context. In their study, Shim and Eastlick (1998) replicate Homer andKahle’s (1988) work, and find that compared with the previous study, the link betweenattitude and behaviour is weaker in a mall setting, which implies the existence ofadditional factors which may influence this relationship, given the contextual nature ofmall shopping behaviour. Therefore, in an attempt to bridge these gaps, this studytests the previously developed VAB model to examine what and how personal valuesinfluence consumers’ mall shopping behaviour in China. Additionally, this study seeks

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to improve the VAB model by exploring the mediating effect of attitude and shoppingintention.

This study contributes to the existing mall shopping literature at the theoretical andpractical levels in the following ways. First, this study tests a theory developed in theWest in a non-Western country (i.e. China). Second, although previous studies haveexamined the attitude-intention (Bagozzi et al., 2000; Ajzen, 2008;) andattitude-behaviour/intention relations (Teng et al., 2007; Kim and Chung, 2011), tothe best knowledge of the authors, no study has put personal values, attitude, intentionand behaviour into the same model in a mall setting. Third, the findings of this studycan help mall managers to craft effective competitive marketing strategies by meetingconsumers’ wants and needs at a deeper level. Bachrach (1995) proposes thatunderstanding the underlying personal values that guide consumers’ mall shoppingbehaviour will enable mall managers to win their shoppers emotionally and gain theirtrust relatively more easily.

Conceptual background and hypothesesA previous study in a Western context suggests that personal values are determinantsof consumers’ mall shopping behaviour, however, values only influence behaviourindirectly through the mediating effect of attitude (Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Values areculturally determined (Rokeach, 1973), thus it is proposed that although a similarcausal flow will be found in a Chinese context, values that predict mall shoppingbehaviour of Western shoppers may be different from the ones that predicts Chineseshoppers’ behaviour, given their sharp differences in cultural backgrounds. It is arguedthat in addition to attitude, other factors may also exist to influence thevalue-behaviour relationship, as mall shopping is a contextual-driven behaviour(Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Extant literature suggests that compared with attitude,shopping intention is a closer cognitive antecedent of behaviour (e.g. Fishbein andAjzen, 1975; Fisher and Fisher, 1992; Gollwitzer, 1993). Therefore, it is argued that theVAB model may be improved by considering the mediating effect of shoppingintention. Accordingly, a hypothesised model is developed. As shown in Figures 1 and2, the model outlines the indirect relationship between personal values and mallshopping behaviour through the mediating effect of attitude and shopping intention. In

Figure 1.Hypothesised V-A-Bmodel

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the following section, the relationship between each pair of constructs and relevanthypotheses will be discussed.

The Schwartz Value Survey (SVS)According to Rokeach (1973, p. 5), a value is defined as “an enduring belief that aspecific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable toan opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence”. In this study, theSchwartz Value Survey (SVS) (Schwartz, 1992) is adapted to measure personal values,given its established reliability and validity derived from more than 200 samples inover 60 countries, including China (Schwartz and Sagiv, 1995; Schwartz, 1994, 1997).Schwartz believes that values are cognitive representations of three types of universalneeds which apply to all societies (Schwartz, 1994):

(1) needs arising from the biological structure of humans;

(2) needs to manage social connections and networks; and

(3) needs to maintain a group and social institutions.

Based on these needs, the SVS defines ten broad values according to the motivationthat underlies each of them (see Table I and Figure 1). As summarised by Egri andRalston (2004) in their review of Schwartz’s (1994, 1997) work, the SVS identified tenuniversal values that are organised into a system of four types of higher-order values:

(1) openness to change (self-direction, stimulation, hedonism);

(2) conservation (conformity, security, tradition);

(3) self-enhancement (achievement, power); and

(4) self-transcendence (benevolence, universalism).

Openness to change values relate to the importance of personal autonomy andindependence, variety, excitement, and challenge. Conservation values relate to theimportance of self-control, safety, and stability in societal and personal relationships,and to respecting cultural traditions. Self-enhancement values relate to achievingpersonal success through demonstrated competence, attaining social status andprestige, and control over others. Self-transcendence values relate to protecting and

Figure 2.Hypothesised V-A-I-B

model

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enhancing the wellbeing of those with whom one has close contact, as well as thewelfare of all people and nature.

One important feature of the SVS is its structure of dynamic relations among the tenvalues. As portrayed in Figure 3, conflicting values are in opposing directions from thecentre, congruent values are adjacent to one another in the circle. The circulararrangement of the values represents a motivational continuum. The closer theproximity of any two values in either direction around the circle, the more similar theirunderlying motivations; and the more distant any two values, the more antagonistic

Value Definition

Power Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resourcesAchievement Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social

standardsHedonism Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneselfStimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in lifeSelf-direction Independent thought and action-choosing, creating, exploringUniversalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection of the welfare of all

people and of natureBenevolence Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in

frequent personal contactTradition Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas that

traditional culture or religion provide the selfConformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm

others and violate social expectations or normsSecurity Safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships, and of self

Source: Adapted from Schwartz and Sagiv (1995)

Table I.Definitions of themotivational types ofvalues in terms of theircore goal

Figure 3.Theoretical model ofrelations among 10motivational types ofvalues

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their underlying motivations (Schwartz, 1992, 1994). For example, pursuing powervalues may be in conflict with pursuing universalism values. But pursuing both powerand authority values may be congruent.

Value, attitude and behaviourConsistent with the notion that “all shopping centres are to some degree leisurecentres” (Howard, 2007, p. 668), mall shopping behaviour has been found to bemotivated by social and/or recreational needs (De Nisco and Napolitano, 2006; El-Adly,2007; Maronick, 2007; Michon et al., 2007; Lotz et al., 2010). In line with these needs,several researchers have identified the values that influence consumers’ shoppingbehaviour in the mall. For example, Roy (1994) proposes that affiliation, power, orstimulation are specific values that are positively correlated with mall shoppingbehaviour. In a more systematic study, Shim and Eastlick (1998) find both socialaffiliation (i.e. fun and enjoyment and friendly relationship) and self-actualising values(i.e. self-fulfillment, sense of accomplishment and self-respect) have positive influenceon consumers’ mall shopping behaviour in terms of time and money spent, and thatcompared with self-actualising values, social affiliation values demonstrate a strongereffect. Similarly, Swinyard (1998) argues that frequent mall shoppers tend to placemore importance on both self-actualising and social affiliation values * * (i.e. “sense ofbelonging”, “warm relationships”, “security” and “excitement” values). More recently,Michon and Chebat (2004) find French-speaking and English-speaking Canadian mallshoppers are guided by hedonic values. Other researchers propose positive effect ofhedonic values on perceived mall image (Thompson and Chen, 1998; Erdem et al., 1999)and shopping intention (Stoel et al., 2004).

Nevertheless, the above findings are mainly derived from a Western context.Similar studies based on a Chinese context have been very limited. Given that valuesare culturally determined (Rokeach, 1973), it is believed that values used to understandWestern mall shoppers’ behaviour may not be applied to explain Chinese mallshoppers’ behaviour directly, given the sharp difference in their culture. It is expectedthat the value orientation of Chinese mall shoppers could be inferred by learning theircultural values.

It is widely accepted that Western countries tend to share individualistic culturalvalues (Hofstede, 1980). Consumers from individualistic cultures make decisions on anindividual basis (Usunier and Lee, 2005; Reisinger, 2009). Several scholars propose thatconsumers from individualistic cultures are more hedonic than individuals fromcollectivistic cultures (Schwartz, 1992; Triandis, 1993; Kacen and Lee, 2002). Therewards such as pleasure, enjoyment and excitement, which are derived from hedonicshopping (Babin et al., 1994) are intrinsic-oriented. Therefore, hedonic/recreationalshopping is a form of self-determination (Campbell, 1997) and is more emotion driven(Usunier and Lee, 2005; Reisinger, 2009). In terms of the SVS (Schwartz, 1992), it islikely that shoppers from individualistic culture will be guided by openness to changeand self-enhancement, as they are values that tend to lead to behaviours that focus onindividual interests (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 1997; Triandis, 1993).

In contrast, as a collectivistic country (Hofstede, 1980), Chinese culture emphasisesthe importance of group interest; group activity, consensus, cooperation, support andloyalty are vital for social harmony (Rarick, 2009; Reisinger, 2009). Consumers fromcollectivistic cultures make decisions in consensus with the group, thus their buying

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behaviour is less emotional and more rational (Van den Putte, 1993; Reisinger, 2009). Inorder to reinforce group membership and affiliation or reduce the risk of not beingaccepted, individuals in a collectivistic society tend to value products to fulfill social orfunctional needs (Roth, 1995). Furthermore, in its recent history, a hedonic life style,which is criticised as self-indulgent and wasteful, is discouraged by China’s rulingparty (Li et al., 2004). As a result, Chinese shoppers have been found to view shoppingat the mall as a utilitarian task, rather than a place for fun and recreational activities.For example, Tsang et al. (2003) compare mall shopping behaviour between consumersfrom Hong Kong and Xi’an (a city located in the West of the China) and find that Xi’anshopers tend to be more utilitarian-driven while Hong Kong shoppers tend to visitmalls with multiple purposes. Similarly, Li et al. (2004) compare Chinese and US mallshoppers and find that whereas American shoppers are more likely to shop with bothutilitarian and hedonic reasons, Chinese shoppers primarily shop for utilitarianreasons. In terms of the SVS (Schwartz, 1992), both self-transcendence andconservation values stress more importance on rationality and group interests (e.g.self-control, safety, stability in societal and personal relationships, protecting andenhancing the well-being of those with whom one has close contact, as well as thewelfare of all people and nature) (Schwartz, 1992, 1994, 1997; Triandis, 1993).Therefore, it is expected that Chinese shoppers will be more likely to be guided bythese two values.

Although personal values can serve as grounds for consumer behaviour (Homer andKahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998), the majority of the existing literature supportthat personal values are hypothesised to have only an indirect effect on mall shoppingbehaviour through attitude (Kahle, 1980; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick,1998). Extant literature suggests that values, given its abstract nature, only influenceconsumer behaviour indirectly through some less abstract mediating factors (e.g.Kahle, 1980; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Attitudes have beenfound to be mediating factors, which help explain the value-behaviour link (Kahle,1980; Pitts and Woodside, 1983; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Inthe present study, attitude refers to consumers’ attitude toward salient mall attributes(Shim and Eastlick, 1998). We hypothesise that:

H1. Personal value dimensions relate directly to attitude toward attributes of ashopping mall. Specifically, consumers who place more importance onself-transcendence and conservation values are more likely to hold favourableattitudes toward mall attributes than those who place more importance onopenness to change and self-enhancement values.

A positive relationship between attitude and behaviour has been empircially supportedin past studies. Consumers’ favourable attitude has been found related positively withhealthy food consumption (Homer and Kahle, 1988; Grunert and Juhl, 1995),environmental-friendly behaviour (McCarty and Shrum, 1993; Thogersen and Grunert,1997; Schultz and Zelezny, 1998), and e-shopping behaviour ( Jayawardhena, 2004). In amall setting, Shim and Eastlick (1998) find that consumers’ favourable attitude towardmall attributes has positive effect on their money spent and shopping frequency. Threeaspects of shopping behaviour are investigated in the present study, namely shoppingfrequency, money spent in the mall and time spent in the mall during the mall visit, asthey are among the important behaviours examined by previous mall researchers

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(Nicholls et al., 2000; Nicholls et al., 2002; Li et al., 2003; Li et al., 2004; Tsang et al.,2003). Given the theoretical foundations and the empirical evidence, it is predicted thatconsumers with favourable attitude towards mall attributes will be more willing tovisit the mall frequently, spend more money and stay longer during their mall visit.Hence:

H2. Consumers’ attitude towards mall attributes relate positively to theirshopping frequency (H2a), money spent in the mall (H2b), and time spent inthe mall (H2c).

Intention and behaviourThe findings from a previous study reveal that although attitude toward a shoppingmall can directly influence mall-shopping behaviour, the relationship between thesetwo constructs is relatively weak (Shim and Eastlick, 1998). One possible reason maybe the omission of intention. A number of theorists have proposed that the intention toperform a behaviour, rather than attitude, is the closest cognitive antecedent of actualbehavioural performance (e.g. Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Fisher and Fisher, 1992;Gollwitzer, 1993). This is because the performance of a specific behaviour can perhapsbe best explained by considering the proximal attitude toward the behaviour ratherthan more distal attitude toward the object at which the behaviour is directed (Shimand Maggs, 2005; Hartman et al., 2006, p. 214).

Warshaw and Davis (1985) define intention as “the degree to which a person hasformulated conscious plans to perform or not perform some specified futurebehaviour”. Several meta-analyses of the empirical literature have provided evidence toshow that intention can be predicted with considerable accuracy from measures ofattitude toward the behaviour (e.g. Sheppard et al., 1998; Ajzen, 2008;). Evidenceconcerning the relationship between intentions and behaviours/actions has beencollected with respect to many different types of behaviours (see Sheppard et al., 1998,for a comprehensive review). Meta-analyses covering diverse behavioural domainshave reported mean intention-behaviour correlations of 0.47 (Notani, 1998; Armitageand Conner, 2001), 0.53 (Sheppard et al., 1998), 0.45 (Randall and Wolff, 1994), and 0.62(Van den Putte, 1993). Thus, it is proposed that:

H3. The effect of consumers’ attitude towards mall attributes on their shoppingfrequency (H3a), money spent in the mall (H3b), and time spent in the mall(H3c) is mediated by their shopping intention.

Research methodologyQuestionnaire developmentA survey questionnaire was developed based upon a comprehensive review of relatedliterature. The questionnaire was written in English and translated into Chinese andthen back-translated into English by three independent, professional, bilingualtranslators to ensure consistency and translation equivalence (Douglas and Craig,1983; Hui and Triandis, 1985). Original and back-translated versions were comparedfor equivalence and measures were refined where necessary. The questionnaire wasthen pre-tested using a convenience sample of 30 respondents. After completion,suggestions and comments were collected from respondents to identify potential errorsin terms of the wording, phrasing and sequencing of questions, which were then

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corrected. Items with similar meaning, which could not be clearly distinguished, wereeliminated. The 30 respondents in the pilot test were then excluded from the final dataset.

MeasuresPrevious studies have adopted the List of Values (LOV) to measure personal values(e.g. Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Nevertheless, the LOV has beencriticised for not being a stable instrument when applied across cultures (Watkins andGnoth, 2005). It is too broad to measure specific shopping behaviour (Hansen, 2008).Therefore, this study adopts the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) (Schwartz, 1992) tomeasure personal values as it:

. exhibits both external and convergent validity;

. uses both Western and non-Western sources to derive cultural value dimensions;and

. controls for meaning equivalence (Schwartz, 1999).

Due to space constraints, a shortened version of Schwartz’s Value Survey was adoptedin the present study. The shortened scale was modified by Kim (2002) based on threepast studies (Maio and Olson, 1995; Stern et al., 1995; Schultz and Zelezny, 1998). Atotal of 22 items were selected from the original 57-item Schwartz Value Survey (SVS)(Schwartz, 1992) to measure personal values. Although these 22 items were originallymodified to fit a pro-environmental behaviour context, they also appeared to becentrally located and occurred most frequently in each of Schwartz’s ten primaryvalues types (Kim, 2002). Therefore, it is believed that the scale should also pertain tothe present study. Respondents were asked to rate each item on a nine-point unipolarscale with the end points “not important at all” and “of decisive importance as aguiding principle in my life.” The respondents were instructed to read the list of valuesfirst, then list out the value that was most important to them, and then list out the valuemost opposed to their values. They were then required to rate the remaining valuesbased on their importance.

Consistent with a previous study (Shim and Eastlick, 1998), attitude was assessedusing the multivariate attribute model (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Based on acomprehensive literature review (e.g. Bellenger et al., 1977; Wong et al., 2001; Sit et al.,2003), an initial list of mall attributes (27 items) were identified (see the Appendix fordetails). As these attributes were mainly derived from a Western context, a focus groupwas then conducted to finalise the mall attributes that specifically match the presentstudy. The focus group was comprised of five female respondents with a range of agesbetween 20-45 with different social class, occupations and income levels. Based on theresults, 22 mall attributes were selected to measure respondents’ attitude towardsshopping malls (see the Appendix). These attributes cover categories likemerchandising, service, accessibility, entertainment, and atmospherics. Based on themean ratings, the ten most important attributes were selected to represent the mostsalient attributes (Engel et al., 1993; Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Respondents were firstasked to indicate the importance of each mall attribute, using a six-point scale(1 ¼ extremely unimportant; 6 ¼ extremely important), they were then asked toindicate the extent to which the mall that they shop at the most frequently wasperceived to be similar for each of these characteristics along another six-point scale

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(1 ¼ strongly disagree; 6 ¼ strongly agree). A six-point scale was adopted because of thepotential problem of courtesy-bias on the part of Asian respondents (Ayer, 1970), whotend to select the middle path to maintain harmony, which can result in a high number ofneutral responses. Belief ratings for each attribute were multiplied by respectiveimportance ratings to provide an expectancy-performance measure of each attribute (i.e.attitude toward mall attributes). This approach has a basis in theory proposed byFishbein and Ajzen (1975, p. 223), which states “attitudes are based on the total set of theperson’s salient beliefs and the evaluations associated with those beliefs.”

Based on a meta-analysis on 87 studies, Sheppard et al. (1998) suggest that theintention-behaviour relation is stronger when an estimation measure (e.g. It islikely/unlikely that I will do X) is used. Individual’s estimates are likely to include someconsideration of needed resources, abilities, skills and experience, the cooperation ofothers, and so on. It appears that individuals do well when they try to estimate theirown future performance of various goals, because intervening factors are taken intoaccount as they attempt to estimate whether they will achieve their goals (Sheppardet al., 1998). Therefore, as an estimation measure for intention, Macintosh andLockshin’s (1997) four items were employed in the present study. After the pilot test,one item was removed due to its similar meaning with other items. An example being“In the future, my shopping at this mall will be very likely.”

In a previous study (Shim and Eastlick, 1998), shopping behaviour wasoperationalised by calculating the average monthly expenditure at the mall. In thisstudy, shopping behaviour was assessed by examining consumers’ shoppingfrequency, money and time spent in the mall. It is expected that by doing so, theeffect of personal values on specific types of shopping behaviour can be examined, thusprovide further insights for researchers.

The shopping mall in the present study was specified as any regional shopping mallthat the respondents had visited during the past three months. Respondents wereasked to write down the name of the mall that they visited to further confirm that theydid not confuse the malls with other shopping venues.

Sampling and data collectionGiven that the objective of this study is to derive theoretical generalisability, notpopulation generalisability, convenience sampling was employed. As street interceptsurveys are prohibited in China, this study mainly utilised an online survey whencollecting the data. The website of the questionnaire was posted at several big onlinecommunities (e.g. the local BBS, forums etc.), where a large number of potentialrespondents could be accessed. In order to encourage participation, a cash drawing wasprovided. A smaller number (around 25 per cent) of hard-copy surveys weredistributed with convenience sampling at the same period of time to minimise potentialsampling bias (Schaefer and Dillman, 1998; Illieva et al., 2002). An independent samplet-test indicates that no significant differences can be found between the data thatcollected from the two sources.

A total of 320 usable questionnaires were obtained with a response rate of 30 percent. The relatively low number of usable surveys obtained is because manyrespondents did not understand what a regional shopping mall is, confusing it withother shopping venues such as department store, greater merchandiser or anchorsupermarket within a shopping mall, likely because the format is relatively new. After

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cleaning and editing the data, the final number of questionnaires with no missingvalues for all variables under analysis was 305.

Respondent characteristicsAs shown in Table I, two-thirds of the respondents are female and single. A largeproportion of them (95 per cent) fall between the 20 to 38 year age range. More than halfthe respondents have a bachelor’s degree or higher and hold white-collar positions.Around 50 per cent of respondents have moderate monthly income between 2,000 to6,000 Yuan (See Table II).

Results of analysisByrne (2010) asserts that confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of a measuringinstrument is most appropriately applied to measures that have been fully developed,and their factor structures previously validated. The Schwartz Values Survey scale

Characteristic %

Gender(%)Male 33.8Female 66.2Age (%)20-26 years old 56.727-38 years old 38.739-50 years old 3.951-67 years old 0.7Marital status (%)Single 65.9Married 31.1Divorced 0.3Others 2.6Education (%)Junior High and below 0.7High School 5.9Diploma 23.9Bachelor 62Master 5.6PhD 2Occupation (%)White collar 67.2Blue collar 3.9Student 19.3Private business 4.6Retired 0.3Unemployed 4.6Income (%)Under 2,000 Yuan 31.82,000-4,000 Yuan 30.84,001-6,000 Yuan 20.36,001-80,000 Yuan 6.280,001-10,000 Yuan 6.210,000 Yuan and above 4.6

Table II.Respondent profiles

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employed in the present study has been tested in over 200 studies in more than 60countries among different respondents (Schwartz and Boehnke, 2004), and serves as aqualified candidate for CFA. However, researchers in previous values studies (e.g.Homer and Kahle, 1988; Jayawardhena, 2004; Shim and Eastlick, 1998) suggestrunning a principal component factor analysis with a varimax rotation prior to a directCFA test. This is due to following reasons:

. the importance of personal values dimensions tend to be varied upon situationalfactors in different contexts (Kahle, 1983; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Beatty et al., 1991);

. it is suggested that resultant factors should be used in a causal modelingtechnique (Kahle and Kennedy, 1989) to avoid single-item measurements that arefrequently raised in value surveys (Braithwaite and Scott, 1991); and

. the running of EFA is regarded as a necessary procedure prior to assessingreliability of multi-item constructs (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).

Three factors, namely Self-transcendence (ST), Self-enhancement (SE), and Opennessto change (OPEN) were extracted from the factor analysis results, explaining 54.8 percent of variance for the samples. Only one item of the Conservation value was left andit fell into the ST factor.

Note that shopping frequency, money, and time spent, are all measured bysingle-item scales in the model, therefore, they were adjusted to reflect estimatedvariance. Using the level of reliability (0.85) employed in previous studies (Shim andEastlick, 1998), the error variance for each variable was estimated at 0.15 (1-reliability)(Hair et al., 2006, p. 857).

Confirmatory factor analysisIn the present study, SPSS 16.0 and structural equation modeling via AMOS 17.0 areused to test the hypotheses. Before proceeding with structural equation modeling(SEM), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed initially to validate thescales measuring the constructs (Hair et al., 2006).

As can be seen from Table III, the results of the measurement model indicate thatthe factor loadings of the latent variables are generally high and statisticallysignificant (i.e. .0.50, p , 0.001). The fact that all t-tests are significant indicates thatall items are measuring the construct they are associated with. Convergent validitymay be further evidenced if each indicator’s standardised loading on its posited latentconstruct is greater than twice its standard error (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). Theresults indicate that all items under investigation meet this requirement. Discriminantvalidity is demonstrated if both AVEs are greater than the squared correlation (Hairet al., 2006), and was met by both samples.

As shown in Table III, the AVE for several variables are below 0.50. Hatcher (1994,p. 331) notes that “very often variance extracted estimates will be below 0.50”.Fortunately, AVE is not the only diagnostic measure to assess convergent validity.Given their acceptable composite reliability values (.0.60) (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988), anditem loadings (.0.50), the convergent validity of the scales was established.

Structural equation model and the test of hypothesesAfter confirming the fit of the measurement models with the data, the hypotheses arethen tested with AMOS 17.0. The value-attitude-behaviour model was tested initially,

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Table III.Factor loadings,reliability and relatedinformation for CFA

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302

the results indicated that the model demonstrates a moderately acceptable fit with thedata ðx2 ¼ 372:941; df ¼ 166; x2=df ¼ 2:247; p ¼ 0:000; GFI ¼ 0:89; CFI ¼ 0.86,RMSEA ¼ 0.064). As shown in Figure 4, after deleting the non-significant paths (i.e.openness to change values to attitude, attitude to time spent), the model yielded a x2value of 237.220 ð p ¼ 0:000Þ with 117 degrees of freedom, x2/df of 2.028, and a GFI of0.92, CFI of 0.91, RMSEA of 0.058. Both the GFI and CFI value were larger than thesuggested cutoff of 0.9 (Hu and Bentler, 1999), the ratio of chi-square to degrees offreedom (x2/df) of 2.028 indicated a good model fit (Hair et al., 2006). A root meansquare error of approximation (RMSEA) of 0.058 indicated an acceptable fit. Accordingto Browne and Cudeck (1993), a RMSEA value of 0.05 indicates a close fit, and valuesup to 0.08 suggest reasonable fit. Overall, the model demonstrates an acceptable fitwith the data. H1 proposes that consumers who place more importance onself-transcendence and conservation values are more likely to generate a favourableattitude towards mall attributes as compared to those who place more importance onopenness to change and self-enhancement values. As hypothesised, self-transcendencevalue has a positive effect on attitude towards mall attributes, namely:

. price level (MER1);

. merchandise quality (MER3);

. return policy (MER4);

. fast checking (SER5);

. atmosphere (ATM2);

Figure 4.Final structural model of

the influence of values onattitude and mall

shopping behaviour

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. security (ATM6); and

. cleanness (ATM7) (gST ¼ 0.57, p , 0.001).

The openness to change value does not have any influence on attitude ( p . 0.05).Unexpectedly, the self-enhancement value has a positive effect on attitude ðgSE ¼ 0:17;p ¼ 0:018Þ: Therefore, H1 is partially supported.

H2 proposed that consumers’ attitude towards mall attributes relate positively totheir shopping frequency (H2a), money spent in the mall (H2b), and time spent in themall (H2c). According to the results of the analysis, attitude has a positive effect onshopping frequency ðbATT ¼ 0:23; p ¼ 0:002Þ and money spent in the mall(bATT ¼ 0.18, p ¼ 0:025Þ (See Figure 4). However, attitude does not have any effecton consumers’ time spent in the mall ( p . 0.05). That is, the more consumers havefavourable attitudes toward salient mall attributes, the more likely they will visit themall frequently and spend more money during their visit, but it is not likely that theywill stay longer in the mall. Additionally, it is found that consumers’ time spent in themall has a positive influence on the amount of money spent during their visit (b ¼ 0.38,p , 0.000). Compared with attitude ðb ¼ 0:18; p ¼ 0:025Þ; time spent in the mall has astronger effect on consumers’ money spent in the mall. Therefore, H2a and H2b aresupported, but H2c is not supported.

The value-attitude-intention-behaviour model was then tested to justify H3. H3predicted that shopping intention mediates the relationship between attitude andshopping frequency (H3a), money spent (H3b) and time spent in the mall (H3c). Asshown in Figure 5, the final model yielded a x2 value of 486.214 ð p ¼ 0:000Þ; with 225degrees of freedom, GFI of 0.88, CFI of 0.86, RMSEA of 0.062. After deleting the

Figure 5.Final structural model ofthe influence of values onattitude, shoppingintention and mallshopping behaviour

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non-significant paths (i.e. openness to change values to attitude, attitude to time spent),the model yielded a x2 value of 338.115 ð p ¼ 0:000Þ; with 167 degrees of freedom, GFIof 0.90, CFI of 0.90, RMSEA of 0.058. A further test indicated that this model wassignificantly different from the previous one ðDx2 ¼ 100:895;Ddf ¼ 50; p ¼ 0:000Þ;and the model demonstrated an acceptable fit to the data. As hypothesised, attitude hasa positive effect on consumers’ shopping intention ðb ¼ 0:47; p , 0.001), shoppingintention has a positive influence on total money spent in the mall ðb ¼ 0:20;p ¼ 0.009) and shopping frequency ðb ¼ 0:27; p , 0.001) (See Figure 5). However,shopping intention has no effect on time spent in the mall ( p . 0.05). The results of theanalysis suggest that the stronger the consumers’ intention to shop, the more likelythey will visit the mall frequently and spend more money during their mall visit, but itis unlikely that they will stay longer in the mall. In order to formally examine themediating effect of shopping intention, Baron and Kenny’s (1986) three-step procedurewas adopted. Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedure suggests researchers should test:Y ¼ fðXÞ; M ¼ fðXÞ; and then Y ¼ fðM;XÞ; to examine if X’s effect on Y is mediatedby M. The first step shows that attitude has a positive effect on shopping frequency( p , 0.001) and money spent ( p , 0.05), given the absence of shopping intention. Thesecond step shows that attitude has a positive effect on shopping intention ( p , 0.001).Step three shows that shopping intention has a positive effect on shopping frequency( p , 0.001) and money spent ( p , 0.05). However, a direct relationship betweenattitude and shopping frequency and money spent became insignificant, given thepresence of shopping intention. The results confirm a complete mediation of shoppingintention between attitude and shopping frequency and money spent. Based on thefindings, it is concluded that H3a and H3b are supported but H3c is not.

Discussion and conclusionThe findings of the present study reveal that Chinese who place more importance onself-transcendence and self-enhancement values are more likely to have a favourableattitude toward malls than those who place more importance on openness to changevalues, although the predictive power of self-transcendence exceeds theself-enhancement value. Consumers who have a favourable attitude towards mallsare more likely to visit the mall frequently and spent more money during their mallvisit. However, it is unlikely that such attitude will lead to longer time spent in the mall.The findings confirm that a value-attitude-behaviour (VAB) hierarchy is not onlyestablished in a Western context but also exists in the Chinese context. Additionally,shopping intention is found to mediate the relationship between attitude and shoppingfrequency and money spent in the mall. The predictive power of attitude improveswhen taking the shopping intention into account. That is, consumers who have afavourable attitude toward attributes of malls are more likely to form an intention toshop. Consequently, such intention leads to higher frequency of mall visit and moremoney spent in the mall. Shim and Eastlick (1998) argue that in addition to attitude,other factors may exist to influence consumers’ mall shopping behavior, given thecontextual nature of such behaviour. The findings of this study lend empirical supportto their argument. It is suggested that personal values can better influence consumers’mall visit frequency and money spent during mall visit through their attitude andshopping intention. In short, a value-attitude-intention-behaviour (VAIB) hierarchymay work better to understand Chinese consumers’ mall shopping behaviour.

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Nevertheless, the findings should be interpreted cautiously, given the absence of anattitude-time spent and an intention-time spent links, which reveal that neither a VABnor a VAIB model can explain consumers’ time spent in the mall. A stronger predictivepower of time spent on money spent than attitude suggests that in addition topromoting a favourable attitude for mall shoppers, making them stay longer in themall may also help stimulate their money expenditure. The findings may also shedadditional light on the value- time spent relationship, which may be intervened byvariables other than attitude and shopping intention.

Personal values that influence mall shoppers’ attitude toward mall attributesA number of scholars argue that people shop for the benefit of value fulfillment (e.g.Kahle and Kennedy, 1989; Shim and Eastlick, 1998). Both self-transcendence andself-enhancement values have positive influence on consumers’ attitude towards mallattributes. Additionally, the predictive power of self-transcendence exceeds that of theself-enhancement value. Previous researchers propose that the self-transcendence valuerelates to protecting and enhancing the wellbeing of those with whom one has closecontact, as well as the welfare of all people and nature (Schwartz, 1994, 1997; Egri andRalston, 2004). Driven by these values, it is likely that first and foremost, Chineseconsumers may visit a mall to satisfy their functional needs. The self-enhancement valuerelates to achieving personal success through demonstrated competence, attaining socialstatus and prestige, and control over others (Schwartz, 1994, 1997; Egri and Ralston,2004). In addition to buying, it is possible that some shoppers may consider shopping ina mall, which is frequently positioned with a luxury image, as a way to demonstrate theirface or social status. The findings lend support to recent research conducted by Tai(2008). In an attempt to investigate the relationship between personal values andshopping orientations of working adults in Shanghai, Taipei, and HongKong, Tai (2008)finds that the self-actualisation value plays the most important role to influenceconsumers’ shopping orientations. Based on the findings, she further proposes thatconsumers who highly value respect, self-fulfillment, and sense of accomplishment mayenhance their self-image through buying expensive products at exclusive stores. Thus,while variety and superb quality of merchandise remain critical to attract shoppers, theproducts and services tailored for meeting their symbolic needs may enhance theattractiveness of the mall. Given the joint weight of the self-enhancement value and faceconsciousness, it may be easier to understand why the majority of malls in China arepositioned as upscale shopping venues. Nonetheless, as Shim and Eastlick (1998) argued,to some extent, such a luxury image may keep those price-conscious shoppers away, asthey may view higher-order products synonomous with expensive prices. Therefore, thismay be one of the main reasons that many malls are losing their market share to othershopping venues, which offer more competitively priced goods. This may be especiallytrue for shoppers who seek products for private consumption, wherein price is a keyconcern for them (Li and Gallup, 1995; Scarry, 1996).

A key assumption of the present study is that values are culturally determined(Rokeach, 1973), therefore, to some extent, the personal values that guide Chineseconsumers’ mall shopping behaviour should be correlated with their core culturalvalues. As expected, the importance of self-transcendence values lend support to thisnotion. Nevertheless, the importance of self-enhancement values, which are more likelyto guide mall shopping behaviour of Western shoppers, is completed unexpected. To

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some extent, the findings challenge Rokeach’s (1973) proposal. Additionally, thefindings reveal that the importance of values is contextually-driven. Put together, theimportance of values are determined, not only by culture, but also by context.

Effects of attitude towards mall attributes on mall shopping behaviourConsistent with previous findings that there is a positive relationship betweenfavourable attitude and shopping behaviour (Homer and Kahle, 1988; Shim andEastlick, 1998), a positive link between attitude and two aspects of mall shoppingbehaviours is found in the present study. Favourable attitude towards mall attributesis found to encourage shopping frequency and stimulate money spent in the mall. Thatis, the more favourable attitudes the Chinese have towards a shopping mall, the morefrequently they will visit the mall and the more money they are likely to spend in themall. However, attitude has a relatively stronger effect on shopping frequency thanmoney spent in the mall. The absence of an attitude-time spent relationship may beexplained that as Chinese are more utilitarian-driven shoppers, they tend to spend lesstime in the mall (Tsang et al., 2003). Their main task is to buy, thus once they finish thepurchase, they are more likely to leave quickly. There are several possible reasons fortheir frequent visits. As the majority of the Chinese respondents are young and with arelatively low budget to shop, they may be trying to minimise expenditures in anygiven trip. The broader range of goods and services provided by the mall compared toother shopping venues (e.g. supermarket, department store and so on) may inducethem to visit the mall frequently in order to update or collect product information.

Effects of shopping intention on mall shopping behaviourAn important finding of this study is the stronger predictive power of shopping intentionrather than attitude on shopping frequency and money spent in the mall. The findingreveals that the attitude-shopping frequency and attitude-money spent links can beimproved by taking the mediating effect of shopping intention into account. A number ofresearchers argue that the effect of intentions in the attitude-behaviour relationship couldvary along with the level of effort needed to perform the behaviour (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988;Bagozzi et al., 1990; Schultz and Oskamp, 1996). According to Bagozzi et al. (1990),behaviour that requires much effort are mostly determined deliberately and result fromconscious thought processes before forming behavioural intentions. Likewise,behaviours that require little effort are guided by less deliberate thoughts thus aredirectly stimulated by attitudes. In other words, when the behaviour requires substantialeffort, the mediating role of intentions will be strong, and attitudes will have only indirecteffects on behaviour. In contrast, when the behaviour requires little effort, attitudes willinfluence behaviour directly and the mediating role of intentions will be reduced.

The notion that Chinese mall shoppers are more likely to be driven by utilitarianmotivations has been well documented in the literature (e.g. Tse, 1996; Tsang et al.,2003; Li et al., 2004). Utilitarian shoppers tend to view shopping as work or a burden,rather than fun (Rao and Monroe, 1989; Sherry, 1990; Nicholls et al., 2000), and they aremore time conscious than recreational shoppers (Hansen et al., 1977; Bellenger andKorgaonkar, 1980). Moreover, it is reported that the majority of Chinese do not considershopping an attractive leisure activity (Chang, 2004; Tai, 2008). Thus, it is possible thatmuch effort or deliberate conscious evaluation concerning the mall visit will berequired for them to make their visit decision. Consequently, the intention to shop or

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not to shop will be more likely to form as the end result of the evaluation of thebehaviour.

Reisinger (2009) proposes that for Chinese, shopping is a task that needs planningbeforehand. Therefore, there is no surprise when consumers form strong intentions toshop, as they may visit the mall even more frequently to gather information about theproduct or services prior to their purchase. With an intention to shop in their mind,together with the rich product information, there is no doubt they will be more likely tospend their money eventually. Due to planning prior to their shopping trip, it isunlikely that they need to spend more time in the mall.

Implications and directions for future researchThe results of the present study underscore some important implications for mallmanagement. Previous mall researchers made great efforts to understand consumers’mall shopping behaviour by investigating their shopping orientations and selectioncriteria (e.g. Arnold and Reynolds, 2003; El-Adly, 2007). However, rather than howconsumers are different, what is more crucial to mall managers today is perhaps tofigure out why they are different. Given that there are increasing numbers ofhomogeneous malls and more sophisticated and diversified consumer needs andwants, mall managers who understand the underlying reasons behind behaviour maygain advantages to position a distinctive mall image to retain their existing shoppersand win over new shoppers from their competitors.

Although this study is primarily theoretical, it is believed that the conceptualrelationships between personal values and other variables may provide a usefulframework for managerial decision-making and problem diagnosis.

First, rather than just answering how consumers are different, this study helps mallmanagers to understand why consumers are different, by learning their valueorientations. Mall managers can stress those underlying values in all respects of theirmarketing strategies. For example, promotional strategies built upon self-transcendenceand self-enhancement values may be effective to appeal to potential shoppers.

Second, personal values orientation could be used as an alternative segmentationbasis. By identifying underlying personal values that determine consumers’ mallshopping behaviour, mall managers can gain insightful understanding about whyconsumers are different in their shopping behaviour. Value systems are found toprovide richer and more meaningful descriptions of the underlying motivations thatdrive each segment (Kahle and Kennedy, 1989; Kamakura and Novak, 1992).Theoretically, different cultural values may influence shopping motivations andbehaviour. Howard (1997) proposes that grouping consumers with similar values willprovide segments with similar choice criteria and behaviours. In aggregate, Chineseshoppers appear to be more utilitarian. Thus, mall managers should standardise theirmarketing strategies when targeting segments that share similar value orientations.

Third, this study provides a practical guideline for managers to develop effectivepositioning strategies. According to the results of this study, a unique and favorablemall image could be positioned by corresponding to target consumers’ valueorientations and focusing on their preferred mall attributes. By identifying targetconsumers’ underlying personal values that determine their shopping behaviours,managers will gain an inner-oriented understanding of their shoppers, thus helpingwin them emotionally and enhance their patronage. For instance, an image that

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stresses the variety of products and services may be likely to attract Chinese shoppers.On the other hand, the mediating role that attitude play implies that by focusing onsalient mall attributes that are favored by the target consumers, mall managers will beable to position a mall image to attract them functionally. Putting these together, aunique image that mirrors both emotional and functional needs and wants ofconsumers could create a competitive advantage that is more difficult to be duplicatedby competitors. In addition, mall managers can evaluate their positioning strategies bychecking whether they focus on the appropriate values and mall attributes.

Fourth, the predictive power of favourable attitude towards salient mall attributesfor shopping behaviour can help mall managers make appropriate investmentdecisions and help them to predict the return of such investments. That is, mallmanagers will be able to figure out whether a new attribute should be developed andhow the new investment would likely affect consumers’ shopping behaviour.

Fifth, given the important role that shopping intention plays in mediating theattitude-behaviour link, mall managers may want to try to help shoppers form theirshopping intentions. One of the ways to stimulate shopping intention is to establishfavourable atmospherics (Darden et al., 1983; Schlosser, 1998). Among many elementsthat contribute to atmospherics, mall managers can focus on music, as it can increaseshoppers’ excitement (Wakefield and Baker, 1998), and it is one that can be easilycontrolled, inexpensive to produce and can be predicted based on shoppers’ age orlifestyle (Yalch and Spangenberg, 1993). A recent study reveals that happy music likedby consumers can effectively stimulate female shoppers’ shopping intention(Broekemier et al., 2008). Moreover, a number of researchers propose that highlysatisfied shoppers are more likely to form positive repurchase intentions (Stoel et al.,2004; Grace and O’Cass, 2005). It is likely that consumers’ satisfaction levels mayderive from their evaluation of the functional aspects of the mall attributes. Mallmanagers may identify these attributes by studying the gap between customerexpectations towards these attributes versus their mall’s actual performance.

Finally, an important finding that should not be ignored is the positive influence oftime spent on money spent in the mall. It is vital to keep the shoppers staying in themall longer. As Chinese are more likely to shop for utilitarian reasons, recreationalfacilities that are popular in the West may be less attractive. Mall managers candiversify the goods and services provided in the mall, such as adding bookstores,beauty salons, post office, banks, clinics, laundry services, tutorial schools and so on toprovide shoppers with more convenience and reasons to stay in the mall longer.

Future researchers may wish to examine how the embedding of personal valueswithin marketing communications for malls affects consumers’ responses (such asattitude, preference or visitation). Researchers may also try to segment mall shoppersbased on their underlying values, if not culturally, then perhaps by generational cohortor other psychographic groupings to explore relationships between values, attitudesand behaviours. In addition, it would be beneficial to identify underlying factors thatcontribute to mall shoppers’ shopping intention. Previous studies reveal thatattitude-intention (Bagozzi et al., 2000; Lee, 2000) and attitude-behaviour relation(Kashima et al., 1992; Kacen and Lee, 2002) are weaker in collectivistic thanindividualistic cultures. Future studies may test the two models in this study betweenChina with other Western countries to explore differences. Additionally, future studiescould contrast similarities or differences between other countries within Asia, or within

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the EU or South America, to further explore differences between similar cultures, suchas those labelled collectivistic or individualistic. A more comprehensive model thatincludes the moderating effect of level of effort required to conduct the behaviourmight be added into the value-attitude-intention-behaviour model, which may helpresearchers gain further insight into the value-behaviour relationship.

Finally, future studies may adopt a probability sampling method to improve thegeneralisability of the results.

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Appendix

Category Attributes

Merchandising Merchandising varietyReasonable price levelMerchandise styling/fashiona

Availability of supermarketa

Availability of imported goodsa

Merchandise qualityFrequent sales promotionFrequent sales promotion

Return policyAccessibility Convenient location

Ease of parkingVertical transportation

Services Assistance at information deskKnowledge of employees at information deskCourtesy of personnela

Resting seatsResting seats

Ease of parkingAir-conditioningDelivery service of goodsa

Atmospherics Atmosphere (Pleasant background music, fashionable colour scheme,modern decor)Good reputation of the mallb

CleanlinessLayoutAdequate and well-designed entranceUncrowded storeAdequate and well-designed entrance

Uncrowded storeSecurity in the mallb

Late closing houra

Entertainment Availability of entertainment facilities (i.e. cinemas and game zones)Occasional entertainment (i.e. fashion shows and lucky draws) a

Availability of food court/restaurant

Note: aEliminated item after the focus group; bItem added after the focus group

Table AI.List of mall attributesbefore and after focusgroup

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About the authorsOriginally from China, Yuanfeng Cai has lived in Thailand for around 15 years, and enjoysresearch related to consumers’ shopping behaviour in different channels and different cultures.Yuanfeng Cai is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: bonniecyf@yahoo.com.cn

Originally from the USA, Randall Shannon has lived in Thailand for the past 17 years, andenjoys studying retailing and various aspects of cross-cultural consumer behaviour. Randall hasengaged in various research projects funded by industry, government and academia. He haspublished more than 40 conference papers and journal articles to date.

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