performance 1 · *para ver cómo se usa el presente continuo para expresar futuro, consultar la...

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Performance 1Grammar reference

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Performance 1 / Grammar reference © Pearson Educación, S. A., 2013 1

Grammar reference

Unit 1Reviewing the present

Present simple

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Short answers

I / you / we / they live I / you / we / they don’t (do not) live

Do I / you / we / they live?Don’t I / you / we / they live?

Yes, I / you / we / they do.No, I / you / we / they don’t.

he / she / it / one* lives he / she / it / one doesn’t (does not) live

Does he / she / it / one live?Doesn’t he / she / it / one live?

Yes, he / she / it / one does.No, he / she / it / one doesn’t.

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the present simple

To describe habits or routines He gets up at eight o’clock every morning.

always, in general, on the whole, usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, neverat one o’clock, every day / week / month / yearin the morning / afternoon / evening, at nightonce a day / week / month / yearhow often …?

To describe facts or scientific laws Many people live in China.

To describe timetables The train leaves at five o’clock.

*One rara vez se usa en inglés; se usa everybody / anybody / nobody / people.Does anybody live here? No, nobody does.Do people live in deserts? Yes, people do.

1 Afirmativa

• I / you / we / they + forma base del verbo (p. ej. I live)• he / she / it + forma base del verbo + -s / -es (p. ej. she lives)

Ortografía: tercera persona del singular• Con verbos acabados en -o, -ss, -ch, -sh y -x, se añade -es:

goes, does, misses, watches, washes, fixes.• Con verbos acabados en consonante + y, cambiar por -ies: try → tries• Con verbos acabados en vocal + y, simplemente, añadir -s: play → plays

2 Negativa

• I / you / we / they + don’t + forma base del verbo (p. ej. I don’t live)• he / she / it + doesn’t + forma base del verbo (p. ej. he doesn’t live)

Pero la negativa del verbo to be no usa don’t / doesn’t: I’m not, he isn’t, we aren’t.

¿Forma completa o forma contraída? Al hablar, rara vez se usa la forma completa (do not / does not). Al escribir, se usa la forma completa en documentos formales y la contraída en situaciones más informales (p. ej. una nota para un amigo).

3 Interrogativa

• do / don’t + I / you / we / they + forma base del verbo + …? (p. ej. Do you live …?)• does / doesn’t + he / she / it + forma base del verbo + …? (p. ej. Does he live …?)

Pero las preguntas con el verbo to be no usan do / does: Am I? Is he? Are we?

Watch out!

✔ she doesn’t see ✘ she don’t see / she not see

Watch out!

✔ Does she play football? ✘ Plays she football? /

Do she play football?

Watch out!

✔ Is she at home? ✘ Does she be at home?

Watch out!

✔ she sees, everybody sees, everyone sees, nobody sees, no one sees

✘ she see, everybody see, everyone see, nobody see, no one see

✔ people see, people don’t see ✘ people sees, people don’t sees

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4 Orden de las palabrasLos adverbios de frecuencia (always, often, etc.) van antes del verbo:I sometimes play tennis on Friday.

Pero van después del verbo to be:She is always late for class.

Las expresiones temporales (every day, once a month, etc.) normalmente van al final de la frase:He usually goes for a long walk at the weekend.

Present continuous


I’m (am) living I’m (am) not living Am I living?Am I not living?

Yes, I am. No, I’m not.

you / we / they’re (are) living you / we / they aren’t (are not) living

Are you / we / they living?Aren’t you / we / they living?

Yes, you / we / they are.No, you / we / they aren’t.

he / she / it’s (is) living he / she / it isn’t (is not) living

Is he / she / it living?Isn’t he / she / it living?

Yes, he / she / it is.No, he / she / it isn’t.

Uses* Examples Expressions often used with the present continuous

To describe an action or a process that is happening now

She is crossing the road. now, right now, at the moment

To describe situations that are not permanent

He is living with his sister this week.

currently, for the time being, at present, this week / month / year

With always, to express criticism / annoyance

You’re always arriving late. always

*Para ver cómo se usa el presente continuo para expresar futuro, consultar la página 14.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + verbo to be en presente + forma -ing (participio presente) del verbo principal (p. ej. I’m playing, she’s walking)

Negativa• sujeto + verbo to be en presente + not + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. he isn’t coming, they aren’t wearing)

Interrogativa• verbo to be en presente + sujeto + forma -ing del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Is she wearing …? Am I telling …?)

2 Ortografía de la forma -ing

• Los verbos que acaban en -e silenciosa pierden la e: ride → riding. (pero: see → seeing)• Los verbos que acaban en -ie toman la forma -ying: lie → lying.• Los verbos que acaban en una sílaba tónica y una consonante final duplican la

consonante: swim → swimming, forget → forgetting.

Watch out!Travel también duplica la consonante final, a pesar de que su sílaba tónica no es la última sino la primera: travel → travelling.


Grammar reference

3 Verbos de estadoAlgunos verbos se usan rara o ninguna vez en su forma continua. Dichos verbos describen un estado, más que una acción o suceso. Algunos verbos comunes que no se usan habitualmente en su forma continua son:

• Los verbos que describen estados mentales / emociones: agree, believe, dislike, feel (= have an opinion), forget, guess, hate, hear, hope, know, like, love, prefer, remember, suppose, think (= have an opinion*), understand, want

• Los verbos que describen una percepción, a menudo seguidos de un adjetivo: appear, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste

• Los verbos relacionados con mediciones: cost, last, measure, weigh• Los verbos que expresan posesión / pertenencia: belong, have, own, possess

*Cuando think va seguido de of o about significa “considerar” y se tiene que usar la forma continua:

✔ I’m thinking of a visit to the cinema. ✘ I think of a visit to the cinema. ✔ I’m thinking about you. ✘ I think about you.

Open questions1 Presente simpleEl orden de las palabras es:• partícula interrogativa como sujeto + verbo (+ preposición) (+ objeto) + …? (p. ej. Who lives here? How many students go to your school?)

Watch out!

✔ Who works there? ✘ Who does work there?

• partícula interrogativa como objeto + verbo auxiliar + sujeto + verbo (+ preposición) + …? (p. ej. Which band does she like best? Who do you live with?)

2 Presente continuoEl orden de las palabras es:• partícula interrogativa como sujeto + verbo auxiliar + forma -ing del verbo principal

(+ preposición) (+ objeto) + …? (p. ej. What is happening? Who is writing to you?)• partícula interrogativa como objeto + verbo auxiliar + sujeto + forma -ing del verbo principal

(+ preposición) + …? (p. ej. What are you doing? Who are you writing to?)

3 Partículas interrogativas comunes

What do you think about this? Why don’t you like me?

Where is he going? How do you spell this word?

Which colour do you prefer? How much homework do you do?

Who do you know at this party? How many Facebook friends do you have?

Whose coat is that? How often do you come here?

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Present perfect simple for unfinished actions


I / you / we / they’ve (have) seen

I / you / we / they haven’t (have not) seen

Have I / you / we / they seen?Haven’t I / you / we / they seen?

Yes, I / you / we / they have. No, I / you / we / they haven’t.

he / she / it’s (has) seen he / she / it hasn’t (has not) seen

Has he / she / it seen?Hasn’t he / she / it seen?

Yes, he / she / it has.No, he / she / it hasn’t.

Use* Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect simple

To describe a situation / an action that started in the past and continues into the present

This has been a big problem up to now.He has read three books so far.

up to / up till / till / until now, so far

* Para ver otros usos del presente perfecto simple, consultar la página 10.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + has / have + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I’ve played, she’s walked)

Negativa• sujeto + has / have + not + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. you haven’t listened, they haven’t come)

Interrogativa• has / have + sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Has she seen …? Have I told …?)

2 El participio pasadoVerbos regulares: En ellos, el participio pasado se forma añadiendo -ed: played, walked, listened.• Algunos pueden acabar indistintamente en -ed o en -t: learned / learnt, earned / earnt, spelled /

spelt.• A los verbos que acaban en -e solo se les añade -d: telephoned, prepared, translated.• Los verbos que acaban en consonante + y, forman el participio pasado sustituyendo la -y por

-ied: married, tried.• Los verbos monosilábicos que acaban en vocal sencilla + consonante* doblan la consonante

final: stopped, snapped, batted. *Excepto si acaban en x o w: boxed, flowed

• Todos los verbos bisilábicos que acaban en vocal + consonante doblan la consonante final si la sílaba tónica es la segunda: refer → referred, unwrap → unwrapped.

• Travel también dobla la consonante final, a pesar de que la sílaba tónica es la primera: travel → travelled.

Verbos irregulares: Muchos verbos comunes forman el participio pasado de manera irregular. En la página 136 del libro del alumno hay una lista con dichos verbos.

3 UsoSe usa el presente perfecto simple para hablar de acciones o situaciones que empezaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente.She hasn’t learnt much English so far.

Watch out!

• He has been a teacher up to now.• He is a teacher up to now.• He is being a teacher up to now.

Watch out!

✔ she has learnt ✔ she’s learnt ✘ she is learnt


Grammar reference

Present perfect continuous for unfinished actions


I / you / we / they’ve been (have been) living

I / you / we / they haven’t been (have not been) living

Have I / you / we / they been living?Haven’t I / you / we / they been living?

Yes, I / you / we / they have.No, I / you / we / they haven’t.

he / she / it’s been (has been) living

he / she / it hasn’t been (has not been) living

Has he / she / it been living?Hasn’t he / she / it been living?

Yes, he / she / it has.No, he / she / it hasn’t.

Use* Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect continuous

To describe a situation or a continuous / repeated action that started in the past and continues into the present. We use the continuous form when we want to emphasise the duration of the action.

They’ve been living in France for two years.I’ve been coming here every summer since 2003.

for a long time / two years / three monthssince yesterday / last year / his birthday

* Para ver otros usos del presente perfecto continuo, consultar la página 11.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + have / has been + forma -ing (participio presente) del verbo principal (p. ej. I’ve been playing, she’s been walking)

Negativa• sujeto + haven’t / hasn’t been + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. you haven’t been listening, they haven’t been living)

Interrogativa• have / has + sujeto + been + forma -ing del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Has she been reading? Have you been sleeping?)

Watch out!

✔ she has been learning ✔ she’s been learning ✘ she is been learning

2 UsoEl presente perfecto continuo se usa para hablar de las acciones o situaciones continuas que comenzaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente.He has been crying all day. (He is probably still crying.)She’s been learning English. (She may still be learning.)

Watch out!

✔ He has been working abroad for three years. ✘ He is working abroad for three years.

3 Presente perfecto simple frente a presente perfecto continuoA veces se puede usar tanto el presente perfecto simple como el continuo para describir acciones que comenzaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente.He’s lived in Tokyo for two years. / He’s been living in Tokyo for two years.

Si se quiere dar énfasis a la duración de la acción, se usa la forma continua:He’s been reading all day.

Si se quiere resaltar el resultado de la acción, se usa la forma simple:He’s read three books today. (Los ha terminado.)He’s been reading three books today. (No necesariamente los ha terminado.)

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4 For frente a sinceSe usa for para referirse a la duración de una acción o situación:He’s been married for three years / two weeks / a long time / ages / a while.

Se usa since para referirse al tiempo en el que empezó la acción o situación:He’s been married since last August / he was 21 / the spring.

Verb + gerund / infinitive (1)Algunos verbos van seguidos de gerundio y otros de infinitivo.

1 Verbo + gerundio

avoid can’t stand consider deny discuss dislike

don’t mind* enjoy finish give up imagine miss

recommend risk stop suggest

I can’t stand waiting in a queue.He doesn’t mind* doing the washing up.

*Mind se usa principalmente con las formas negativa e interrogativa.

2 Verbo + infinitivo

agree appear arrange choose decide demand expect

fail hope learn manage mean plan prepare

pretend promise refuse tend want would like

Do they agree to follow our plan?He refuses to pay the money.

Verb + gerund / infinitive (2)Algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos tanto de gerundio como de infinitivo. Hay tres categorías diferentes:

1 Verbos de inicio o continuación: intend, begin / start, continueDichos verbos pueden ir seguidos o de gerundio o de infinitivo:Suddenly, he began to shout / shouting.

Cuando están en su forma continua, por lo general, van seguidos de infinitivo:I’m intending to see her tonight.

2 Verbos que expresan agrado o desagrado: love, like, hate, preferCuando se habla en general, normalmente van seguidos de gerundio:I love skiing.She hates doing exams.

Cuando se refieren a una situación específica, solo se usa el infinitivo:I’d prefer to stay at home this weekend.I’d love to see you tonight.


Grammar reference

3 Verbos con dos significados: remember, forget, need, regret, tryAlgunos verbos tienen un significado diferente en función de si van seguidos de gerundio o de infinitivo:

• remember + infinitivo = no olvidar hacer algo He remembered to close the door. remember + gerundio = traer a la memoria un recuerdo He remembered closing the door.

• forget + infinitivo = olvidar hacer algo I forgot to tell him the news. forget + gerundio = hacer algo y no recordar haberlo hecho I forget telling him the news but perhaps I did.

• need + infinitivo = tener que hacer algo I need to clean the house. need + gerundio = alguien tiene que hacer algo (oración impersonal) The house needs cleaning. (= The house needs to be cleaned.)

• regret + infinitivo = lamentar tener que (generalmente seguido de una información desagradable que se va a dar)

I regret to inform you that you have to leave the country. regret + gerundio = hablar de una equivocación del pasado I regret settling in Britain. (= It was a bad idea to settle in Britain.)

• try + infinitivo = hacer un esfuerzo por I am trying to come to terms with the country. try + gerundio = experimentar con/probar a hacer algo I’ve tried travelling but I still feel bored. (= I’ve experimented with travelling.)

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Grammar reference

Unit 2Reviewing the past

Past simple


I / you / he / she / it / we / they lived

I / you / he / she / it / we / they didn’t live

Did / Didn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they live?

Yes, I / you / he / she / it / we / they did.No, I / you / he / she / it / we / they didn’t.

I / you / he / she / it / we / they went

I / you / he / she / it / we / they didn’t go

Did / Didn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they go?

Yes, I / you / he / she / it / we / they did.No, I / you / he / she / it / we / they didn’t.

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the past simple

To describe a finished single action in the past

I saw a film yesterday.We met at the supermarket.

yesterday, last (night / week / year), (two years) ago, in (2007), last, first

To describe a finished continuous action in the past

They lived in Berlin for three years.

for a long time, for (three years)

To describe a series of actions in the past

First he opened the door, then he came in and after that he took off his coat.

first, next, then, after that, finally

1 Afirmativa: verbos regularesEl pasado simple de los verbos regulares se forma añadiendo -ed a la forma base del verbo: played, laughed, waited.• Algunos pueden acabar indistintamente en -ed o en -t: learned / learnt, earned / earnt, spelled / spelt.• A los verbos que acaban en -e solo se les añade -d: telephoned, arrived, moved.• Los verbos que terminan en consonante + y forman el pasado simple sustituyendo la -y por -ied: worried,

carried.• Los verbos monosilábicos que acaban en vocal sencilla + consonante* doblan la consonante final: stopped,

ripped, batted. *Excepto si acaban en x o w: fixed, rowed

• Todos los verbos bisilábicos que acaban en vocal + consonante doblan la consonante final si la sílaba tónica es la segunda: refer → referred, unwrap → unwrapped.

• Travel también dobla la consonante final, a pesar de que la sílaba tónica es la primera: travel → travelled.

2 Afirmativa: verbos irregularesMuchos verbos comunes forman el pasado simple en afirmativa de manera irregular. En la página 136 del libro del alumno hay una lista con dichos verbos.

3 NegativaTodos los verbos, excepto el verbo to be y los modales (ver la página 20), forman el pasado simple en negativa de la misma manera:

• sujeto + didn’t + forma base del verbo (p. ej. he didn’t see, they didn’t go, I didn’t know)

(Pero: I wasn’t, they weren’t, he couldn’t)

4 InterrogativaExcepto el verbo to be y los modales, todos forman el pasado simple en interrogativa igual:

• did + sujeto + forma base del verbo + …? (p. ej. Did they go …? Did you see …? Did she work …?)

(Pero: were you? were they? could she?)


Grammar reference

Past continuous

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I / he / she / it was living I / he / she / it wasn’t (was not) living Was / Wasn’t I / he / she / it living?

you / we / they were living you / we / they weren’t (were not) living Were / Weren’t you / we / they living?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the past continuous

To describe the context of past events / actions

As she was crossing the road … (she looked at her watch.)

as, while, when

To describe what was happening at a specific time

I was watching TV at seven o’clock last night.

at (nine) o’clock, last night

To describe two events or actions which were happening simultaneously

While I was cooking, it was raining very hard outside.

as, while, all the time that …

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + was / were + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. I was living, they were singing)

Negativa• sujeto + wasn’t / weren’t + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. you weren’t smiling, she wasn’t listening)

Interrogativa• was / were + sujeto + forma -ing del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Were they walking? Was she travelling?)

2 Pasado simple frente a pasado continuoa) El pasado continuo proporciona el contexto; el pasado simple describe la acción.

While she was living in Badajoz, she made a lot of friends. CONTEXTO ACCIÓN

As he was reading a book, someone knocked at the door. CONTEXTO ACCIÓN

b) El pasado simple describe una acción individual; el pasado continuo describe una acción continua.

Comparación:What did you do at 7 o’clock? I started to watch TV. (pasado simple: acción individual)What were you doing at 7 o’clock? I was watching TV. (pasado continuo: acción continua)

Past perfect simple


I / you / he / she / it / we / they had lived I / you / he / she / it / we / they hadn’t (had not) lived

Had / Hadn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they lived?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the past perfect simple

We use the past perfect simple to indicate that one action happened before another action in the past

When I arrived, she had already gone to bed.By the time she had finished her homework, it was ten o’clock.

already, just, not … yet, after, as soon as, by the time, not … until

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Grammar reference

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + had + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I had seen, you had arrived)

Negativa• sujeto + hadn’t + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. you hadn’t heard, we hadn’t forgotten)

Interrogativa• had + sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Had they gone …? Had I been …?)

Participio pasadoPara la formación del participio pasado, consultar la página 4.

2 Pasado simple frente a pasado perfectoa) El pasado perfecto describe la primera acción; el pasado simple describe la segunda.

After he had closed all the windows, he put the heating on. PRIMERA ACCIÓN SEGUNDA ACCIÓN

b) A veces (cuando el significado está claro) se puede usar el pasado simple para describir la primera acción incluso aunque, en rigor, se deba usar el tiempo pasado perfecto.

After the train left, they had a coffee. / After the train had left, they had a coffee.

Present perfect simple: further uses*


I / you / we / they have livedshe / he / it has lived

I / you / we / they haven’t livedshe / he / it hasn’t lived

Have / Haven’t I / you / we / they lived?Has / Hasn’t she / he / it lived?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect simple

To describe very recent actions / events He’s cut his finger!I haven’t seen her lately.

just, already, yet, not … yet, still … not, recently, lately, this is the first time that …today, this morning / week / year

To introduce the news War has started in Ruritania.

To talk about an action / event in the past that is still relevant to the present

I have seen him before.She has been to Italy once.I have never read Don Quixote.

before, once, never, it’s a long time since …

*Para ver cómo se usa el presente perfecto simple para describir una acción que comenzó en el pasado y continúa en el presente, consultar la página 4.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + have / has + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I have been, she has written)

Negativa• sujeto + haven’t / hasn’t + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. we haven’t visited, he hasn’t asked)

Interrogativa• have / has + sujeto + participio pasado del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Have we booked…? Has she phoned …?)


Grammar reference

2 Palabras que se usan habitualmente con el presente perfecto simplealready We’ve already seen that film.yet (in questions) Have you seen him yet?not … yet She hasn’t arrived yet.just I’ve just emailed him.never I’ve never been to Africa.ever (in questions) Have you ever seen a ghost?still … not She still hasn’t answered me.

3 Presente perfecto simple frente a pasado simpleSe usa el presente perfecto simple para referirse a una acción o suceso terminado pero que aún es aplicable al presente. Se usa el pasado simple para referirse a una acción o suceso que pertenece por completo al pasado.

Comparación:I saw him at the cinema last week. (pasado simple: la semana pasada ha terminado y está en el pasado)I have seen him at the cinema this week. (presente perfecto: esta semana aún no ha terminado, y puedo volver a verlo)

We didn’t see the new Spielberg film. (pasado simple: la película ya no se proyecta, así que ya no vamos a verla)We haven’t seen the new Spielberg film. (presente perfecto: la película aún se proyecta, así que aún podríamos verla)

Fiona visited me in Scotland several times. (pasado simple: no volverá a visitarme allí; tal vez yo ya no esté en Escocia)Fiona has visited me in Scotland several times. (presente perfecto: puede volver a visitarme; yo aún sigo allí)

Tom worked in Paris for five years. (pasado simple: ya no trabaja allí)Tom has worked in Paris for five years. (presente perfecto: aún trabaja allí)

Present perfect continuous: further use*


I / you / we / they have been living I / you / we / they haven’t been living Have / Haven’t I / you / we / they been living?

he / she / it has been living he / she / it hasn’t been living Has / Hasn’t he / she / it been living?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the present perfect continuous

To describe a continuous / repeated action in the recent past

He’s been reading a lot recently.I’ve been painting the studio this morning.

lately, recentlytoday, this morning / week / year

*Para ver cómo se usa el presente perfecto continuo para describir acciones continuas que empezaron en el pasado y continúan en el presente, consultar la página 5.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + have / has + been + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. he’s been writing, they’ve been walking)

Negativa• sujeto + haven’t / hasn’t + been + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. I haven’t been working, it hasn’t been raining)

Interrogativa• have / has + sujeto + been + forma -ing del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Has she been waiting …? Have you been playing …?

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Grammar reference

2 Presente perfecto continuo frente a presente perfecto simpleSe usa el presente perfecto continuo cuando lo que interesa es la acción o el suceso, y el presente perfecto simple cuando lo que interesa es la consumación o el final de la acción o el suceso.

She’s been reading Don Quixote recently. (presente perfecto continuo: no sabemos si ha terminado de leerse Don Quixote)She’s read Don Quixote recently. (presente perfecto simple: ha terminado de leer el libro)

3 Presente perfecto continuo frente a pasado continuoSe usa el presente perfecto continuo para referirse a una acción continua o repetida que sucedió en el pasado pero sigue siendo aplicable en el presente. Se usa el pasado continuo para referirse a una acción continua o repetida que pertenece por completo al pasado.Comparación:He was reading that book yesterday. (pasado continuo: ayer terminó y está en el pasado)He’s been reading that book all this week. (presente perfecto continuo: esta semana aún no ha acabado, y es probable que siga leyendo el libro)

She was waiting for you in the restaurant. (pasado continuo: no llegaste, así que dejó de esperar)She has been waiting for you in the restaurant. (presente perfecto continuo: si llegas pronto, quizá aún esté esperando)

used to


I / you / he / she / it / we / they used to live

I / you / he / she / it / we / they didn’t use to live

Did / Didn’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they use to live?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with used to

To describe an action that someone did frequently in the past but doesn’t do now

I used to play football twice a week. in the past, years ago, before, when I was young

To describe a lasting condition or situation that no longer exists

London used to be the biggest city in the world.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + used to + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. She used to live in Brazil.)

Negativa• sujeto + didn’t use to + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. He didn’t use to be so serious.)

Interrogativa• did + sujeto + use to + forma base del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Did you use to play tennis?)


Grammar reference

Unit 3Expressing the future En inglés existen tres formas de expresar el futuro: be going to / will / presente continuo.

be going toSe usa be going to para expresar intenciones o predicciones seguras. El suceso futuro es el resultado de lo que alguien va a hacer o de lo que vemos que va a pasar (is going to do / happen).


I’m going to tryyou / we / they’re going to tryhe / she / it’s going to try

I’m not going to tryyou / we / they aren’t going to tryhe / she / it isn’t going to try

Am I going to try? Am I not going to try?Are / Aren’t you / we / they going to try?Is / Isn’t he / she / it going to try?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with going to

To describe fixed plans / arrangements I’m going to play football this weekend with Tim.

tomorrow, this weekend, next year, soon, in a few days

To describe resolutions or firm decisions He’s going to stop smoking.

To make predictions about something that is certain / almost certain to happen

There are lots of dark clouds. It’s going to rain.

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + am / is / are + going to + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. I’m going to study French. We’re going to have dinner.)

Negativa• sujeto + am / is / are + not + going to + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. She isn’t going to cry. You aren’t going to play.)

Interrogativa• am / is / are + sujeto + going to + forma base del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Are we going to book seats? Am I going to play?)

will (future simple)Se usa will para predicciones generales y para decisiones, ofrecimientos, promesas y peticiones.


I / you / he / she / it / we / they’ll (will) see

I / you / he / she / it / we / they won’t (will not) see

Will / Won’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they see?

Uses Examples Expressions often used with will

To make predictions (without firm evidence)

Life will be better in the future.He will win.It will rain tomorrow.

in the future, tomorrow, this weekend, next (week / year), soon, in a few (days / months)

To express spontaneous decisions and offers

I think I’ll go for a walk.Don’t get up, I’ll open the window.I’ll do it.

To express promises I won’t tell anyone, I promise.I’ll be there.

To express requests Will you help me with this?Please will you come?

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Grammar reference

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + will + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. I’ll help you, they’ll live)

Negativa• sujeto + won’t + forma base del verbo principal (p. ej. she won’t come, you won’t drive)

Interrogativa• will + sujeto + forma base del verbo principal + …? (p. ej. Will you explain …? Will they pay …?)

2 be going to frente a willCuando se hace una predicción basada en una opinión y no en hechos obvios, podemos usar tanto be going to como will:I imagine that he’ll be / he’s going to be very tired when he finishes the race.

Cuando la predicción se basa en hechos obvios o se conoce la causa se usa be going to:The water is already very hot. It’s going to boil in a minute.

Para hacer un ofrecimiento o una promesa se usa will:I’ll help. I will make sure it happens.

Present continuous (for future action)Se usa el presente continuo cuando hay planes o preparativos definitivos.Para ver cómo se forma el presente continuo, consultar la página 2.

1 Usosa) Para describir planes: I’m seeing Jill tonight. He’s studying chemistry at university next year.

b) Para describir un acontecimiento programado: They’re showing a good film on TV tonight.

2 Presente continuo frente a be going toPara describir planes definitivos se puede usar tanto el presente continuo como be going to.What are you doing / are you going to do tonight? He’s flying / ’s going to fly to Acapulco this summer.

Para describir resoluciones o decisiones firmes solo se puede usar be going to.I’m going to become a better person this year.

Time clauses in the futureCuando se habla de sucesos futuros se usa el tiempo presente después de una conjunción de tiempo.

Main clause Time clause

sujeto will + base form of main verb when / while / until / as soon as / after / before sujeto present tense

I’ll tell you when he arrives.We’ll clean the house before your mother comes.He won’t know anything until you tell him.


Grammar reference

Expressing the future in English

Watch out!Expresar el futuro en inglés puede ser difícil porque los tiempos verbales que se usan son, a menudo, diferentes de los que se usan en otros idiomas.

✔ Don’t worry, I’ll help you. (will para ofrecimientos) ✘ Don’t worry, I help you.

✔ I’ll answer the phone. (will para ofrecimientos) ✘ I’m going to answer the phone.

✔ Will you explain this to me? (will para peticiones) ✘ Do you explain this to me?

✔ What are you doing tonight? (presente continuo para planes) ✘ What do you do tonight?

✔ He’ll be angry when we tell him. (presente después de conjunciones de tiempo) ✘ He’ll be angry when we will tell him.

Future perfect


I / you / he / she / it / we / they’ll have travelled

I / you / he / she / it / we / they won’t have travelled

Will / Won’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they have travelled?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the future perfect

To describe an action that will be complete by a particular time in the future

We’ll have completed the Camino de Santiago by the end of this week.

by (tomorrow / next week), by the end of …, by then, in three weeks, in ten years’ time

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + will have + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. I’ll have visited, they’ll have seen)Negativa• sujeto + won’t have + participio pasado del verbo principal (p. ej. she won’t have bought, you won’t have arrived)

Future continuous


I / you / he / she / it / we / they’ll be travelling

I / you / he / she / it / we / they won’t be travelling

Will / Won’t I / you / he / she / it / we / they be travelling?

Use Examples Expressions often used with the future continuous

To describe a continuous action in the future

This time next year he’ll be working in New York.

this time next (week / month / year), next weekend, in a year, in a week’s time, at (five) o’clock

1 Afirmativa, negativa e interrogativaAfirmativa• sujeto + will be + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. I’ll be flying, they’ll be watching)

Negativa• sujeto + won’t be + forma -ing del verbo principal (p. ej. she won’t be studying, you won’t be driving)

Interrogativa• will + sujeto + have + participio pasado del

verbo principal + …? Will you have phoned? Will they have eaten?

Interrogativa• will + sujeto + be + forma -ing del verbo principal

+ …? (p. ej. Will you be staying …? Will they be going …?

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Grammar reference

Unit 4Relative clausesUna oración de relativo nos amplía la información de una persona o un tema. Generalmente viene introducida por un pronombre relativo pero, en algunos casos, este puede omitirse.

Relative pronouns

Relative pronoun Examples

who refers to a person.* His sister, who is an architect, is sitting over there.

which refers to an object, place or idea. London, which is the capital of England, is on the River Thames.

that refers to an object, place or idea or person in defining relative clauses only (see below).It is more impersonal than who, so we use it when talking about someone’s role or attribute.

This is a place that I would like to visit.She is the person that you need to see.He is someone that is interested in other people.

where refers to a location. This is the place where we last saw him.

whose indicates possession, by both people and things. This is an idea whose time has come.I don’t know whose coat this is.

when refers to a time. 1994 was the year when we got married.

why refers to a reason or explanation. Can you tell me the reason why you are late?

* who también puede referirse al objeto de la oración mediante whom, pero solo en situaciones muy formales:He is the boy whom we have hired. (muy poco frecuente)He is the boy who we have hired. (mucho más común)

En algunas circunstancias what puede ser un pronombre relativo para una cosa o idea:I don’t know what it is.What we need is a microscope.

Defining relative clausesLas oraciones de relativo especificativas añaden información esencial:She is the person who / that is going to be our new boss.This is an idea which / that merits consideration.

A menudo, si se omite la oración de relativo especificativa, la frase no tiene sentido:London is the place where we met.

Los pronombres relativos who, that y which generalmente se pueden omitir cuando son el objeto en una oración de relativo especificativa:He is someone (who / that) I’d like to meet.This is something (which / that) I’d like to know.

Los pronombres relativos who, that y which no se pueden omitir si son el sujeto en una oración especificativa:She is the person who / that is responsible for the situation.

Pero where, when y why no siempre se pueden omitir por lo que es aconsejable mantenerlos.

Non-defining relative clausesUna oración de relativo explicativa no añade información esencial:My mother, who lives with us, works as a teacher.

Se puede omitir la oración de relativo explicativa sin que afecte al significado básico de la frase.Einstein[, whose father was an engineer,] was born in 1879.He moved to England[, where his girlfriend was living].


Grammar reference

Siempre se usan comas delante y, si es necesario, detrás de una oración de este tipo. Si no se usan, el significado cambia y tenemos una oración de relativo especificativa, no explicativa.

Comparación:

The dog, which was sick yesterday, is fine this morning.En este caso el interlocutor solo tiene un perro. La oración de relativo (which was sick yesterday) proporciona información adicional no esencial sobre dicho perro.

The dog which was sick yesterday is fine this morning.En este caso el interlocutor tiene más de un perro. La oración de relativo (which was sick yesterday) es vital porque nos dice de qué perro está hablando.

Watch out!En las oraciones de relativo explicativas no se puede usar that.Mr Rogers, who that works with my father, lives over there.Chess, which that is a game I hate, is getting more popular.

Word order: prepositionsLas preposiciones que afectan al pronombre relativo suelen ir al final de la oración de relativo.He is the person (who / that) I was telling you about. This book, which everybody is talking about, is quite boring.

En contextos extremadamente formales se puede poner la preposición antes del pronombre relativo, pero ese caso es muy poco común.This is a position with which the government cannot agree.

Adverbs of manner Los adverbios de modo describen cómo pasa o se hace algo.He sings beautifully.She is behaving very selfishly.The snow is falling heavily.

Los adverbios de modo se forman de la siguiente manera:• adjetivos que no acaban en -y: sad → sadly• adjetivos que acaban en -y: happy → happily

Algunos adverbios de modo irregulares son: well, fast y hard.

La posición de los adverbios de modo dentro de una oración es un tanto flexible, sin embargo, la única posición que siempre es correcta es después del verbo, y después del objeto si lo hay.

✔ He plays the piano well. VERBO OBJETO ADVERBIO DE MODO

✘ He plays well the piano.

✔ They were walking slowly. VERBO ADVERBIO DE MODO

En inglés es muy frecuente usar not + un adverbio de modo negativo en lugar de un adverbio de modo positivo.She’s not doing badly. (= Le va bien.)He’s not doing very well. (= Le va mal.)

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Grammar reference

Unit 5Conditionals

Type of conditional

Formation Uses Examples

If clause Main clause

Zero conditional

If + present simple, present simple To describe general truths If people like their work, they are usually happy.

First conditional

If + present simple, will + base form of main verb

To describe an event in the future that depends on another action in the near future

If I study a lot, I’ll pass the exam.

Second conditional

If + past simple, would + base form of main verb

To describe a hypothetical event in the present or future

If we had more money, we’d live in a better house.

Third conditional

If + had + past participle (past perfect),

would have + past participle

To describe a hypothetical event in the past

If she’d arrived earlier, she wouldn’t have missed the bus.

GeneralEn las frases condicionales no es importante el orden. La oración condicional if (oración subordinada) puede ir la primera o la segunda:I’ll tell you if he comes. / If he comes, I’ll tell you.

Cuando se pone primero la oración condicional if, esta va seguida de una coma:If you know the answer, you need to tell me.

First conditional vs. second conditionalSe usa la primera condicional cuando hay posibilidades reales de que algo ocurra. Se usa la segunda condicional cuando hay serias dudas de que algo vaya a suceder.

Primera condicional: If you work hard, you’ll pass the exam. (Creo que hay una posibilidad real de que estudies mucho y apruebes el examen.)

Segunda condicional: If you worked hard, you’d pass the exam. (Creo que probablemente no estudies mucho, y por tanto no aprobarás el examen.)

Contractions in the second and third conditionals

Watch out!La contracción ’d de la segunda condicional siempre se refiere a would:If you paid more attention, you’d learn more. you’d learn = you would learn

La contracción ’d en la tercera condicional se refiere a would en la oración principal y a had en la oración condicional if:I’d have been very sad if you’d not spoken to me. = I would have been very sad if you had not spoken to me.

was in the second conditionalEn general, no se considera correcto usar was después de if en la segunda condicional. En su lugar se usa were:If I were you, I’d accept the job.If she were more patient, she’d be happier.


Grammar reference

unlessUnless significa lo mismo que if … not. Se usa con más frecuencia con la primera condicional:If you don’t read more, your spelling will never improve. = Unless you read more, your spelling will never improve.

as long as / provided (that) / providing (that)Todas estas expresiones significan on condition that y se usan para demostrar énfasis. Se pueden usar en una oración condicional de los tipos cero, primera y segunda.Condicional cero: People generally work hard as long as / provided (that) / providing (that) they like their jobs.Primer condicional: I’ll see you tonight as long as / provided (that) / providing (that) you come to my house.Segundo condicional: He’d go to New York as long as / provided (that) / providing (that) they gave him a free flight.

Uses of the gerund

As the subject of a sentenceSurfing the Internet can become addictive.Smoking is bad for you.

After prepositionsAfter leaving the café, he went for a walk.She stayed at home instead of going out.He wasn’t keen on sleeping in the dark.

Watch out!

✘ after to leave the café ✘ instead of to go out

Common expressions with the gerund• be used to + gerundio (p. ej. She is used to working in busy places.)

• get used to + gerundio (p. ej. You get used to getting up early.)

• be good / bad at + gerundio (p. ej. He is good at doing calculations but bad at learning languages.)

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Grammar reference

Unit 6Modal verbs

Meaning Modal verb Examples

AbilitySee note 1

can He can swim very well.

be able to She’s been able to ski for years.

could They could help us but they don’t want to.

Possibility / Speculation could / may / might The sky’s dark. It could / may / might rain soon.

Positive deduction must His face is red. He must be hot.

Negative deduction can’t She is very honest. She can’t be the thief.

ObligationSee note 2

must / have to It’s my first day at work tomorrow. I have to / must get up early.

Necessity need to To stop global warming, we need to reduce greenhouse gases.

Positive recommendation / Mild obligation

should / ought to We ought to / should see Uncle Joe this weekend. We haven’t seen him for a long time.

ProhibitionSee note 3

mustn’t You mustn’t smoke in here. It’s illegal.

can't We can't drive into the city centre.

No obligation / No necessitySee notes 3 and 4

don’t have to / don’t need to / needn’t I don’t work at the weekend, so I don’t have to / don’t need to / needn’t get up early.

Negative recommendation shouldn’t / oughtn’t to You oughtn’t to / shouldn’t eat so much – you’re getting fat.

Permission / Request can / could / may You may leave now.Can / Could you open the door?

La mayoría de los verbos modales …• tienen la misma forma para todas las personas: I can, you can, he can, etc.• no usan do / does en su forma negativa o interrogativa: Must you come so late?

I shouldn’t be so lazy, etc.• van seguidos de infinitivo sin to: we must go, they should see, etc.

Watch out!

• Be able to, have to y need to no presentan la misma forma para todas las personas: I am able to, he has to, she needs to, etc.

• Have to y need to sí usan do / does en sus formas negativa e interrogativa: Do I have to practise? You don’t need to wait, etc.

• Be able to, have to, need to y ought to no se pueden usar sin to: we have to go, they ought to understand, etc.

1 Capacidad: can, could

Watch out!Can no tiene tiempo futuro o presente perfecto. Para expresar dichos tiempos se usa will be able to / have been able to.

✔ We’ll be able to speak Italian after this course. ✘ We’ll can speak Italian after this course. ✔ I’ve been able to walk since I was two. ✘ I’ve could walk since I was two.

Could puede expresar dos tipos de capacidad:a) Capacidad real en el pasado: Mozart could play the piano when he was very young (= podía, era capaz de).b) Capacidad hipotética en presente o futuro : They could help us, but they don’t want to

(= podrían, serían capaces de).


Grammar reference

2 must: diferentes tiempos verbales

Watch out!Must no presenta los tiempos pasado simple, futuro o presente perfecto. Para expresar dichos tiempos se usa had to / will have to / have had to.

✔ I had to go to the dentist’s yesterday. ✘ I must go to the dentist’s yesterday. ✔ He’ll have to pay the rent tomorrow. ✘ He’ll must pay the rent tomorrow.

3 must / have to en negativa

Watch out!Must y have to tienen significados muy diferentes en negativa:You mustn’t smoke. = prohibiciónYou don’t have to smoke. = ausencia de necesidad / obligación

4 need: negativaNeed puede formar la negativa de dos formas:

a) Con don’t / doesn’t, seguido de infinitivo: He doesn’t need to work.

b) Con not, seguido de infinitivo sin to: He needn’t work.

Modal perfects

Meaning Modal perfect verb Examples

Positive deduction about a past event

must have + past participle The door is open. Someone must have entered.She must have recycled the rubbish; it’s all gone.

Negative deduction about a past event

can’t have + past participle He’s in prison at the moment, so he can’t have committed the crime.She can’t have recycled the rubbish; it’s still there.

Speculation about a past eventSee note 2

may have / might have + past participle

I haven’t seen her at work for a long time. She may have / might have got a new job.‘He may have taken the rubbish outside.’ ‘Why?’ ‘He might have decided to recycle it.’

Hypothetical ability in the past

could have + past participle I’m a very good mountaineer. I’m sure that I could have climbed the mountain if it hadn’t started snowing.You could have recycled the rubbish if you hadn’t been playing games.

Criticism or regret should have / ought to have + past participle

Your room is very dirty. You should have / ought to have cleaned it yesterday.You should have / ought to have recycled the rubbish; now there’s nowhere left to put it.

Los modales perfectos se forman de la siguiente manera:• modal + have + participio pasado (p. ej. he might have seen, you might have gone)

Se refieren a una acción posible o hipotética del pasado.

1 must have; can’t have; may have / might haveSe usa must have cuando se tiene la seguridad de que algo ha pasado:The road is wet, so it must have rained.

Se usa can’t have cuando se tiene la seguridad de que algo no ha pasado:His bedroom light isn’t on, so he can’t have come home yet.

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Grammar reference

Se usa may have / might have cuando no se sabe seguro si algo ha pasado:‘Where’s Sal?’ ‘I don’t know. She may have / might have missed the bus.’

En la negativa, not se coloca entre el verbo modal y have:Fuad didn’t answer my email. He may not have / might not have received it.

2 may have frente a might haveSe puede usar may have o might have cuando aún no se sabe qué ha pasado; se tiene que usar might have cuando existió la posibilidad pero ya se sabe que no pasó.Where’s Ian? He’s never been late before. He may have had an accident. (no lo sabemos)You took a risk coming by unicycle. You might have had an accident. (pero no fue así)

Talking about possibility / the future 1 be about to + forma base del verboBe about to se refiere a una acción que va a tener lugar ahora:‘You look nervous.’ ‘I’m about to meet my girlfriend’s parents.’

2 be bound to + forma base del verboBe bound to se refiere a algo que seguro va a pasar:He’s bound to be happy when you tell him the good news.

3 be likely / unlikely to + forma base del verboBe likely to se refiere a algo que muy probablemente pase. Be unlikely to se refiere a algo que muy probablemente no pase:She’s likely to get angry if you continue to ignore her.We’re unlikely to get there before nine o’clock because there is so much traffic.


Grammar reference

Unit 7Formation of the passive

Simple tenses

Tense Active Passive

Present simple James designs the ads. The ads are designed by James.

Past simple James designed the ads. The ads were designed by James.

Future simple: will James will design the ads. The ads will be designed by James.

Conditional James would design the ads. The ads would be designed by James.

Perfect tenses


Present perfect James has designed the ads. The ads have been designed by James.

Past perfect James had designed the ads. The ads had been designed by James.

Future perfect James will have designed the ads. The ads will have been designed by James.

Past conditional James would have designed the ads. The ads would have been designed by James.

Continuous tenses


Present continuous James is designing the ads. The ads are being designed by James.

Past continuous James was designing the ads. The ads were being designed by James.

Generalmente la pasiva no se usa en los demás tiempos verbales.

Modal verbs and be going to


Present modals James must design the ads.James could design the ads.

The ads must be designed by James.The ads could be designed by James.

Modal perfects James must have designed the ads.James could have designed the ads.

The ads must have been designed by James.The ads could have been designed by James.

have to / need to James has to design the ads.James needs to design the ads.

The ads have to be designed by James.The ads need to be designed by James.

be going to James is going to design the ads. The ads are going to be designed by James.

Form of the passive1 Tiempos simple, perfecto y continuo

• Afirmativa: verbo to be + participio pasado (p. ej. They were photographed.)

• Negativa: verbo to be en negativa + participio pasado (p. ej. She wasn’t fired. I won’t be chosen.)

• Interrogativa: interrogativa del verbo to be + participio pasado

(p. ej. Have you been told?)

2 Verbos modales

• Afirmativa: verbo modal + be / have been + participio pasado

(p. ej. Ads should be banned. The road must have been closed.)

• Negativa: negativa del verbo modal + be / have been + participio pasado

(p. ej. This mustn’t be done. It couldn’t have been stopped.)

• Interrogativa: interrogativa del verbo modal + be / have been + participio pasado

(p. ej. Should they be checked? Could this have been prevented?)

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Grammar reference

UsesSe usa la pasiva cuando se tiene más interés en la acción que en la persona o cosa que realiza la acción:The house was completely destroyed by the fire.

También se usa la pasiva cuando se tiene más interés en la persona que recibe la acción que en la persona que la realiza:I can’t believe it! The President has been arrested by the police.

También se usa la pasiva cuando no se sabe (o no se quiere decir) quién realiza la acción:A man has been shot.

Se usa by para introducir a la persona o la cosa que realiza la acción (el agente):He was hit by a car.

Watch out!En inglés se usa con frecuencia la pasiva cuando en otros idiomas se usaría otro tipo de construcción (como una activa, una impersonal o un verbo reflexivo):This house was built by my father.I was told that …

Verbs with two objectsEn inglés algunos verbos pueden ir seguidos tanto de un objeto directo como de un objeto indirecto.

He gave me a great present.En esta frase, a great present es el objeto directo: es la cosa que se ha dado. Me es el objeto indirecto: se me ha dado a mí.

They only told three people the bad news.En esta frase, the bad news es el objeto directo: es la cosa que se dice. Three people es el objeto indirecto: solo se le ha dicho a tres personas.

Cuando transformamos estas frases en pasivas, la información que queremos destacar / enfatizar va después del verbo:I was given a great present.The present was given to Joe on his birthday.

Watch out!Presta atención a la forma de los pronombres: los pronombres objeto se convierten en pronombres sujeto, p. ej. me → I.

Causative passiveSe usa have / get + nombre + participio pasado para indicar situaciones en las que planificamos que alguien haga algo por nosotros (nos preste un servicio):I had / got my house painted last week.She’s going to have / get her eyes checked next week.

Get es más informal que have.

Watch out!I had / got my house painted last week. (Contraté a alguien para que me pintara la casa)I painted my house last week. (Lo hice yo mismo)

También se usa have / get + nombre + participio pasado para indicar acciones desagradables que nos afectan:He had his flight cancelled last month.I’ve had my car stolen!

Watch out!

✔ I had my hair cut last week. ✘ They cut my hair last week. ✘ I cut my hair last week.

It is reported that …English is spoken here.


Grammar reference

Unit 8Reported speech

Tense changesEn general, los verbos del estilo indirecto retroceden un tiempo verbal más hacia el pasado que el verbo correspondiente del estilo directo.

Tense changes Direct speech Reported speech

Simple tenses

present simple → past simple I work in a school. He said that he worked in a school.

past simple → past perfect simple I worked in a school. He said that he had worked in a school.

present perfect simple → past perfect simple I have worked in a school. He said that he had worked in a school.

future simple → conditional I will work in a school. He said that he would work in a school.

future perfect → past conditional I will have worked in a school.

He said that he would have worked in a school.

Continuous tenses

present continuous → past continuous I am working in a school. He said that he was working in a school.

past continuous → past perfect continuous I was working in a school. He said that he had been working in a school.

present perfect continuous → past perfect continuous I have been working in a school.

He said that he had been working in a school.

future continuous → conditional continuous I will be working in a school. He said that he would be working in a school.

1 Verbos modales: cambios

Direct speech Reported speech

can could

may might

must / have to had to

2 Verbos que NO cambian

past perfect, conditional, past conditional

could, might, should, ought to, used to

all modal perfects

En el estilo indirecto, a menudo, tenemos que cambiar los pronombres personales:‘I like you,’ he told Emily. → He told Emily that he liked her.‘We split up because he cheated on me,’ said Deborah. →

Deborah said that they had split up because he had cheated on her.

thatEl uso de that después de un verbo en estilo indirecto es opcional. Se usa that en contextos más formales y cuando ayuda a aclarar el significado.He said (that) it was a joke. (informal)The President said that he had declared war. (formal)

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Grammar reference

Changes to adverbs and reference


today (on) that (very) day

yesterday the day before

tomorrow the next day / the following day

tonight in the evening / that evening

last year / a year ago the year before

next (week / year) the following (week / year)

now at the moment / at that moment / then

here there

this / these that / those

that / those the

Reporting verbs1 say / tellSe usa say cuando no hay objeto indirecto:He said that he would be late.

Se usa say to o tell cuando hay objeto indirecto:He said to us that he would be late. / He told us that he would be late.

Watch out!

✔ He said to me that he would be late. ✘ He said me that he would be late. ✔ He told me that he would be late. ✘ He told to me that he would be late.

2 Otros verbos de comunicaciónPara comunicar lo que dice la gente, generalmente, se usan los siguientes verbos:

add admit agree announce answer argue

deny explain maintain point out predict remark

reply report suggest warn

He denied that he had made a mistake.She argued that streaming was unfair.

3 Verbos + gerundioEn la página 6 hay una lista con los verbos que van seguidos de gerundio. Para comunicar lo que dice la gente se pueden usar los siguientes:

deny discuss imagine

He denied making a mistake.She suggested going to the theatre.

recommend suggest


Grammar reference

Reported questionsEn las preguntas indirectas siempre se usa la forma afirmativa del verbo y no se usa signo de interrogación:

✔ He asked me where I lived. ✘ He asked me where did I live?

1 Preguntas de respuesta Sí / NoPara introducir preguntas indirectas en las que la respuesta es yes o no se usa if o whether. El formato de las preguntas de respuesta sí / no en estilo indirecto es:• if / whether + sujeto + verbo en afirmativa


He asked me, ‘Do you work in a school?’ He asked me if / whether I worked in a school.

Watch out!

✘ He asked me did I work in a school?

2 Preguntas con partícula interrogativa Wh-Las preguntas con partícula interrogativa Wh- empiezan con palabras como what, where, why, how. Estas preguntas no se pueden responder simplemente con yes o no. El formato de las preguntas con partícula interrogativa when el estilo indirecto es:• partícula interrogativa + sujeto + verbo en afirmativa


She asked me, ‘When are you leaving?’ She asked me when I was leaving.

Watch out!

✘ She asked me when was I leaving?

Reported requests and commands1 ask / tellPeticiones: ask + objeto indirecto (me, him, her, etc.) + infinitivoÓrdenes: tell + objeto indirecto (me, him, her, etc.) + infinitivo

Type Direct speech Reported speech

Request She asked me, ‘Can you open the window?’ She asked me to open the window.

Command He said to her, ‘Do your homework!’ He told her to do her homework.

Watch out!

✔ He told her to wait for him. ✘ He told her that she waited for him. ✔ They asked him to send the email. ✘ They asked that he sent the email.

Con las peticiones y órdenes negativas se pone not delante de infinitivo:He said to me: ‘Don’t touch the fire!’ →

✔ He told me not to touch the fire. ✘ He told me don’t touch the fire.

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Grammar reference

2 Otros verbos + objeto indirecto + infinitivoSe pueden usar los siguientes verbos, también seguidos de objeto indirecto + infinitivo, para comunicar peticiones y órdenes en estilo indirecto:

advise allow beg encourage

force help need order

persuade remind

They begged us to come.She encouraged him to try harder.

Compound adjectives Los adjetivos compuestos constan de dos palabras unidas mediante un guión (-): well-balanced, part-time.

Cuando los adjetivos compuestos formados por un adverbio acabado en -ly + adjetivo (p. ej. badly run, strongly held) van antes del nombre que describen, generalmente no llevan guión. Cuando van detrás del nombre no lo llevan nunca.He has strongly held / strongly-held views.He has views that are strongly held.


Grammar reference

El objetivo principal de la puntuación es dejar claro el significado.

PuntoEl uso principal del punto es marcar el final de una frase que no sea interrogativa ni exclamativa.He’s been living in London for three years.

También se usa el punto para indicar los decimales:10.56€ 0.67%

ComaEl papel de la coma es agrupar las palabras que van juntas y separar las que no van juntas para aclarar el significado de las frases. Generalmente, se usa la coma donde se haría una pausa al hablar.

Usos

1 Antes de las conjunciones (and, but, or, etc.) que separan oraciones, no palabras individuales: He likes speaking English, but he doesn’t speak it very well. There are no women or children here. (sin coma)

2 Para introducir el estilo directo: Sam said, ‘Do you like living here?’

3 Para indicar contraste o simetría: He was happy, but tired.

4 Para separar palabras / frases que no son parte de la oración principal (se necesitan dos comas): Peter, however, is not his real name.

5 Para separar oraciones de relativo explicativas: Maria, who’s Spanish, has relatives in England.

6 Después de adverbios y oraciones adverbiales al comienzo de una frase: Slowly, he walked up the hill.

7 Para separar los elementos de una lista: I’ve visited Paris, Berlin, Barcelona and Madrid. Generalmente no se pone coma antes de la palabra and cuando esta introduce el último elemento de la lista.

8 Para separar adjetivos referidos al mismo concepto: an ugly, unpleasant city Pero no se usan comas para separar los adjetivos que se refieren a conceptos diferentes: a big red car

9 Para separar los miles y los millones en los números: 1,345 30,395 5,234,402

ApóstrofeEl apóstrofe tiene dos usos principales:1 Para indicar verbos contraídos:

I’m watching it. She’s been crying. I’d like some ice cream.

2 Para indicar posesión: Darren’s house, the Smiths’ car

Watch out!

a) Si el nombre está en plural y termina en s, se añade el apóstrofe después de la misma. the Smiths’ car

b) It’s solo es una forma verbal contraída. Nunca puede indicar posesión: It’s too late to cancel. I want to learn about London and its history.

Signo de interrogaciónEl uso principal de un signo de interrogación es indicar una pregunta directa: Are you coming tonight?

También se usa un signo de interrogación en las preguntas de confirmación: You’re coming tonight, aren’t you?

No se usa signo de interrogación en las preguntas indirectas: He wants to know if you’re coming tonight.

Signo de exclamaciónSe usa un signo de exclamación:

1 Para expresar una emoción intensa: What a pity! I’m so happy! What a great film!

2 Para dar una orden o una advertencia: Look out! Listen!

3 Para llamar a alguien: Hey, Bryan! Taxi!

Dos puntosSe usan los dos puntos antes de una lista o una explicación:I’ve bought some food: six eggs, some butter and a pint of milk.

Basic rules for punctuation and capital letters

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Grammar reference

Comillas en el estilo directo

1 Cuando las comillas de cierre están al final de una frase, el punto / signo de interrogación / exclamación que cierra la cita se coloca dentro de las comillas: Mark said, ‘I like living here.’ Jason asked, ‘What are you doing?’

2 Cuando las comillas de cierre no están al final de la frase, no se permite poner un punto: este se sustituye por una coma inmediatamente antes de las comillas de cierre. Los signos de exclamación o interrogación al final de la cita se conservan. ‘I like living here,’ Kate said. ‘What are you doing?’ Sally asked.

Letras mayúsculasSe usa mayúscula:1 Al principio de una frase nueva:

They want to emigrate.2 Al principio del estilo directo:

He asked me, ‘How are you?’3 Con los nombres propios, incluyendo los nombres de

personas: Madrid, Chicago, Holland, James Rice, Helen Grey.

4 Con las nacionalidades y los idiomas: I’m learning Italian. I think Brazilians are very spontaneous. They’re Swedish.

5 Con los días y meses: Monday, September

6 Con el pronombre (de primera persona) I: You and I are the best couple ever!

performance 1 · *para ver cómo se usa el presente continuo para expresar futuro, consultar la...

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