English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Words causing confusionLess and fewerLess refers to a quantity that cannot be counted. Fewer refers to a number that can be counted.

I am eating less butter. We caught fewer fish. There were fewer children in the class than expected. We did less work today than yesterday. The use of seat belts in cars has led to fewer fatalities.

Lie and layThe verbs lie and lay are often confused.To lie means to rest. Examples are:

I lie on the bed. (simple present) I am lying on the bed. (present progressive) I was lying on the bed. (past progressive) I lay on the bed. (simple past) I have lain on the bed. (present perfect)

To lie also means to not tell the truth. Examples are: I lie. (simple present) I am lying. (present progressive) I was lying. (past progressive) I lied. (simple past) I have lied. (present perfect)

To lay means to put something down. Examples are: I lay the book on the table. (simple present) I am laying the book on the table. (present progressive) I laid the book on the table. (past progressive) I was laying the book on the table. (simple past) I have laid the book on the table. (present perfect)

More examples are given below. Alice says she has already laid the table. The book was laid on the chest of drawers. While lying in bed, I had an idea. I would like to lie in the sun this morning.

Kind and kindsThe word kind is singular. It should be used with this or that to modify a singular noun. The word kinds is plural. It should be used with these or those to modify plural nouns.

I like these kinds of apples. (NOT … these kind of apples.) That kind of coffee is not sold here. (NOT … that kind of coffees) Those are the kinds of days I like. (NOT Those are the kind of days …) This class of animal is rare.

Note that the same rule applies to other words – sort, type and class. Do you prefer this sort of meat pie? (NOT … this sort of meat pies?) These types of cars are very fast. (NOT These type of cars …)

Words causing confusionCompliment (noun) – expression of approval, admiration etc.Complement (noun) – that which makes something complete

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza My compliments to your husband. The party must consist of fifty people. Here are forty. We need ten more to reach our

complement. Medal (noun) – flat piece of metal given as an award or made to commemorate an eventMeddle (verb) – interfere with other’s things

He won the gold medal. Do not meddle with other people’s affairs.

Affect (verb) – have an effect onEffect (noun) – resultEffect (verb) - bring about, cause to happen

The climate affected his health. He was deeply affected by the sad news. Mongooses are not so much affected by cobra-bites as men are. The effect of cobra-bite on a man is often deadly. The new principal effected many changes in the college.

Prophesy (verb) – say what will happen in the futureProphecy (noun) – power of telling what will happen in the future

I prophesy that it will rain tomorrow. Did you hear my prophecy that it would rain tomorrow?

Stationary (adjective) – not moving or changingStationery (noun) - writing-materials

When an object isn’t moving, it is stationary. Articles like writing paper, pencils and pens are called stationery.

Dependant (noun) – somebody who depends upon another for a home, food etc.Dependent (adjective) – depending

I have many dependants. Kids are usually dependent on their parents till they can earn enough to support themselves.

Licence (noun) – permission to do somethingLicense (verb) – give permission to

You must get a driving licence. This shop is licensed to sell tobacco.

Disease (noun) – illness of body, mindDecease (noun) – death

Cholera is a terrible disease. The deceased means the dead people.

Difference (noun) Deference (noun) – respect

There is no difference between this and that. He is very polite to his parents and treats them with great deference.

Assent (noun) – give one’s agreement toAscent (noun) – way up

He gave his assent to the proposal. The temple is at the top of the hill and the ascent is very steep.

Illicit (adjective) – unlawfulElicit (verb) – get an answer from somebody

Liquor made without a licence is illicit. I asked him many questions to elicit what had really happened.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Words causing confusionEminent (adjective) – distinguishedImminent (adjective) – likely to come or happen soon

People whose names are familiar to everyone are not necessarily eminent. He is an eminent scholar. The sky is heavily clouded, so rain seems imminent.

Illusion (noun) - false idea or belief Allusion (noun) – hint

It is an illusion to think that the sun moves across the sky. He did not make a single allusion to the examination results in his speech. W B Yeats makes several allusions to Indian mythology in his poems.

President (noun) – head of a state or organizationPrecedent (noun) – taken as an example of or as a rule for what comes later

He is the President of the United States. I will let you do this now, but don’t take it as a precedent. I will not let you do this again.

Adverse (adjective) – hostileAverse (adjective) – harbouring dislike to

The officer was not promoted because there was an adverse report against him. He is not averse to violent methods. Which cat is averse to fish?

Accelerate (verb) – increase the speedExpedite (verb) – assist and hasten the progress of

He suddenly accelerated the car; it shot forward and soon disappeared from view. All steps have been taken to expedite the formation of the new state.

Application (noun) – the process of applying, enforcementImplication (noun) – meaning implied but not explicitly stated

The application of the tax measures will cause hardship to the middle class. The implications of his statement are far-reaching.

Ancient (adjective) – very oldAntique (adjective) – old-fashioned

Some people harp on the ancient glory of Indian culture. In the museum we have some remarkable relics of antique sculpture.

Apprehend (verb) – grasp, get a hold on the meaning of a thingComprehend (verb) – understand fully

I can apprehend the bare principles of the Theory of Relativity but I cannot comprehend the full implications of that theory.

Amiable (adjective) – lovableAmicable (adjective) – friendly

His amiable qualities endear him to everybody. We have arrived at an amicable settlement of the dispute.

Adapt (verb) – make something suitable to or for a purpose Adopt (verb)

Success often depends on your ability to adapt yourself to changing circumstances. The merchant who had no children of his own adopted John as his heir.

Avert (verb) – turn away, ward offInvert (verb) – turn upside down

We must make every effort to avert a Third World War. He inverted the bottle to show that there was not a drop left.

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English Vocabulary Hasham RazaAdvise (verb)Advice (noun)

I advised him to study law. His advice was helpful.

Affection (noun) – loveAffectation (noun) – pretence

He has great affection for his mother. I hate affectation in speech and manner.

Words causing confusionCanvas (noun) Canvass (verb) – request votes

This tent is made of canvas. The candidates have been vigorously canvassing the support of the voters.

Childlike (adjective) – like a childChildish (adjective) – immature

He has a childlike simplicity about him. His conduct is extremely immature.

Congenial (adjective) – suitable, agreeableCongenital (adjective) – from birth

In congenial surroundings a child’s mind develops very well. His blindness is congenital.

Capture (verb) – seizeCaptivate (verb) – fascinate

He was captured by his enemies. He was captivated by her beauty.

Compliment (noun) – expression of regardComplement (adjective) – that which completes

Please, convey my compliments to your brother. The ship has its full complement of sailors.

Confident (adjective) – sureConfidential (adjective) - trusted, secret

I am confident of success this time. I shall tell you something, but keep it confidential.

Comprehensive (adjective) – exhaustiveComprehensible (adjective) – understandable

This book gives a comprehensive account of the whole of English grammar. You must present your ideas in a lucid and comprehensible manner.

Confirm (verb) – ratifyConform (adjective) – comply with

The decisions of the board were later confirmed by the minister. This practice does not conform to the rules laid down by the committee.

Eligible (adjective) – qualifiedlegible (adjective) –readable

You are not eligible for the post. Write legibly.

Facilitate (verb) – make easyFelicitate (verb) – congratulate

Audio-visual aids will facilitate the teaching of science subjects.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza We held a meeting to felicitate the winners.

Graceful (adjective) – full of graceGracious (adjective) – full of kindness

She looked graceful. The princess was very gracious and readily agreed to preside over the women’s conference.

Industrial (adjective) – pertaining to industryIndustrious (adjective) – hard-working

India’s industrial development in recent years has been remarkable. Industrious students should be encouraged and rewarded.

Ingenuous (adjective) - frank, openIngenious (adjective) – clever

His ingenuous nature has made him popular. He has made an ingenious device that can make sugar out of coal.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Words confused owing to similar soundAllowed (Verb): let somebody do somethingAloud (adverb): audibly

He allowed me to go. She cried aloud for mercy.

Alter (verb): change, make or become differentAltar (noun): holy table in a church

You must alter the order of the words. The priest bowed before the altar.

Bare (Adjective): not coveredBear (Verb): tolerateBear (noun): an omnivorous four legged animal that has thick fur

As he had no shirt the sun burnt his bare skin. I can't bear this pain. A bear has thick fur

Birth (noun): event of being bornBerth (noun): bed on ship or train

What is your date of birth? Can I reserve a berth in the train?

Bore (noun) something that boresBore (verb): make somebody uninterestedBoar (noun): a wild animal

He bored me with his silly jokes. The boar is a brave wild animal.

Brake (noun): device that slows or stops a machineBreak (verb): separate something into pieces

See if you can break this stick? You stop a car by applying the brake.

Counsel (noun): counsel means advice. Council (noun): an assembly of people meeting regularly to advise or organize something.

People who give advice are called counsellors. A council is a group of people met together on some business.

Current (noun): flow of water or airCurrent (adjective): existing nowCurrant (noun): small dried grapes

This river has strong current. You must be aware of current events.

Fair (noun): gathering of stalls and amusements for public entertainment. An exhibition to promote particular products. Fair (adjective): light complexionFare (noun): the money a passenger on public transport has to pay

Her skin is fair, not dark. How much is the railway fare?

Herd (noun): a large group of animals that live or are kept together. Heard (verb): perceive with the ear

A herd of cattle I heard him talking.

Hole (noun): cavity, apertureWhole (adjective): entire, complete

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza There is a hole in my socks. Rabbits live in holes. She spent the whole night reading. You have eaten a whole loaf.

Piece (noun): a portion separated from the wholePeace (noun): freedom from war

Please give me a piece of paper. Do you want war or peace?

Plane (noun): aircraftPlain (noun): flat expanse of landPlain (adjective): simple and ordinary

She had a plain face. The Gangetic plain is very fertile.

Practice (noun): the doing of something repeatedly to improve one's skillsPractise (verb): do something repeatedly so as to become skilful

Practice makes man perfect. You need to practise cricket regularly.

Prey (noun): animals hunted by other animalsPray (verb): speak to God

What a tiger kills is its prey. I pray that no tiger will ever catch me.

Principal (noun): the head of a school or collegePrincipal (adjective): the most importantPrinciple (noun): rules or beliefs governing one's personal behaviour

He is the principal of the college. He is the principal player in the team. To gamble is against my principle.

Sight (noun): faculty of seeingSite (noun): place where something stands

A blind man has no sight. I will build my house on this site.

Whether (conjunction): expresses a doubt or choice between alternativesWeather (noun): the state of the atmosphere at a place and time

You are going to take this medicine whether you like it or not. We had to cancel the trip because of bad weather. In May the weather is hot.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Words confused owing to faulty pronunciationCertain words cause confusion due to faulty pronunciation. A few of them are given below. Note that the correct pronunciation is indicated by adding a well-known word in brackets which rhymes with the word whose pronunciation is often confused.

Floor (noun) [door] - part of the building on which one walksFlour (noun) [shower] - finely ground cereal grainsFlower (noun) [shower] - coloured part of plants

She sat on the floor. Biscuit is made of wheat flour.

Weak (adjective) [leak] - not strong or fitWeek (noun) [leak] - a period of seven daysWick (noun) [sick] - a string or piece of fabric that draws fuel to the flame in a candle or oil lamp

A candle needs a wick. He was too weak to stand up. There are fifty-two weeks in a year.

Heir (noun) [air] - legal inheritor of somethingHair (noun) [care] - fine flexible strands growing on the head or bodyHare (noun) [care] - a fast running animal that resembles a rabbit

He is the heir to the throne. Hair grows on our heads A hare looks like a big rabbit.

Wonder (noun) [plunder] - amazed admiration, something marvelousWander (verb) [yonder] - travel without destination, leave a fixed path

Gypsies wander over the country. I wonder why I failed to pass.

Advice (noun) [nice] - recommendation about actionAdvise (verb) [eyes] - offer advice

I am tired of listening to advice. The doctor advised him to quit smoking.

Leave (verb) [deceive] - departLive (verb) [give] - reside in a particular place

I leave home for work at 9 o'clock. My parents live abroad.

Quite (adverb) [white] - entirelyQuiet (adjective or noun) [diet] - peaceful, making little noise, free from trouble

You are quite right. I would like to lead a quiet life. A sick man needs a quiet room.

Price (noun) [nice] - cost of something bought or soldPrize (noun) [eyes] - award for winner

What is the price of that bag? She got this bag as a prize.

Lose (verb) [choose] - fail to win, have something taken awayLoose (verb) [goose] - free, not fastenedLoose (adjective) [goose] - not tight or fitting

You will lose your dog, if you don't tie it up. When he loosed his dog it ran away. This knot is loose and it will soon come undone.

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English Vocabulary Hasham RazaTaste (verb) [waste] Test (verb) [nest]

The fish tasted awful. He tested the food in the science laboratory.

Pore (noun) [door] - tiny openings in the skin through which sweat passes. Pour (verb) [door] Poor (adjective) [tour] - not rich

Many people in Africa are very poor. He poured oil into the fire. Holes in your skin are called pores.

Latter (adjective) [matter] - the second of two already namedLater (adverb) [waiter] - after a particular period of timeLetter (noun) [better]

A is tall, and B is short but the latter is stronger. I will see you later. The Post Office handles letters.

Bath (noun) [path]Bathe (verb) [lathe]

We have a bath to clean our bodies. We bathe to enjoy ourselves with no thought of cleanliness.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

English VocabularyList of irregular verbsThis is a list of the common irregular verbs in English. For a complete list of English irregular verbs, see a good dictionary.

Infinitivearise awake be betbeat become begin bend bind bite bleed blow break bring build burn buy catch choose come cost cut deal dig do draw dream drink driveeat fall feed feel fight find fly forget forgive freeze get give go grow hang

Simple pastarose awoke was, were bet, betted beat became began bent boundbitbled blew broke brought built burnt/burnedbought caught chose came cost cut dealt dugdid drew dreamt/dreameddrank drove ate fell fed felt fought found flew forgot forgave froze got gave went grew hung

Past participlearisenawokenbeenbet/betted beaten become begun bent bound bitten bled blown broken brought built burnt/burned bought caught chosen come cost cut dealt dug done drawn dreamt/dreamed drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found flown forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone/been grown hung

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razahave hear hide hit hold hurt keep know lay lead lean learn leave lend let lie light lose make mean meet pay put read ride ring rise run say see sell send set shake shine shoot show shut sing sink sit sleep smell speak speed spell spend spill spin spit

had heard hid hit held hurt kept knew laid led leant/leanedlearnt/learned left lent let lay lit/lighted lost made meant met paid put read rode rang rose ran said saw sold sent set shook shone shotshowed shut sang sank sat slept smelt/smelled spoke sped spelt/spelled spent spilt/spilledspan/spun spat

had heard hidden hit held hurt kept known laid led leant/leaned learnt/learned left lent let lain lit/lighted lost made meant met paid put read ridden rung risen run said seen sold sent set shaken shone shot shown shut sung sunk sat slept smelt/smelled spoken sped spelt/spelled spent spilt/spilled spun spat

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razasplit spoil stand steal stick strike swing swim take teach tear tell think throwunderstand wake wear win wind write

split spoilt/spoiled stood stole stuck struck swung swam took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore won woundwrote

split spoilt/spoiled stood stolen stuck struck swung swum taken taught torn told thought thrown understood woken worn won wound written

Note the following differences between British and American English.1. burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill and spoil are all regular in American English. In British English, irregular past tenses and participles with –t are more common.2. wake can be regular in American English.3. quit and wet are regular in British English, but irregular in American English; fit is also usually irregular in American English.GB: quit, quitted, quittedUS: quit, quit, quitGB: wet, wetted, wettedUS: wet, wet, wetUS: fit, fit, fit4. dive is regular in British English, but can be irregular in American English. GB: dive, dived, divedUS: dive, dove, dived5. In American English, the past participle of get is got or gotten...............

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Verbs that are easily confusedInfinitivefall feel fill find found flow fly lay lie lie leave live raise rise strike stroke wind wound

Simple pastfellfelt filled found founded flowed flew laid lay lied left lived raised rose struck stroked wound wounded

Past participlefallen felt filled found founded flowed flown laid lain lied left lived raised risen struck stroked wound wounded

Notesfind – get back somethingfound – start up an organization or institutionflow (of a liquid) – movefly – move in the airlay – put down flatlie – be downlie – say things that are not trueraise – put uprise – go/get upstrike – hitstroke – pass the hand gently overwind – turn, tighten a spring etc. wound – injure in a battle..............

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

One word substitutesEgoist (also Egotist): a person who is selfish, self absorbed and self centeredEpitaph: inscription on a tombstoneFatalist: one who believes in the philosophical doctrine of fatalismAristocracy: people of noble families or the highest social class. Also, government of a country by a small group of people, especially hereditary nobilityAtheist: a person who does not believe in God or deitiesAmphibian: a land animal that breeds in waterAmbiguity: an expression or statement that has more than one meaning

Autobiography: an account of somebody's life written by that personBiography: an account of somebody's life written by another personCannibal: somebody who eats human fleshMercenary: somebody who works or serves only for personal profit. Also, a professional soldier paid to fight for an army other than that of his or her countryMisogynist: a person who hates womenMisogamist: a person who does not believe in the institution of marriageSoporific: a drug or other substance that induces sleepOmniscient: a person who knows everythingOmnivorous: an animal or a human being that eats any kind of foodOmnipotent: a person who has power over allPanacea: a supposed cure for all diseases or problemsParasite: a person supported by another and giving him/her nothing in returnImpervious: a person who remains unmoved and unaffected by other people's opinions, arguments or suggestionsIlliterate: a person who cannot read or writeInfallible: incapable of making a mistakeInfanticide: the killing of an infantHonorary: holding an office awarded as an honour and receiving no payment for services provided in that officeIdolatry: the worship of idols or false godsInflammable: something that is quickly and easily set on fire and burned

One word substitutesEpicure: somebody who is dedicated to sensual pleasure and luxuryEpidemic: an outbreak of a disease that spreads among a group of people quickly and extensivelyFanatic: somebody who has extreme and sometimes irrational enthusiasms or beliefs, especially in religion or politicsFeminist: a believer in women's rightsHerbivorous: an animal that eats only grass or other plantsFratricide: the crime in which somebody kills his or her own brotherMatricide: the act of murdering one's own motherPatricide: the act of murdering one's own fatherConvalescence: the gradual return to good health after a period or illness or medical treatmentEndemic: a disease that occurs within a specified area, region or localeAnarchist: a person who rejects the need for a system of government in society and proposes its abolitionAmbidextrous: a person who is able to use both hands with equal skillAlimony: financial support to ex-wifeAmateur: a person who does something for pleasure rather than for pay

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English Vocabulary Hasham RazaAborigines: original inhabitants of a placeCircumlocution: the indirect way of saying somethingArbitrator: somebody designated to hear both sides of a dispute and make a judgmentAutocracy: rule by one person who holds unlimited powerEdible: fit for eatingPotable: fit for drinkingBelligerents: nations engaged in warFastidious: a person who is concerned that even the smallest details should be just rightSomnambulism: sleepwalkingStoic: a person who is unaffected by emotionsTheist: a person who believes in the existence of GodTransparent: a substance that allows light to pass through with little or no interruption so that objects on the other side can be clearly seenVerbatim: corresponding word for word translationProsecute: take legal action against somebodyPugnacity: inclined to fight or be aggressiveValetudinarian: somebody who is excessively concerned with his or her own healthWidower: a man whose wife has diedWidow: a woman whose husband has diedPolygamy: the custom of having more than one spouse at the same timePolyandry: the custom of having more than one husband at the same timeTriennial: taking place once every three yearsUsurer: somebody who loans money to other people and charges them exorbitant or unlawful interest on itUsurper: a person who seize something without the right to do soPhilanthropist: a person who helps others, especially those who are poor and in troublePlutocracy: the rule of a society by its wealthiest people.......................

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

SynonymsSynonyms are words of the same grammatical class (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) that have similar meaning. No word means exactly the same as any other word and, therefore, there are no exact synonyms in English.Certain words may convey the same general notion, e.g. slay, kill, murder, execute and slaughter. Though they are used in different senses and in different contexts, they may be treated as synonyms. Read the examples given below.

He was slain on the battlefield. He was killed in action. The robbers killed him and looted his property. He was murdered in cold blood. The criminal was executed. The sheep were all slaughtered.

A list of synonyms is given below. No such list, of course, can be comprehensive. Students may refer to Rogert’s Thesaurus for a further list of synonyms.

abbreviate – abridge, shortenabstain – refrainabsurd – ridiculousaccomplish – achieve, performadversity – calamity, misfortuneadversary – opponent, enemyalteration – changeamusement – diversion, recreationanger – ire, wrath, rageascend – rise, soar, climbauthentic – genuineautocrat – despot, tyrantavaricious – greedyaversion – dislike, antipathybias – prejudiceblend – mix, minglebondage – slaverybrave – courageous, boldbrief – concise, shortbrisk – vigorouscause – reasoncheck – restrain, stop, curbcommand – ordercompel – coerce, forcecompetition – rivalrycomprehend – understand, graspconfer – grantconfess – admitconfuse – confound, perplexconscious – awarecontemplate – meditatecontrary – oppositecouple – pair, brace

courteous – polite, civildegeneration – deteriorationdeplorable – regrettable, lamentabledespise – scorn, disdaindeny – refusedexterous – clever, skilfuldismal –gloomydivide – part, separatedizzy – giddy, dazed, unsteadyeccentric – peculiar, oddefficient – able, competentemphasise – stressendure – suffer, tolerateenergy – force, vigourenormous – huge, immenseerror – mistake, blundereternal – timeless, perpetualfamous – celebrated, renownedfeeble – weak, infirmfelicity – happiness, blissferocious – fierce, savageflashy – showy, gaudyfoolish – silly, stupidfrailty – weakness, failing, foiblefrank – candid, open

List of Synonymsgeneral – universalgentle – tender, mild, kindgigantic – huge, stupendousgiggle – laugh, tittergrave – sober, seriousgrief – sorrow, pain, agony

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razaguard- defend, protecthabit – custom, practicehasty – rashhazardous – riskyheave – lift, raisehideous – repulsive, uglyhinder – obstruct, preventholy – sacredhumble – meekidle – lazy, indolentillegal – unlawful, lawlessimpudent – impertinent, insolentincite – instigate, provokeinclude – compriseincrease – enlarge, augmentirritation – vexation, annoyancejealous – enviousjeer – mock, sneerjust – fair, impartialjuvenile – youthfulkeen – sharpkeeper – custodiankind – benevolent king – monarch, rulerlabour – work, toil

laconic – brief, conciselatent – dormant, hiddenlax – loose, negligent, carelesslearning – knowledge, scholarshiplenient – tolerant, gentle, mildliberal – generousliberty – freedom, independencelie – falsehoodloyal – faithful, truemad – insanemagnificent – splendid, statelymagnify – exaggerate, glorifymalady – illness, diseasemarvel – miracle, wondermiserly – stingy, closefisted, niggardlymisery – suffering, tribulationmodest – bashful, unassumingmourn – lamentnaïve – artless, simplenasty – filthy, dirtyneed – necessitynoble – lofty, illustriousnorm – standardnovice – beginner

List of Synonyms

obscene – filthy, indecentobserve – watch, remarkobstacle – hindranceobstinate – stubbornobvious – clear, evidentoccurrence – event, happeningodd – strange, peculiaropportunity – occasionoption – choicepardon – forgive, excusepermit – allowpious – devout, godly, religiousprecise – exactpremature – hastyproficient – adept, expertprofuse – lavish, extravagantprogeny – offspring, descendantsproject – plan, schemeprudent – discreet, wise, sagaciousquake – shakequeer – strange, eccentric

quest – searchquit – leave, departquiver – tremble, shiverrare – scarce, infrequentrecover – regain, retrieveremember – recollect, recallreserved – reticentrespect – esteem, regardrestraint – restriction, curbrevenge – vengeance, retributionreverence – venerationrude – impolite, discourteoussavage – barbarous, cruelscold – rebuke, reprove, reprimand, censuresecret – hiddensense – meaning, importsevere – stern, strictshy – bashful, coyslander – defamationsly – crafty, cunningsolitary – lonely

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razasuperfluous – unnecessary, needlesssympathy – compassion, fellow-feelingtacit – silent, unspokenteach – instruct, educatetedious – tiresometender – soft, delicatethin – slender, leanthrifty – frugal, economicalthrive – prosper, flourishtimid – shy, diffidenttradition – custom, convention

transparent – clear, lucidubiquitous – omnipotentultimate – final, lastusual – common, ordinaryvacant – empty, voidvanquish – conquer, defeatvenom – poisonvulgar – coarse, indecentwinsome – charming, attractivewizard – magicianzeal – enthusiasm

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

AntonymsAntonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have opposite meanings.

A list of antonyms is given below. For a comprehensive list, consult a good thesaurus.

above – below, beneathabstract – concreteaccept – rejectacquit – condemnadvance – retreataffirm – denyaffluence – povertyaggravate – alleviate, lessenagree – differallow – forbidanalysis – synthesisancestor – descendantancient – modernaristocrat – commonerarrive – departascent – descentassent – dissentasset – liabilityattract – repelawake – asleepbarren – fertilebase – noblebeautiful – uglybelief – doubtbenediction – maledictionbenevolent – malevolentbold – timidboom – slumpbravery – cowardice

bright – dim, dullcarnal – spiritualcentrifugal – centripetalcheap – dear, costlycheerful – gloomyclean – dirtyclever – stupidcommon – rarecompulsory – optionalconcord – discordconfident – diffidentcreate – destroydark – lightdawn – duskdebtor – creditordeep – shallowdefensive – offensivedeliberate – unintentional, accidentaldiligent – crazydilute – concentrateddwarf – giantelevation – depressionexclude – includeexit – entranceexotic – indigenousexpand – contractexplicit – implicitexternal – internalextravagant – frugal, thrifty

List of Antonyms

famous – obscurefast – loose, slowfat – lean, thinfictitious – realforget – remember frequent – rarefresh – stalefriendly – hostilefull – emptygain – lossgather – scattergeneral – particular, specialgenerous – mean

gradual – abrupt, suddenguilty – innocentharsh – gentlehasty – leisurelyhate – lovehaughty – meekheavy – lighthigh – lowhit – misshollow – solidhonour – shamehope – despairhost- guest

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razahurt – healideal – actualidle – busyimagination – realityincrease – decreaseindustrious – indolent, lazyinferior – superiorinhale – exhaleinput – outputjoy – sorrowjunior – seniorkind – cruelkindle – extinguishknowledge – ignorancelament – rejoicelater – earlierlatter – former

lead – followlend – borrowlet – hireliberate – enslaveliteral – figurativeloose – tightlose – findmajor – minormany – fewmasculine – femininematerial – spiritualmaximum – minimummemory – oblivionmild – severe, sternmiser – spendthriftmonogamy – polygamymonotony – variety, diversity

List of Antonymsnaïve – sophisticatednarrow – broadnative – foreignnatural – artificialnegative – positiveneutral – partialobserve – reverseodd – evenoffer – refuseoften – seldomomission – commissionoptimistic – pessimisticoral – writtenoriental – occidentaloriginal – duplicate, copyostensible – actualpartly – whollypermanent – temporarypermit – prohibitpleasure – painpractice – theorypragmatic – idealisticpraise – blameprecede – succeedpride – humilityprofit – lossprogress – regressprogressive – retrogradepromote – demotepublic – private

quiet – noisyqueer – normalrash – cautious, carefulrapid – slow, leisurelyrecede – advancerelative – absolutereluctant – ready, willingreserved – sociableresist – submitretail – wholesalereward – punishrigid – flexibleripe – rawrise – fall, setrough – smoothrude – politeList of Antonymssacred – secular, profanesafe – risky, dangeroussaint – sinnerservant – mastersharp – bluntsimple – complex, complicatedsink - swim, floatsmile – frownsober – drunk, rashsolid – liquidstraight – crooked, curvedstrait – broadstrange – familiar

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razasubjective – objectivesucceed – failsure – doubtfulsweet – bitter, soursympathy – antipathytall – shorttense – relaxedterrestrial – celestialthick – thintight – loose, slacktop – bottomtranquil – disturbed, agitatedtransparent – opaquetriumph – defeat trivial – importanttrue – falseunite – separate

upper – lowerupright – dishonesturban – ruralurbane – rude, unculturedvacant – occupiedvague – clear, definitevertical – horizontalvictory – defeatvirtue – vicevoluntary – compulsorywake – sleepwax – wanewealth – povertywide – narrowwin – losewise – foolishzenith – nadir

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

VocabularyEuphemismsEuphemisms are often used in speech to gloss over unpleasant facts. When writing it is better to be more direct.In the examples given below, euphemisms are written in bold letters. All these sentences can be rewritten using another word instead of the euphemism.

Old Tom is pushing up the daisies. (Old Tom is dead.) The boy next door is a little careless of the truth. (The boy next door is a liar.) Aunt Martha has become hard of hearing lately. (Aunt Martha has become deaf lately.) The boys like to bend the elbow after playing rugby. (The boys like to drink after playing

rugby.) My uncle was under the weather when he came home. (My uncle was drunk when he came

home.) My grandmother passed away last week. (My grandmother died last week.) My father is becoming thin on top. (My father is becoming bald.) The woman next door has just had a visit from the stork. (The woman next door has just had a

baby.) Linda has become overweight because she eats too much. (Linda has become fat because she

eats too much.)

Singular nouns with plural verbsGroups of peopleIn British English, singular nouns like family, government, jury, team, committee, which refer to groups of people, can be used with either singular or plural verbs and pronouns.

The team is/are going to win. Plural forms are common when the group is being regarded as a collection of people doing personal things; and in these cases we use who, not which, as a relative pronoun. Singular forms are common when the whole group is being thought of as an impersonal unit. Note that in these cases, we use which as a relative pronoun.

The committee has announced its decision. (The committee is regarded as an impersonal unit.) The committee are divided on this issue. (The committee is regarded as a group of individuals.) The average Indian family has 4.2 members. It is small and richer than 20 years ago. My family have decided to move to Mumbai.

When a collective noun is used with a singular determiner (e.g. a/an, each, every, this, that), singular verbs and pronouns are common.

The team are full of enthusiasm. A team which is full of enthusiasm has a better chance of winning. (More natural than A team

who are full of …) Examples of collective nouns which can be used with both singular and plural verbs in British English are: bank, family, party, mob, crowd, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, nation, committee, government, firm, public, choir, school, class, jury, staff, club, ministry, union etc.In American English, a collective noun is almost always treated as singular. Note that family is an exception to this rule. It can have a plural verb. Americans often use plural pronouns to refer to collective nouns.

The team is full of confidence. They are going to win. Plural expressions with singular verbsWhen we talk about amounts and quantities we usually use singular determiners, verbs and pronouns, even if the noun is plural.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza Where is that ten pounds I lent you? (NOT Where are those ten pounds I lent you?) Twenty miles is a long way to walk. Six months was a long time to be away. Fifty dollars is too much to lose.

Two singular nouns joined by or takes a singular verb. Petrol or kerosene is used. Jam or butter was not available to the prisoners.

When a singular noun and a plural noun is joined by or, the verb agrees with the nearest noun. Note that in these cases, it would be better to use the plural noun second; then a plural verb must be used.

Bullets or a bomb is not allowed on the plane. A melon or grapes are suitable.

Singular indefinite personThey/them/their is often used to refer to a singular indefinite person who has already been mentioned. This is common after each, every, either, neither, someone/somebody, anyone/anybody, nobody/none, whoever, and no.

If any of your friends is interested, tell them to contact me. If anybody calls, take their name and address. Somebody left their umbrella behind yesterday. Nobody came, did they?

This use of they/them/their is convenient when the sex of the person referred to is unknown.

Prepositional phrasesFollowing is a list of idiomatic prepositional phrases and examples. Always use these prepositional phrases as units; don't substitute other prepositions.accuse somebody of somethingShe accused me of stealing her purse.acquainted with Peter is acquainted with my cousin John. afraid ofI am afraid of cockroaches. agree on (a plan) They finally agreed on a plan. agree to (someone else's proposal) Did Betty agree to their demands? angry with (sometimes at) a person for doing somethingShe was angry with him for lying to her. angry at/about (a thing) The commuters are angry about the fare hike. anxious about (=worried about) I am getting anxious about money. anxious for (=eager to have) We are all anxious for an end to this misunderstanding. approve of Did she approve of the vacation plan? arrive at/inWhat time do we arrive at Tokyo?

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razabad atShe is very bad at cooking. belong on/in (= go, fit, have its place in/on) Those glasses belong on the top shelf. belong to (= be a member of) I belong to a local athletics club. congratulate/congratulations on somethingI must congratulate you on your exam results. contrast with The red shirt contrasts with the pink pants. convenient for Is Monday convenient for you? .

MealsPeople use different names for meals.British usageMidday meal: dinner or lunchThe midday meal is called dinner by most people. This is especially common if it is the main meal of the day. Middle and upper class people usually call it lunch.Afternoon: teaSome people usually have a light meal of tea and biscuits or cakes at four or five in the afternoon. This meal is usually called tea.Early evening: high tea or supperMany people have a cooked meal around five or six o’ clock. This is often called tea or high tea. Some people call it supper.Later evening: supper or dinnerA meal later in the evening is often called supper. Some people use dinner for the evening meal if it is the main meal of the day. American usageAmericans use lunch for the midday meal and dinner for the evening meals.

Nouns and adjectives referring to nations and peopleIn order to refer to a nation and its affairs it is usually necessary to know four words:

1. the name of the country or the region (e.g. France, England, America, India)2. the adjective (e.g. French, English, American, Indian) 3. the singular noun used for a person from the country (e.g. a Frenchman/woman, an Englishman/woman, an American, an Indian) 4. the plural expression used for the population as a whole (e.g. the French, the English, the Americans, the Indians) See the following table for details.

Country/region AmericaBelgiumBrazilEuropeItalyIndiaKenyaMorocco

AdjectiveAmericanBelgianBrazilianEuropeanItalianIndianKenyanMoroccan

Personan Americana Belgiana Braziliana Europeanan Italianan Indiana Kenyana Moroccan

Populationthe Americansthe Belgiansthe Braziliansthe Europeansthe Italiansthe Indiansthe Kenyansthe Moroccans

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English Vocabulary Hasham RazaNorwayGreeceIraqIsraelThailandChinaJapanPortugalSwitzerlandBritainEnglandFranceIrelandSpainThe HollandWalesDenmarkFinlandPolandScotlandSwedenTurkey

NorwegianGreekIraqiIsraeliThaiChineseJapanesePortugueseSwissBritishEnglishFrenchIrishSpanishDutchWelshDanishFinnishPolishScottish, ScotchSwedishTurkish

a Norwegiana Greekan Iraqian Israelia Thaia Chinesea Japanesea Portuguesea Swissa British person (Briton) an Englishman/womana Frenchman/womanan Irishman/womana Spaniarda Dutchman/womana Welshman/womana Danea Finna Polea Scota Swedea Turk

the Norwegiansthe Greeksthe Iraqisthe Israelisthe Thaisthe Chinesethe Japanesethe Portuguesethe Swissthe Britishthe Englishthe Frenchthe Irishthe Spanishthe Dutchthe Welshthe Danesthe Finnsthe Polesthe Scotsthe Swedesthe Turks

Notes The Scots prefer the adjective Scottish, but other people often use Scotch.Most British people call themselves Scottish, Welsh, Irish or English. The word Briton is common in newspaper headlines. Brit is also sometimes used to refer to British people.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part IIdioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of idioms derived from the parts of the body.Arm Keep at arms length (If you keep somebody at arms length, you avoid being too friendly with that person.)

He is very quarrelsome, so I keep him at arms length. With open arms (with great affection and enthusiasm)

He welcomed his friends with open arms. Back

Break the back of something (finish the hardest part of a work) Since my colleagues had already broken the back of it, I could finish the work easily.

Put one’s back into something (work at something with all one’s energy) You have to finish this work by tomorrow, so put your back into it.

Put someone’s back up (make a person angry) His offensive manner put my back up.

With one’s back against/to the wall (be forced to defend oneself in a difficult situation) Since there was no one to help him, he had to fight alone with his back against/to the wall.

Be on somebody’s back (keep asking someone to do something, or keep criticizing someone in a way that annoys them)

He's still on my back about those ten pounds he lent me. Behind somebody's back (if you do something behind someone's back, you do it without them knowing)

I don't want to talk about it behind his back. Stab somebody in the back (do something harmful to someone who trusted you)

He was stabbed in the back by people he thought were his friends. Turn your back on somebody (refuse to help someone)

I appealed for help, but they turned their back on me. Back to square one (If you are back to square one, you have to start working on something from the beginning because your previous attempt failed.)

We thought everything was settled, but now they say they're not happy with the deal, so we're back to square one again.

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part IIIdioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of idioms derived from the parts of the body.Brain Be out of your brain (be very drunk)

When he reached home last night, he was out of his brain. Get your brain in gear (make yourself start thinking clearly and effectively)

I have got an important meeting today, so I have to get my brain in gear. Rack your brain/brains (think very hard, usually in order to remember something or to find a solution to a problem)

I've been racking my brains but I still can't find a solution to this vexed problem. Breast

Make a clean breast of it (confess a wrong doing) At first he denied the offence, but later he decided to make a clean breast of it.

Cheek Cheek by jowl (very close together)

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza The children sat cheek by bowl in the packed hall.

Turn the other cheek (if you turn the other cheek, you don’t get angry when someone attacks or insults you)

Non-violence policy requires that you turn the other cheek, when someone hits you. Tongue in cheek (if you say something tongue in cheek, what you have said is a joke, although it might seem to be serious)

This book is a very engaging and at times tongue-in-cheek account of her brush with stardom. Chest Keep/play your cards close to your chest (not tell anyone what you plan to do)

You will never know what he is going to do next. He plays his cards close to his chest. Get it off your chest (tell someone about something that has been worrying you)

If you have a problem, get it off your chest and you will feel better.

Chin Keep your chin up (stay cheerful)

I was delighted to know that he was keeping his chin up despite all his difficulties. Take it on the chin (be brave and not complain when bad things happen to you or people criticize you)

John took it all on the chin, though he was severely criticized by his boss.

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part IIIIdioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of idioms derived from the parts of the body.Ear Turn a deaf ear (refuse to listen to somebody or something)

He turned a deaf ear to our warning and thus got into trouble. Grin/smile from ear to ear (look extremely happy)

His latest book is selling well and he is grinning from ear to ear. Up to one’s ears in (deeply involved in)

He is up to his ears in work/debt/trouble.Elbow

Elbow one’s way through (force one’s way by using one’s elbow) The conference room was so crowded that I had to elbow my way through the crowd to reach my

seat. Eye Not bat an eye/eyelash/eyelid (not show any shock or surprise)

'So what did she say when you told her you were leaving?' 'She didn't bat an eyelid.' Turn a blind eye (choose to ignore behaviour that you know is wrong)

I knew Peter was taking the money but I turned a blind eye because he was my nephew. Keep an eye on (keep a watch on)

I decided to keep an eye on him because I found his way of working suspicious. In the eyes of somebody (in somebody’s judgment)

In my eyes he is a good and honest man. Before/under one’s very eyes (in one’s presence)

These evil practices are happening before your own eyes and you are keeping silent. Doesn’t see eye to eye (If two people don’t see eye to eye, they don’t agree with each other.)

He's asked for a transfer because he doesn't see eye to eye with the new manager. ...

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Idioms derived from parts of the body - Part IVIdioms are common in all kinds of English, formal and informal, spoken and written. Here is a list of idioms derived from the parts of the body.Face Put a brave face/front on something (behave in a way that makes people think you are happy when you are not)

She's very ill but she's putting a brave front on it. (= She makes people believe that her illness does not worry her.)

Put on a brave face/front I was not feeling well. Nevertheless, I decided to put on a brave face/front.

In-your-face (shocking or annoying in a way that is difficult to ignore) They ran an in-your-face campaign to promote the magazine.

Face up to (meet or accept challenges boldly) I never thought that he would be able to face up to the difficult situation.

In the face of (in spite of) He could achieve his goal in the face of great difficulties.

Lose face (do something that may affect your reputation) He refused to admit his involvement in the scandal because he didn't want to lose face.

Face the music (accept criticism or punishment for something that you have done) When it was discovered that he was the culprit, he chose to disappear rather than face the music.

FeetGet cold feet (suddenly become too frightened to do something you had planned to do)

They were to get married last Sunday, but unfortunately John got cold feet at the last moment.

Drag your feet/heels (act in a slow and hesitant manner) Peter wants to purchase a new car, but his father is dragging his feet. I wonder why the government is dragging its feet over the abolition of job reservation based on

caste. Keep your/both feet on the ground (not have your character spoilt by becoming famous or successful)

Success hasn’t changed him – he has kept his feet firmly on the ground. Stand on one’s own feet (become independent)

She has finally got a good job – she can now stand on her own feet. Think on your feet (think and react quickly)

You must be able to think on your feet if you are doing live stage shows. Not let the grass grow under your feet (not waste time by delaying doing something)

Students, your exams are fast approaching – you can hardly afford to let the grass grow under your feet.

Have the world at your feet (become extremely successful and popular) Her first film has just released, but the young actress already has the world at her feet.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Words ending in –ise and –izeMany English verbs can be spelt with either –ise or –ize. In American English –ize is preferred in these cases.realize/realise (GB)realize (US) mechanize/mechanise (GB) mechanize (US) baptize/baptise (GB) baptize (US) Most words of two syllables, and some longer ones have –ise in both British and American English. Examples are:surpriseexerciseadvisecomprisedespisecompromiseimprovisesuperviseteleviseadvertiseNotesCapsize has –ize in both British and American English.

Words ending in eWhen a suffix beginning with a vowel (e.g. –ing, -able, -ous) is added to a word that ends in –e, we usually drop the –e.make – makinghope – hopingfame – famousnote – notableSome words have two possible forms before –able and –age. Note that the form without –e is more common in most cases.love – loveable or lovablelike – likeable or likablemove – moveable or movableWhen final –e is not droppedFinal –e is not dropped from words ending in –ee, -oe, or –ye.agree – agreeablesee – seeingdye – dyeingFinal –e is not dropped from words ending in a consonant + e. definite – definitelycomplete – completelyexcite – excitedlyexcite – excitementExceptionsFinal –e is dropped from words ending in –ue.

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razatrue – trulyargue – argumentargue – arguablyIn words that end with –ce and –ge, we do not drop –e before a or o.replace – replaceablecourage – courageousJudg(e)ment and acknowledg(e)ment can be spelt with or without the –e after g..

Words ending in yWhen we add a suffix to a word that ends in –y, we usually change the–y to –i.hurry – hurriedfury – furiousmerry – merrily, merrimentmarry – marriageeasy – easily, easierbusy – businesshappy – happily, happinessGenerally nouns that end in –y have plural forms in –ies. story – storiesspy - spiesVerbs that end in –y usually have third person singular forms in –ies.worry – worrieshurry – hurriestry – triesWhen we add a suffix beginning with –i to a word ending in –y, we do not change the –y to –i.try - tryingbaby – babyishThe final –y is not changed to –i after a vowel letter.buy – buyingplay – playing, playedenjoy – enjoymentExceptionssay – saidpay – paidlay – laidWe change –ie to –y before –ing.die – dyinglie – lying

Doubling final consonantsThe final consonant of a word is sometimes doubled before adding–ed, -er, -est, -ing, -able, -y (or any ending that begins with a vowel).stop – stoppedsit – sittingbig – bigger

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English Vocabulary Hasham Raza

Which consonants are doubled?We double the following letters. b: rub – rubbingd: sad – saddened, sadder, saddeningg: big – biggerl: travel – travellingm: slim – slimmingn: win – winningp: stop – stoppedr: prefer – preferredt: sit – sittingNotesWe only double consonants that come at the end of the word.Compare:hop – hoppinghope – hoping fat – fatterlate – laterWe only double the final consonant when the word ends in a vowel + consonant.fat – fatterfast – fasterbet – bettingbeat – beatingWe only double final consonants in stressed syllables. We do not double final consonants in longer words that end in unstressed syllables. up’ set – up’ setting‘visit – ‘visitingbe’ gin – be’ ginning‘open –openingIn British English, we double –l at the end of a word after one vowel letter, even in unstressed syllables.‘travel – travelling‘equal – equalledIn American English, words like this are normally spelt with one l: traveling

Spelling and pronunciationIn many English words, the spelling is different from the pronunciation. Here is a list of some difficult words with their pronunciations. The letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.Asp(i)rinev(e)ningom(e)lettebus(i)nessev(e)ryrest(au)rantchoc(o)latemarri(a)gesev(e)raldiff(e)rentmed(i)cinecomf(or)table

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English Vocabulary Hasham Razatemp(e)ratureint(e)restingus(u)allysecret(a)ryveg(e)table

Silent lettersThe letters in brackets are usually not pronounced.clim(b), com(b), dum(b) mus(c)lehan(d)kerchief, san(d)wich, We(d)nesdaychampa(g)ne, forei(g)n, si(g)nbou(gh)t, cau(gh)t, ou(gh)t, thou(gh)tdau(gh)ter, hei(gh)t, hi(gh), li(gh)t, mi(gh)t, nei(gh)bour, ni(gh)t, ri(gh)t, strai(gh)t, throu(gh), ti(gh)t, wei(gh) w(h)at, w(h)en, w(h)ere, w(h)ether, w(h)ich, w(h)ip, w(h)y(h)onest, (h)onour, (h)our(k)nee, (k)nife, (k)nob, (k)nowca(l)m, cou(l)d, ha(l)f, sa(l)mon, shou(l)d, ta(l)k, wa(l)k, wou(l)dautum(n), hym(n) (p)neumatic, (p)sychiatrist, (p)sychology, (p)sychotherapycu(p)boardi(r)oni(s)land, i(s)lecas(t)le, Chris(t)mas, fas(t)en, lis(t)en, of(t)en, whis(t)leg(u)ess, g(u)ide, g(u)itar(w)rap, (w)rite, (w)rong(w)ho, (w)hose, (w)hole

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