personal appeareance in the biography of roman emperors

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Personal Appearance in the Biography of the Roman EmperorsAuthor(s): H. V. CanterSource: Studies in Philology, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Jul., 1928), pp. 385-399Published by: University of North Carolina PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4172009 .

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PERSONAL APPEARANCE IN THE BIOGRAPHY OFTHE ROMAN EMPERORS1

By H. V. CANTERDescriptions of personal appearance constitute a typical featureof ancient and, not infrequently, of modern biography. Neglectingthe evidence from busts, coins, medals, paintings, etc. (for whichsee the well known work of Bernoulli, Romische Ikonographie), ex-amination was recently made of all readily available ancient literary

sources, to see what they reveal as to the personal appearance ofthe Roman emperors. Included in the study were statements bear-ing on origin, training, age, physical exercises, habits, ailments,illness, and dress, in so far as these give evidence of the physicalperson.The investigation was limited to emperors legitimately clothedwith the purple, by whatever authority, no account being taken ofthose who were mere claimants for power, or of those who, althoughraised to the emperorship, were never securely established uponthe throne. By further limitation there were excluded from con-sideration a few of the later and relatively unimportant emperors,most of whom exercised authority but a short time, such asPertinax, Didius Julianus, Gordianus I, Gordianus II, Pupienus,Balbinus, Decius, Gallus, Aemilianus, Valerian, Quintillus, Tacitus,Carus, Carinus, Numerian, Constantine II, Constans, and Valen-tinian II; also the thirteen or more phantom emperors who flitacross the stage in the twenty years or so that follow the death inA. D. 455 of Valentinian III, emperors who were not the truerulers even of Italy.

Below are to be found, together with citation of sources onwhich based, succinct statements (usually of composite character)of descriptions of the emperorsgiven by writers, either incidentallyor as a clearly planned feature of a biographical sketch. Rejectedas unreliable at best, and in some cases as wholly fanciful, arestatements of personal appearanceoccasionally found in the histories1 Read at the twenty-second Annual Meeting of the Classical Associationof the Middle West and South at the University of Illinois, April 1, 2, 3,1926.

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Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsof writers of the Byzantine period, as Ioannes Malalas (Migne,Patrologia Graeca, XCVII), and Georgius Cedrenus (edit. byBekker, Bonn, 1839).

JULIUS CAESAR. Tall, handsome, round limbed, somewhatslender; fair of complexion, with bloom of youth as if of divine in-heritance; skin soft and white; eyes dark and vivacious; mouth(face ?) somewhatfull; expressionkindly. Later in life pale, thin,and bald, and because sensitive about his baldness dressed his hairforward from the crown of the head, and invariably wore the laurelcrown. In care of person and in dress, fastidious-kept hair closelycut, face smoothly shaved, and removed the hair from other partsof the body; wore the tunica laticlavia with fringe about the sleeves,and always with a girdle. Suffered from headaches and convul-sions, but was strong of body, his health and physical strength beingsufficiently robust for him to endure numerous hardships and exer-tions as a warrior.2

AUGUSTUS.Notably handsome in entire person and gracefulthrough every period of his life; eyes bluish gray, very large, andso bright and piercing that there appeared to be a divine vigorin them, and people who looked at them intently lowered their gazeas if the sun shone in their own eyes; in advanced age sight ofleft eye imperfect; stature below average, but fine proportion andsymmetry of figure made lack of height noticeable only by com-parison; countenance, when speaking or silent, calm and serene;complexion between swarthy and fair; hair somewhat curly andof shade approaching golden; eyebrows grown together; ears ofmedium size; nose aquiline; teeth widely set, small, and rough; onthe body numerous birthmarks and callous places resemblingeczema; somewhat lame from weakness in hip, thigh, and left leg;forefinger of right hand at times so weak that to use it in writinghe employeda fingerstall of horn. Indifferent as to personal adorn-ment and in care of hair; beard sometimes clipped, sometimesshaved; face usually clean shaven, but wore beard as sign of mourn-ing after his uncle's death. Subject to sickness at stated times

2 Suet., Iul., 45; 51; 57; 64; Cic., Brutus, 75; Veil., 2, 41, 1; Plut.,Caes., 4; 17; Appian, B. C., 2, 90; 2, 110; 2, 150; 2, 151; Dio Cass., 42, 40;43, 43; 44, 38; Julian, Caesars, 309; Auct. Bell. Alex., 21, 2; Macrob., Sat.,2, 3, 9. See also Deutsch, " Concerning Caesar's Appearance," Class. Journ.,XII (1917), pp. 247-253.

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H. V. Canterevery year, and constitution so impaired that he could not easilybear either heat or cold.3

TIBERIUS. Large, robust, and in good health during almost hisentire reign; height somewhat above average; broad of shouldersand chest, and evenly proportioned in all other members of thebody; left hand used more readily and with greater force than right,and joints of fingers very strong; face handsome but often, especi-ally in later years, full of pimples and sores; eyes large and posses-sing the rare power of seeing at night and in the dark, but of seeingpoorly by day; complexion fair; hair full and worn so long behindas to cover the neck; bald in later life. Walkedwith confirmedstoop,generally with stern expression of grave dignity on his face; spokeslowly to those about him and with a sort of supple movementof the fingers.4

CALIGULA.Tall, illproportioned, an object of derision; neck andlegs very thin; feet enormous; head misshapen, eyes and templessunken; hair thin, with crown of head bald; hair and beard wornlong for a time after death of his sister; neck covered with bristlesand rest of the body hairy; color exceedingly pale; countenancenaturally frightful and hideous rendered more so by grimaces in-tended to inspire horror and fright; eyes staring and with a glaresavage enough to torture. In boyhood subject to epilepsy, and inmanhood sound neither in body nor mind; had fainting spells attimes which made him incapableof any effort. Eccentric in dress-often seen in traveling cloak embroidered and begemmed; againwore tunic with long sleeves, and bracelets on his arms; at timespersonified Venus in dress, or wore silk robes and slippers or busk-ins used by women; commonly dressed with triumphal ornaments;sometimes wore a mask in form of a golden beard, and heldthunderbolt, trident, or wand.5

CLAUDIUS.Tall, but not slender, with pleasing expression andbecoming white hair; neck thick set; appearance stately and

8 Suet., Aug., 79-81; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 1, 20; Dio Cass., 48, 34; Tac.,Ann., 1, 42; Plin., N. H., 7, 59; 11, 54; Verg., Aen., 8, 680; Julian,Caesars, 309.4 Suet., Tib., 68; Veil., 2, 94; 2, 97; Tac., Ann., 4, 57; Plin., N. H., 11,54; Dio Cass., 57, 2; 58, 19; Julian, Caesars, 309 C.

Suet., Calig., 24; 50; 52; Sen., De Const. Sap., 18, 1; De Ira, 3, 19;Plin., N. H., 11, 54.

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Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsgraceful, but only when standing, sitting or sleeping; when walk-ing he was clumsy, dragged his right foot, and gave way in theknees; was marred by other traits also, whether he attempted tobe cheerful or serious; was unseemly in laughter, disgusting inanger, when he foamed at the mouth and trickled at the nose; inspeech stammering and harsh; hand trembled and head shook withtremulous motion when under any exertion; eyes at corners blood-shot. Health so precarious during childhood and early manhoodthat both mind and body were impaired, but generally in goodhealth after he became emperor.6

NERo. Stature a little below average; face agreeablerather thanattractive; skin freckled and repulsive; hair fair; eyes gray anddull; shortsighted and wont to contract brows, in order to recognizenear objects the better; neck thick; legs slender; abdomen promi-nent. Health good. In dress and care of person unconventional;wore hair long and arranged in tiers of curls, and, when travelingin Greece,even hanging down behind; wore bearduntil twenty-two;generally appeared in public with handkerchief tied about hisneck, and without girdle or shoes.7

GALBA. Old, feeble, and forbidding in appearance; average instature but bowedwith age and disease; face and forehead wrinkled,head bald; eyes blue; nose aquiline; feet and hands so crippled bygout that he could not wear a shoe or turn the leaves of a book;had an excrescence on right side so large that it could scarcely beheld up by bandage.8

OTHO. Low of stature; ill set on his feet and bowlegged;bald, but wore a covering so fitted to his head that no one could haverecognized it as such; had almost effeminate taste for elegance ofappearance;rubbedhis face with moistened bread to prevent havinga beard, or shaved often; removed the hair from his body. Cladin linen garments he publicly celebrated the rites of Isis.9

6 Suet., Claud., 2-4; 30-31; Dio Cass., 60, 2; Plin., N. H., 11, 54; Juv.,6, 622; Sen., Apocol., 5-7; Joseph., Antiq. lud., 19, 222.7 Suet., Nero, 12; 51; Dio Cass., 61, 19; Sen., Apocol., 4; Plin., N. H.,11, 54.

8 Suet., Galba, 20, 2; 21; Plut., Galba, 13; Tac., Hist., 1, 7; Dio Cass.,64, 3.Suet., Otho, 12; Tac., Hist., 1, 30; Ann., 13, 12; Mart., 6, 32; Juv., 2,99; Auson., De XII Caes. Monost., 8.

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H. V. CanterVITELLIUS. Marked defects of person, for which the mob re-proachedhim at his death; abnormallytall; face red from drunken-ness; huge abdomen of the glutton; one thigh weak, caused by beingstruck by a chariot.10VESPASIAN. Humble in birth, and of homely, soldierly appear-ance; in stature short, square built, strong limbed; face wore lookof one undergoing strain; head bald; sufferedfrom gout, but healthotherwise excellent, preservedin part by massage of neck and otherpart of the body, and by fasting one day each month."lTITUs. Attractive qualities of body and mind apparent inchildhood became more conspicious with added years; in personcombinedequally majesty and grace; body not tall, but very strong;neck thick; abdomen somewhat prominent; physical strength suffi-cient for most arts of war and peace; highly skilled in managementof arms and horses.12DOMITIAN. In stature tall; face modest and with tendency to

blush, of which he was vain; eyes large, but not sharp-sighted;overhanging eyebrows, handsome, graceful and shapely in wholeperson, except that his toes were somewhat too short; later dis-figured by baldness, corpulency, and slenderness of limbs, the latteroccasioned by long illness; in later years exhibited pallor of body,bloated cheeks, and a haughty, savage, terror-inspiring, shamelesscountenance. Shrank from exertion, seldom walked or rode horse-back, was generally carried in a litter; had no inclination for exer-cise of arms, but was especially expert in use of the bow.l3

NERVA. Grayhaired,old, weak and ill when he became emperor;well born and worthy, but incapacitated by physical condition for10Suet., Vitell., 13; 17; Tac., Hist., 2, 62; 2, 95; Plut., Otho, 9; Dio

Cass., 65, 2; 65, 20.11 Suet., Vesp., 1-2; 20; Dio Cass., 66, 17.12Suet., Titus, 1; 3; Tac., Hist., 2, 1; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 10, 2;

Eutrop., 7, 21; Dio Cass., 66, 15; Philostr., Life of Apoll., 6, 30, 125(Kayser).18Suet., Domit., 18-19; Tac., Hist., 4, 40; Agr., 45; Plin., Paneg., 48,4; 53, 4; Juv., 4, 38; Auson., De XII Caes. Monost., 11-12; Philostr.,Life of Apoll., 7, 28, 144.

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390 Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsdifficult undertakings, his weakened condition being reflected inthe lack of activity and energy which mark his reign.14

TRAJAN. Tall, firm and strong in body; features clear cut; com-plexion fresh with glow of health; eyes large; face and countenancedignified; majestic looking gray hair; carriage stately; mode oflife thoroughly military-trudged on foot with army.15

HADRIAN. In stature tall and well built; physically strong-rode and walked a great deal, covering his head neither in heat norcold, and exercised with arms and javelin; devoted to hunting,and could strike down boar or lion; fastidious in personal appear-ance; hair curled on a comb; beard worn full to cover blemishes ofthe face; a changeable, restless personality, who in later life be-came consumptive and dropsical.16

ANTONINUS IUS. Tall and well built; limbs slender thoughstrong; striking personality-face handsome, countenance aristo-cratic and calm by nature; later bent by age and therefore swathedwith splints bound on chest, so as to walk erect; feeble when old.17

MARCUS AURELIUS. In early age slender in build but strong;engaged in boxing, ball playing, wrestling, running, and bowling;fought in armor and struck down wild boars from horseback;ardor for philosophy took him from these pursuits and made himserious and austere,although from early life his countenanceshowedtranquillity unchanged by joy or sorrow. Careless of personalappearance-wore dark clothing after made a Caesar, when not inhis father's company; dress uniformly plain and sober in laterdays; beard full and flowing; studious application left its effectin expression of eyes and furrowed brow, in a body sickly, weak,and frail, so much so that he took little food.18

14Dio Cass., 68, 1; 3-4; Eutrop., 8, 1, 1; Oros., 7, 11, 1; Auct., Epit.de Caes., 12, 6; Philostr., Life of Apoll., 8, 7, 160.1" Dio Cass., 68, 6; 23; 31; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 48, 8; Plin., Paneg.,

4; 22; 81.l Spart., Vita, 2, 1; 2, 6; 10, 4; 14, 10-11; 17, 9; 20, 13; 23, 1; 26, 1-3;Dio Cass. 68, 15; 69, 7; 69, ,9-10; 69, 23; Auct.q Epit. de Caes., 14, 11;

Julian, Caesars, 311 D.17 Capitol., Vita, 2, 1; 13, 1-2; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 15, 4-5.18 Capitol., Vita, 2, 1; 4, 9-10; Dio Cass., 71, 1; 72, 6; 72, 24; 72, 34-35;Auct., Epit. de Caes., 16, 7; Julian, Caesars, 317 C; Fronto., p. 68 (Naber).


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H. V. CanterCOMMODUS.n beauty of person and bloom of manhood excelledhis agefellows; body well proportioned; features clear cut andattractive; expression affable but dull, as usual in drunkards; hair

naturally blond and curly, and in sunlight as lustrous as if sprinkledwith gold dust, or as if reflecting a divine splendor; cheekscovered with tender down; hair of face and head singed because hefeared barbers; physically strong enough to engage in gladiatorialcombats, to fight with wild beasts, to drive in chariot races, and tobe flattered as the Roman Hercules; afflicted,however, with herniaso that it appeared through his silken robes. Indifferent to theproprieties of dress-sat in theater or amphitheater in a woman'sgarments; or in tunic of silk with golden threads; or in garb ofMercury-simple tunic and unshod; at gladiatorial shows coveredhis bare shoulders with a purple cloth, or was dressed in funeralcloak; at times shaved his head and carried a statue of Anubis,Egyptian tutelary deity of the chase.l9

SEPTIMIUS EVERUS.Large, strong, and handsome; stern bynature, but countenance such as to inspire respect; hair gray andcurly; beard long; frugal and sparing in diet; in later life weakfrom gout. Dress was of the plainest-tunic with scarcely anypurple on it and shaggy cloak.20

GETA. In person strong and handsome; more gentle in appear-ance and manner than Caracalla; had zeal for serious pursuits andbodily exercises; spoke in stammering though melodious voice;inclined to gluttony and addicted to wine. Wore the brightest ofclothing.21

CARACALLA. In childhood a genial and winsome personality;later reserved, stern, and bold in countenance; wrinkled his brow,assumed a threatening expression, and bent head and neck to theleft in fancied resemblanceto Alexander the Great, whom he triedto imitate in look, gait, and dress; hair curly and thin, approaching

lLampr., Vtta, 5, 5; 8, 5; 8, 8; 9, 2; 9, 4; 9, 6; 11, 10-12; 12, 10-12;13,1-4; 15,3; 15,8; 17,3; Dio Cass., 73, 10; 73, 15; 73, 17; 73, 18-21;Herod., 1, 7, 5; 1 17, 12.

OSpart., Vita, 16, 7; 19, 7-9; 23, 3; Spart., Carac., 11, 3; Herod., 3, 14,2; Eutrop., 8, 18, 4; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 20, 9.21 Spart., Vita, 4, 1; 5, 2; Herod., 3, 13, 6; 4, 3, 2-3; Aurel. Vict.,Liber de Caes., 20, 32.4

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Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsbaldness; beard shaved while in the East; in stature small andnot imposing, though strong enough to hunt wild boars and lions;inured to physical toil from youth; favorite exercises were drivingchariots, killing wild beasts, and gladiatorial contests; gluttonousand addicted to wine. Capricious in dress-took his name fromlong Gallic mantle; appeared at times in clothing worn by Mace-donians and Germans.22

MACRINUS.Born of humble parentage, a Moor by race; leftear bored in token of servile origin; shameless in countenance,rigid and stern in action; head bald, face bearded; gluttonousand fond of wine; sought a venerable appearance in superficialways by imitating Marcus Aurelius in hesitating speech, slowmajestic gait, and in manner of trimming beard. In dress extrava-gant and gaudy-appeared in public adorned with robes held bygirdles and by clasps set with gold and precious stones.23

ELEGABALUS. Son of a depraved mother; features like thoseof Caracalla; noted for beauty and imposing physique; so hand-some in bloom of youth and when dressed as a priest of the Syriansun-god that he was comparedto youthful Bacchus; but coveredhisnaturally bright face with cosmetics and wore a diadem set withjewels, that his face might look like a woman's; sometimes wore ahairnet, painted his eyes, and went with smooth face. Woretunics wholly of cloth of gold or made of purple, or Persian tunicsstudded with jewels; sometimes his tunics resembled those of menof early republic; was the first Roman to wear clothing wholly ofsilk. Wore jewels on his shoes and never the same shoes twice.24

ATLEXANDEREVERUS. Naturally mild and gentle in characterand appearance; personality one of grace and manly beauty; eyesvery brilliant and of penetrating gaze; physically strong withheight and vigor of a soldier who knows his strength and maintainsit; devoted to physical exercises and a wrestler of first rank;

22Spart., Vita, 1, 3; 2, 1-2; 5, 9; 9, 3; Herod., 4, 7, 2; 4, 8, 1-3; 4,8, 5; 4, 9, 3; Dio Cass., 77, 7-8; 77, 10-11; 77, 17; 77, 19; 78, 3; 78, 9;Auct., Epit. de Caes., 21, 4; Aurel. Vict., L;ber de Caes., 21, 1.28 Capitol., Vita, 2, 1; 4, 1-6; 5, 6; 11, 1; 13, 4; 14, 2; Herod., 5, 2, 3-4;Dio Cass., 78, 11.24Capitol., Maor., 7, 6; 9, 3; Lampr., Vita, 2, 1-2; 18, 3; 26, 1-2; 32, 1;Auct., Epit. de Caes., 23, 1; Herod., 5, 3, 7; 5, 4, 4; 5, 6, 10.

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Personal Appearance of the Roman EmperorsAURELIAN. Born in humble station; a soldier of great personal

bravery, spirited, and inclined to be cruel; handsome, and con-spicious for manly grace; hair half gray; stature tall, physicalstrength notable, and well preserved by daily exercise with horsesand by use of javelin and bow; good health-never employed aphysician, but fasted when ailing. In dress Oriental, the firstemperor regularly to wear the diadem and clothing ornamentedwith gems and gold.31

PROBus. Son of a Dalmatian peasant; great physical strengthwon him a tribuneship in the army; a brave soldier and general;in manner spirited, energetic, affable.32DIOCLETIAN. A Dalmatian of obscurebirth, the son of a freed-

man, and a soldier by profession; majestic looking, with facialexpression that concealed his thoughts and designs; manner calmbut mind alert. Ceremonious in dress-wore gorgeous robes ofsilk and purple, and footwear adorned with gold; made himselfan oriental monarch, and allowed himself to be saluted with lowprotestations as a divine being.33

MIAXIMIIAN. An Illyrian of low birth; ignorant, rustic andbarbaric in appearance and manners; harshness and ferocity seenin his very features, for which reason he was called "father ofthe iron age." Took the cognomen Herculius from assumed originfrom Hercules, or from motive of pride in his own brutal and in-vincible strength.34CONSTANTIUS. A native of Illyricum of good extraction, trac-

ing his line back to Claudius II; a brave, skilled, and activegeneral, and a wise statesman; well educated and of winning per-sonality; praised for affability, mildness, modesty, and kindness.Of pale complexion, hence the cognomen Chlorus, particularlysince Byzantine period.35

31Flav. Vop., Vita, 3, 1; 4, 1; 6, 1; 12, 1; 15, 2; 49, 2; 50, 1; Eutrop.,9, 13; 14, 1; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 35, 5; Zosimus, 1, 51, 1.3a Flav. Vop., Vita, 3, 5; Eutrop., 17; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 37, 1.3 Eutrop., 9, 19; 9, 26; Flav. Vop., Numer., 13, 1; Aurel. Vict., Liberde Caes., 39, 2-4; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 39, 1.4Eutrop., 9, 27; 10, 3; Lampr., Elegab., 35, 4; Aurel. Vict., Liber de

Caes., 39, 18; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 40, 10.a6Aurel. Vict., Liber de Caes., 39, 26; Eutrop., 9, 22; 10, 1; Zonar.,12, 31B; Julian, Orat., 1, 6D; 2, 51C; Treb. Poll., Claud., 10, 7; 13, 2;

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Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsridiculed at Antioch for spreading his shoulders and taking huge,clumsy strides; head set back and unsteady; face comely and calmin expression; nose straight and expressive of haughtiness and con-tempt; mouth rather large, and lower lip drooping; eyes beautiful,brilliant, unsteady, and sweeping in their gaze; becoming eyebrows;hair soft and looked as if carefully dressed [Julian himself speaksof his locks as unkempt]; beardshaggy, long and ending in a point.Wore either a crown or a splendid diadem inlaid with preciousgems.40

JOVIAN. A Pannonian and a popular officer of the guard; inhabits a reveler and little fitted to rule; in person striking; bodystraight and so tall that it was difficult to find royal robes to fithim; blue eyes and cheerful expression. Wore the diadem likean eastern monarch.41

VALENTINIAN I. Stately in appearance; body muscular andstrong; fair and radiant complexion; eyes blue in color, lookingaskance and ster; beauty of figure and harmony of features cor-responded to dignity of person which should attend a monarch.4

VALENS. Compared ill with his brother Valentinian I in ap-pearance, energy, and military skill; dilatory and sluggish inaction; reddish complexion; had a slight cast in one eye; limbs wellshaped except that knees curved inward; in stature neither tallnor short; abdomen somewhat prominent.43

GRATIAN. Body well proportioned, supple, and improved byconstant physical exercises; was given to pleasures of the chaseand practiced running, wrestling, leaping; eyes brilliant and kindlyin expression; face handsome and pleasing.4440Amm. Marc., 21, 1, 4; 22, 14, 3; 25, 4, 22; Auct., Epit. de Caes.,

43, 6; Eutrop., 10, 15; Julian Misop., 338B-339B; 365D; Mamertinus,Paneg. Jul., 6; Greg. Nazianz., Orat. contra Jul., 2, 23 (Migne, PatrologialGraeca, XXXV).41Amm. Marc., 25, 5, 6; 25, 10, 14; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 44, 1; Eutrop.,18, 1; Zosimus, 3, 30, 1-2; Zonar., 14, 13.4aAmm. Marc., 30, 9, 6; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 45, 5.43Amm. Marc., 31, 14, 7.

44 Amm. Marc., 27, 6, 15; 31, 10, 19; Auct., Epit. de Caes., 47, 4; Auson.,Grat. Act., 63-65; Themist., Orat., 13, 164C; 170C; 171A; 172D; Rufin.,Hist. Eccl., 11, 13.

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H. V. CanterTHEODOSIUSTHE GREAT. In appearance and character he was

comparedin antiquity to Trajan; tall and majestic; limbs firm andstrong, gait dignified and stately; eyes rather large; fair hair;complexion fresh with bloom of health.46

HONORIUS. Invested with the purple at age of ten; physicallyfeeble, languid, and spiritless; courage weak and mind unenlight-ened; in early years practiced riding, hurling missiles from a sling,and drawing the bow, but soon took to the amusement of poultryraising and to a life of ease at Ravenna.46

ARCADIUS.Body short, thin and sluggish; dark complexion;dullness of wit betrayedby speech and by eyes, which always seemedto be in the act of closing.47VALENTINIANIII. Became emperor at six under care of Galla

Placidia; weak, idle, pleasure loving, dissolute, vindictive. Nodirect description of personal appearance at hand.48THEODOSIUSI. Seven years old at accession; a weak ruler and a

man of negative virtues; enervatedby leisure, idle amusements, androyal education. Direct description not available and name re-membered almost entirely by the code of laws issued under hisauthority.49

Of the forty-eight emperors specially treated above, direct de-scription of personal features is found in the case of all except two,but in only twenty-eight instances does it occur as a clearly pur-posed feature of a biographical sketch-twelve by Suetonius,50nine by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae, six by Ainmianus Mar-cellinus, and one by the author of the Epitome de Caesaribus (twoby this writer if we count his description of Augustus in additionto that of Theodosius the Great). Taking the descriptions for

45Auct., Epit. de Caes., 48, 8.4 Zonar., 13, 21; Claud., III Cons. Honor., 39-50; IV Cons. Honor.,

518-531; Philostorg., Hist. Eccl., 12, 13; Ambros., De obitu Theod., 5; Pro-cop., Hist. of the Wars, 3, 2, 25-26.47 Philostorg., Hist. Eccl., 11, 3.48 Procop., Hist. of the Wars, 3, 3, 10-13.

49 Procop., Hist. of the Wars, 3, 2, 33; 3, 3, 8.50 The descriptions by Suetonius are by far the most extended and insome cases show such a tendency toward expansion by comment and illustra-tion that it is difficult to tell where description properly ends.

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Personal Appearance of the Roman Emperorsall authors concerned, the longest found is about forty lines ofordinary text, the shortest three, with an average of ten for all.In thirteen instances the description precedes, and in fifteen fol-lows, the account of the emperor'sdeath.51A good deal of information about the emperors is found in inci-dental mention of details by writers whose primary purpose is notto give a personal description, and in many cases not even a bio-graphical outline. Such information is available for every emperornoted except Valens, and the references cited vary in number fromone to seventeen, with an average of more than five. As an indica-tion of the disappointing way in which literary sources serve us, itis to be observedthat we find five references to the sluggard Vitel-lius as against two to the energetic Vespasian, and four to the ambi-tious, worthy Trajan; seventeen to vain, cruel Commodus,but onlyfive to dignified and masterful Diocletian; eight to weak, pleasure-loving Gratian, one only to Theodosius the Great.One of the most frequently mentioned features is that of stature;twelve emperors are described as tall and well proportioned; twoas tall and ill proportioned; three as above average, large andevenly proportioned; six as average; seven as below average or low;two as slender. About as frequently described is the expression,appearance or manner as indicative of disposition: twelve arecharacterized as kindly, agreeable, affable, gentle, or modest; nineas stern, bold, harsh, haughty, or savage; six as tranquil, serious,or spiritless; one each as dignified, secretive, shameless, frightful.Personality comesnext in frequency: eleven are handsome,graceful,or winsome; eight stately or majestic; two striking; two homely;three repulsive. As to care in personal appearance,two are fasti-dious; two indifferent; two unconventional; two effeminate. Indress one is elegant; five eccentric or capricious; three plain; ninegaudy or extravagant.With reference to physical strength, constitution, etc., nineteenemperors are described as strong or robust, six as enervated andweak, two as sickly and of uncertain health. As an indication ofpersonal appearanceand strength, two are mentioned as old and five

61These figures, as far as the biography of the emperors is concerned,do not confirm the statement of Stuart, Agricola of Tacitus, 1909, p. 99:" In the specimens of Latin literature best known to us this rubric morefrequently precedes the account of the death."

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H. V. Canteras young, while humble origin and rural occupation are given in teninstances apparently as evidence of strong physical endowment.Ill health, ailments, and afflictions of various kinds are cited asaffecting the physical appearanceof twenty-seven emperors; so dis-sipation and intemperance in the case of five, and corpulence infive.

Two emperors wore the hair long, six were bald, two had thin,two soft, and four curly hair. The color is noted once as white,twice as gray, and thrice as blond. In four cases as a regular habitthe face was kept smoothly shaven, in seven a beard was worn.In complexion three emperors are said to have been fair, twodark, one between swarthy and fair, four ruddy, and three pale.As to eyes, four times they are bright and vivacious, five large,twice drooping, once sunken, once dark, twice gray, thrice blue.Other features occasionally described are: the eyebrows, once asgrown together, once as overhanging, and once simply as becoming;the nose, once as straight, twice as aquiline; the mouth, once as full;the teeth, once as widely set, small and rough. The neck is char-acterizedseveral times, once as thin, and five times as full and thick.

The University of Illnois.

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personal appeareance in the biography of roman emperors

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