perilaku organisasi

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Organizational Change and Stress

Management

Chapter NINETEEN


Forces for ChangeForces for Change

E X H I B I T 19–1E X H I B I T 19–1

Force Examples

Nature of the workforce More cultural diversityAging populationMany new entrants with inadequate skills

Technology Faster, cheaper, and more mobile computers

On-line music sharingDeciphering of the human genetic code

Economic shocks Rise and fall of dot-com stocks 2000–02 stock market collapseRecord low interest rates

Competition Global competitors

Mergers and consolidationsGrowth of e-commerce


Forces for ChangeForces for Change

E X H I B I T 19–1 (cont’d)E X H I B I T 19–1 (cont’d)

Force Examples

Social trends Internet chat rooms Retirement of Baby BoomersRise in discount and “big box” retailers

World politics Iraq–U.S. war

Opening of markets in China War on terrorism following 9/11/01


Managing Planned ChangeManaging Planned Change

Goals of Planned Change:

Improving the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in its environment.

Changing the behavior of individuals and groups in the organization.

Goals of Planned Change:

Improving the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in its environment.

Changing the behavior of individuals and groups in the organization.

ChangeMaking things different.Planned ChangeActivities that are intentional and goal oriented.

Change AgentsPersons who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change activities.


Resistance to ChangeResistance to Change

Forms of Resistance to Change

– Overt and immediate• Voicing complaints, engaging in job actions

– Implicit and deferred• Loss of employee loyalty and motivation, increased

errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism


Sources of Individual Resistance to ChangeSources of Individual Resistance to Change

E X H I B I T 19–2E X H I B I T 19–2


Sources of Organizational Resistance to Change

Sources of Organizational Resistance to Change

E X H I B I T 19–2 (cont’d)E X H I B I T 19–2 (cont’d)


Overcoming Resistance to ChangeOvercoming Resistance to Change

Tactics for dealing with resistance to change:

• Education and communication

• Participation

• Facilitation and support

• Negotiation

• Manipulation and cooptation

• Selecting people who accept change

• Coercion

Tactics for dealing with resistance to change:

• Education and communication

• Participation

• Facilitation and support

• Negotiation

• Manipulation and cooptation

• Selecting people who accept change

• Coercion


The Politics of ChangeThe Politics of Change

Impetus for change is likely to come from outside change agents.

Internal change agents are most threatened by their loss of status in the organization.

Long-time power holders tend to implement only incremental change.

The outcomes of power struggles in the organization will determine the speed and quality of change.


Lewin’s Three-Step Change ModelLewin’s Three-Step Change Model

UnfreezingChange efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity.

RefreezingStabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and restraining forces.

Driving ForcesForces that direct behavior away from the status quo.

Restraining ForcesForces that hinder movement from the existing equilibrium.


Lewin’s Three-Step Change ModelLewin’s Three-Step Change Model

E X H I B I T 19–3E X H I B I T 19–3


Unfreezing the Status QuoUnfreezing the Status Quo

E X H I B I T 19–4E X H I B I T 19–4


Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan for Implementing ChangeKotter’s Eight-Step Plan for Implementing Change

E X H I B I T 19–5E X H I B I T 19–5

1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed.

2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.

3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.

4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.

5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative problem solving.

6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term “wins” that move the organization toward the new vision.

7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs.

8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success.

Source: Based on J. P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996).


Action ResearchAction Research

Process Steps:1. Diagnosis

2. Analysis

3. Feedback

4. Action

5. Evaluation

Process Steps:1. Diagnosis

2. Analysis

3. Feedback

4. Action

5. Evaluation

Action research benefits:

Problem-focused rather than solution-centered.

Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance to change.

Action research benefits:

Problem-focused rather than solution-centered.

Heavy employee involvement reduces resistance to change.

Action Research

A change process based on systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicates.


Organizational DevelopmentOrganizational Development

OD Values:1. Respect for people

2. Trust and support

3. Power equalization

4. Confrontation

5. Participation

OD Values:1. Respect for people

2. Trust and support

3. Power equalization

4. Confrontation

5. Participation

Organizational Development (OD)

A collection of planned interventions, built on humanistic-democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being.


Organizational Development TechniquesOrganizational Development Techniques

Sensitivity Training

Training groups (T-groups) that seek to change behavior through unstructured group interaction.

Provides increased awareness of others and self.

Increases empathy with others, improves listening skills, greater openness, and increased tolerance for others.


Organizational Development Techniques (cont’d)


Survey Feedback Approach

The use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member perceptions; discussion follows and remedies are suggested.




Process Consultation (PC)

A consultant gives a client insights into what is going on around the client, within the client, and between the client and other people; identifies processes that need improvement.




Team Building Activities:

• Goal and priority setting.

• Developing interpersonal relations.

• Role analysis to each member’s role and responsibilities.

• Team process analysis.

Team Building Activities:

• Goal and priority setting.

• Developing interpersonal relations.

• Role analysis to each member’s role and responsibilities.

• Team process analysis.

Team Building

High interaction among team members to increase trust and openness.




Intergroup Problem Solving:

• Groups independently develop lists of perceptions.

• Share and discuss lists.

• Look for causes of misperceptions.

• Work to develop integrative solutions.

Intergroup Problem Solving:

• Groups independently develop lists of perceptions.

• Share and discuss lists.

• Look for causes of misperceptions.

• Work to develop integrative solutions.

Intergroup Development

OD efforts to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other.


Teknik Pengembangan OrganisasiTeknik Pengembangan Organisasi

Appreciative Inquiry (AI):

• Discovery: mengingat kekuatan organisasi

• Bermimpi: spekulasi tentang masa depan organisasi

• Desain: mencari visi bersama.

• Tujuan: menentukan bagaimana untuk memenuhi mimpi.

Appreciative Inquiry (AI):

• Discovery: mengingat kekuatan organisasi

• Bermimpi: spekulasi tentang masa depan organisasi

• Desain: mencari visi bersama.

• Tujuan: menentukan bagaimana untuk memenuhi mimpi.

Penyelidikan Apresiatif

Berusaha untuk mengidentifikasi kualitas yang unik dan kekuatan khusus dari organisasi, yang kemudian dapat dibangun untuk meningkatkan kinerja.


Isu Perubahan Kontemporer untuk Manajer Saat ini

Isu Perubahan Kontemporer untuk Manajer Saat ini

Bagaimana perubahan teknologi mempengaruhi kehidupan kerja karyawan?

Apa yang bisa dilakukan manajer untuk membantu organisasi mereka menjadi lebih inovatif?

Bagaimana manajer menciptakan organisasi yang terus-menerus belajar dan beradaptasi?

Bagaimana mengelola perubahan budaya - mengikat?


Teknologi di Tempat KerjaTeknologi di Tempat Kerja

Proses Perbaikan yang Terus Menerus

– Baik tidaklah cukup baik

– Focus terus menerus pada upaya mengurangi variabilitas dalam organisasi akan meningkatkan keseragaman produk dan layanan.• Biaya lebih rendah dan mutu lebih tinggi

• Meningkatkan kepuasan pelanggan

– Dampak untuk Organisasi• Menambah beban stress bagi karyawan untuk terus

berprestasi

• Membutuhkan perubahan yang konstan didalam organisasi


Teknologi di Tempat KerjaTeknologi di Tempat Kerja

Rekayasa Ulang Proses

– “memulai semuanya dari awal”

– Memikirkan ulang dan merancang kembali proses organisasi untuk menciptakan keseragaman produk dan jasa.• Mengidentifikasi kompetensi berbeda organisasi - apa

yang dilakukannya terbaik.

• Menilai proses inti yang menambah nilai kompetensi berbeda organisasi.

• Reorganisasi horisontal dengan proses menggunakan tim lintas-fungsional dan yang dikelola sendiri.


Contemporary Change Issues for Today’s Managers: Stimulating Innovation

Contemporary Change Issues for Today’s Managers: Stimulating Innovation

Sumber Inovasi:

• Structural variables

• Organic structures

• Long-tenured management

• Slack resources

• Interunit communication

• Budaya Organisasi

• Sumber Daya Manusia

Sumber Inovasi:

• Structural variables

• Organic structures

• Long-tenured management

• Slack resources

• Interunit communication

• Budaya Organisasi

• Sumber Daya Manusia

Inovasi

Sebuah ide baru yang digunakan untuk memulai atau meningkatkan suatu produk, proses, atau jasa.


Contemporary Change Issues for Today’s Managers: Stimulating Innovation (cont’d)

Contemporary Change Issues for Today’s Managers: Stimulating Innovation (cont’d)

Pejuang IdeIndividu yang membawa inovasi dan aktif dan antusias mempromosikan ide, membangun dukungan, mengatasi hambatan, dan memastikan bahwa ide dilaksanakan.


Menciptakan Organisasi PembelajarMenciptakan Organisasi Pembelajar

Characteristics:

1. Memegang visi bersama.

2. Meninggalkan cara berpikir lama.

3. Melihat organisasi sebagai suatu sistem hubungan.

4. Berkomunikasi secara terbuka.

5. Bekerjasama untuk mencapai visi.

Characteristics:

1. Memegang visi bersama.

2. Meninggalkan cara berpikir lama.

3. Melihat organisasi sebagai suatu sistem hubungan.

4. Berkomunikasi secara terbuka.

5. Bekerjasama untuk mencapai visi.

Organisasi Pembelajar

Sebuah organisasi yang telah mengembangkan kapasitas untuk terus menerus beradaptasi dan berubah.

Source: Based on P. M. Senge, The Fifth Discipline (New York: Doubleday, 1990).E X H I B I T 19–6

E X H I B I T 19–6


Menciptakan Organisasi BelajarMenciptakan Organisasi Belajar

Pembelajaran lingkar-tunggal

Memperbaiki kesalahan dengan menggunakan prosedur masa lalu dan kebijakan masa kini

Pembelajaran lingkar-ganda

Memperbaiki kesalahan dengan memodifikasi objek organisasi, peraturan dan rutinitas standar.


Menciptakan Organisasi belajarMenciptakan Organisasi belajar

Masalah Fundamental di Organisasi Tradisional:

• Fragmentation based on specialization.

• Overemphasis on competition.

• Reactiveness that misdirects attention to problem-solving rather than creation.

Masalah Fundamental di Organisasi Tradisional:

• Fragmentation based on specialization.

• Overemphasis on competition.

• Reactiveness that misdirects attention to problem-solving rather than creation.


Managing a Learning OrganizationManaging a Learning Organization

Establisha strategy

Establisha strategy

Redesign the organization’s

structure

Redesign the organization’s

structure

Reshape the organization’s culture

Reshape the organization’s culture

Managing Learning

Managing Learning


Mastering Change: It’s Culture-BoundMastering Change: It’s Culture-Bound

Questions for culture-bound organizations:

1. Apakah orang meyakini perubahan sebagai hal yang mungkin?

2. Berapa lama waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memberikan perubahan di organisasi?

3. Apakah resistensi terhadap perubahan besar dalam organisasi ini karena budaya masyarakat di mana ia beroperasi?

4. Bagaimana budaya masyarakat mempengaruhi upaya untuk melaksanakan perubahan?

5. How will idea champions in this organization go about gathering support for innovation efforts?

Questions for culture-bound organizations:

1. Apakah orang meyakini perubahan sebagai hal yang mungkin?

2. Berapa lama waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk memberikan perubahan di organisasi?

3. Apakah resistensi terhadap perubahan besar dalam organisasi ini karena budaya masyarakat di mana ia beroperasi?

4. Bagaimana budaya masyarakat mempengaruhi upaya untuk melaksanakan perubahan?

5. How will idea champions in this organization go about gathering support for innovation efforts?


Terlalu Banyak Bekerja, Sedikit WaktuTerlalu Banyak Bekerja, Sedikit Waktu

E X H I B I T 19–7E X H I B I T 19–7

With companies downsizing workers, those who remain find their jobs are demanding increasing amounts of time and energy. A national sample of U.S. employees finds that they:

Feel overworked 54%

Are overwhelmed by workload 55%

Lack time for reflection 59%

Don’t have time to complete tasks 56%

Must multi-task too much 45%

Source: Business Week, July 16, 2001, p. 12.


Stress Kerja dan PengelolaannyaStress Kerja dan Pengelolaannya

Stress

Sebuah kondisi dinamis di mana seorang individu dihadapkan dengan kesempatan, kendala, atau sumber daya n terkait dengan apa yang dia inginkan dan yang hasilnya dipandang tidak pasti dan penting.


Stress kerja dan pengelolaannyaStress kerja dan pengelolaannya

Permintaan

Hilangnya sesuatu yang diinginkan

Sumber Daya

Hal yang di dalam kontrol seseorang yang dapat digunakan untuk mengatasi tuntutan.


A Model of StressA Model of Stress

E X H I B I T 19–9E X H I B I T 19–9


Sumber-Sumber Potensi Stress Sumber-Sumber Potensi Stress

Faktor Lingkungan– Ketidakpastian Ekonomi, misalnya orang merasa

cemas terhadap– Ketidakpastian Politik, misalnya adanya

peperangan akibat perebutan kekuasaan.– Perubahan Teknologi, misalnya dengan adanya

alat-alat eletronik dll,– Ancaman Teroris misalnya munculnya bom

dimana-mana


Sumber-Sumber Potensial StressSumber-Sumber Potensial Stress

Faktor Organisasi

– Tuntutan tugas yang terkait dengan pekerjaan

– Tuntutan peran sebagai fungsi dari sebuah organisasi

– Tuntutan antarpribadi yang diciptakan karyawan lain


Potential Sources of Stress (cont’d) Potential Sources of Stress (cont’d)

Faktor Pribadi– Keluarga dan hubungan personal– Masalah ekonomi dari pendapatan– Kepribadian yang melekat pada diri

Perbedaan Individu– Perceptual variations of how reality will affect

the individual’s future– Greater job experience moderates stress effects– Social support buffers job stress– Internal locus of control lowers perceived job

stress– Strong feelings of self-efficacy reduce reactions

to job stress


Akibat dari StressAkibat dari Stress

Tingkatan StressTingkatan Stress

Gejala Fisiologis,

(sakit kepala, tekanan darah

tinggi, dan sakit jantung)

Gejala Fisiologis,

(sakit kepala, tekanan darah

tinggi, dan sakit jantung)

Gejala Perilaku,

(perubahan produktivitas,

kemangkiran dan perputaran karyawan.

Gejala Perilaku,

(perubahan produktivitas,

kemangkiran dan perputaran karyawan.

Gejala Psikologis

(kecemasan, depresi, dan menurunnya

tingkat kepuasan kerja)

Gejala Psikologis

(kecemasan, depresi, dan menurunnya

tingkat kepuasan kerja)


Inverted-U Relationship between Stress and Job Performance

Inverted-U Relationship between Stress and Job Performance

E X H I B I T 19–10E X H I B I T 19–10


Managing StressManaging Stress

Pendekatan Individual– Menerapkan manajemen waktu– Menambah waktu olahraga– Pelatihan Relaksasi– Memperluas jaringan sosial


Manajemen StressManajemen Stress

Pendekatan Organisasi– Adanya peyeleksian personel dan penempatan

kerja yang lebih baik– Penetapan tujuan yang realistis– Pendesainan ulang pekerjaan– Peningkatan keterlibatan karyawan– Perbaikan dalam komunikasi organisasi– Penyelenggaraan program-orogram

kesejahteraan perusahaan


At which stage do organizations break

their inertia?

Unfreezing

Refreezing

Movement

Chapter Check-Up: Org. Change

Discuss with your neighbor what role unfreezing has in breaking

inertia.


Chapter Check-Up: Stress

Identify 5 sources of stress in your life

currently. Discuss with a classmate the

types of programs you would look for in

an organization that would be able to

help you manage those 5 sources of

stress.

perilaku organisasi

Documents

organizational change

prentice hall

change action

change intervention

change coercion

incremental change

quality of change

planned change activities