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Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342

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Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ tourman

Perceptions of service cannibalisation: The moderating effect of thetype of travel agency

Estrella Díaz a, *, David Martín-Consuegra a, b, �Agueda Esteban c

a University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spainb Universidad Aut�onoma de Chile, Chilec University of Castilla-La Mancha, Cobertizo San Pedro M�artir s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 902 204 100.E-mail addresses: estrella.diaz@uclm.es (E. D

(D. Martín-Consuegra), agueda.esteban@uclm.es (�A. E

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.12.0040261-5177/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

� Examines the consequences of per-ceptions of service cannibalisation onsales agents.

� Analyses moderation by travelagency type.

� Findings suggest high degrees ofperceptions of service cannibalisation

� Makes practical recommendationsfor retail travel agencies.

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 30 August 2013Accepted 3 December 2014Available online

Keywords:Service cannibalisationOnline channelSales agentsTravel agencies

a b s t r a c t

Restructuring in the tourism industry and distribution channels produced by development of onlinechannels influence travel agents who perceive service cannibalisation. Sales agents' perceptions ofdeclining sales lead to a series of consequences regarding risk-aversion, job insecurity, job satisfaction,job alienation, and travel agent effort and training. This study tests a model that analyses sales agents'perceptions of service cannibalisation and their consequences. It examines moderation by type of travelorganisation (i.e., independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises) on service cannibalisation bysales agents and each of their consequences. Results suggest travel agents' perceptions of service can-nibalisation correlate with some consequences for travel agents, and disparities in these relationshipsaccording to type of travel agency. This study provides recommendations to retail travel agencies to helpthem overcome negative effects of multi-channel distribution systems on sales agents.

© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Distribution channels respond rapidly to market dynamics,adapting to requirements of both industry and consumer. The mostrelevant changes in tourism distribution channels occurred when

íaz), david.martin@uclm.essteban).

information and communication technologies (ICTs) pervaded theindustry (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Multi-channel distribution in thetourism industry resulting from online channels altered the role ofoffline channels (Berne, Garcia-Gonz�alez, & Múgica, 2012), thosethat have a physical presence and offer face-to-face customer ex-periences. Prior to the Internet, suppliers and consumers had nochoice but to use intermediaries such as travel agencies, but thischanged principally because the Internet and other ICTs trans-formed the structure of the value chain. This transformation

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342330

affected various members of distribution channels unequally, andled to changes in each contribution to the tourism product.

This type of competition led directly to a threatening situationknown as disintermediation, defined as the removal of in-termediaries (e.g., tour operators and travel agencies) within thedistribution channel, caused by electronic approaches that allowconsumers to access and transact with suppliers and destinationsdirectly (Bennett & Buhalis, 2003). Several studies suggest Internetdisintermediation changes the purchasing landscape for targetcustomers, questioning the certainty of the futures of sales agentswho work in travel agencies (Gulati, Bristow, & Dou, 2002; Sharma& Gassenheimer, 2009). However, few studies address the canni-balistic tendencies of the Internet toward sales agents' perceptions.Perceived cannibalisation expands perceptions of businessshrinkage because of the Internet, and such changes affect salesagents working in travel agencies, who perceive their sales, marketshares, and roles are declining due to online channels. Sales agents'perceptions of changes to their roles and declining sales are con-ceptualised as perceptions of service cannibalisation (Sharma &Gassenheimer, 2009). Sales agents perceive both a reduction intheir sales and uncertainty regarding continuation of their jobswhen facing multiple channels available to consumers. Salesagents' perceptions of declining sales lead to several consequences.Fears concerning service cannibalisation and job security subduetheir effort, reduce satisfaction, and render them anxious of anuncertain future.

Differences exist between disintermediation and perceptions ofservice cannibalisation. Perceived cannibalisation reflects salesagents' attitudinal reactions to challenges created by expansion ofdistribution channels, including the Internet. Extant research sug-gests that the psychological effects of perceived cannibalisation aremotivationally, emotionally, relationally, and financially detri-mental to travel agents (Sharma & Gassenheimer, 2009). Disinter-mediation occurs when Internet channels are added to entrenchedchannels, threatening to eliminate traditional channel partners(Alba et al., 1997; Coughlan, Anderson, Stern, & El-Ansary, 2001;Narayandas, Caravella, & Deighton, 2002).

Despite attention given to changing conditions in tourism dis-tribution, no study addresses the influence of type of travel agencyon sales agents' perceptions of service cannibalisation. Some au-thors argue that travel agencies respond to online markets dispa-rately (Goldmanis, Hortaçsu, Syverson, & Emre, 2010).Characteristics of independent travel agencies (e.g., privatelyowned), and consortia or franchise travel agencies, might vary theintensity of the relation between sales agents' perceptions of ser-vice cannibalisation and their implications. This study empiricallytests a model that analyses sales agents' perceptions of servicecannibalisation and their consequences (i.e., risk-aversion, insecu-rity, satisfaction, alienation, effort, and training). It examinesmoderation of type of travel organisation (i.e., independent travelagencies and consortia/franchises) on perceptions of service can-nibalisation by sales agents and each of their consequences.

2. Literature review

2.1. Tourism distribution channel

Tourism distribution channels have attracted tremendousattention during the last decade (Nicolau, 2013; Pearce & Schott,2005). A tourism distribution channel is a system of in-termediaries, or middlemen, that facilitates the sale and delivery oftourism services from suppliers to consumers (Buhalis & Laws,2001). Therefore, multi-channel distribution in tourism isperceived as the combination of direct and indirect distributionchannels that a hospitality and travel organisation uses to make

customers aware of and to reserve and deliver its services (Pearce,2009; Pearce & Tan, 2006). According to Hudson (2008), a tourismdistribution channel is direct when the supplier provides the pointof sale (airlines, hotels, online channel, among others), whereas adistribution channel is indirect when intermediaries provide thepoint of sale (tour operators, travel agencies, virtual travel agencies,among others).

Since the rise of the World Wide Web, ICTs transformed thestructure of tourism distribution (Wang & Qualls, 2007), withdevelopment of huge numbers of websites and applications,including reservation systems, online travel agencies and tour op-erators, and interactive product review sites. The structure of thetourism distribution system affects not only the choices available toconsumers, but also business models and marketing strategieschannel participants adopt (Pearce, Tan, & Schott, 2004). The travelindustry has moved toward consolidation and integration, devel-opment of more flexible products, and use of the Web as a distri-bution channel for tourism suppliers. Fig. 1 depicts multi-channeldistribution alternatives in the tourism industry.

The effects of ICTs when expanding tourism are evident;geographical barriers are becoming irrelevant, leading to a globaltourism market and influencing both supply and demand. On thedemand side, ICTs introduced consumers and travel agencies to aglobal market with unlimited product alternatives at low trans-action costs. On the supply side, companies globalise operationsmore easily, accessing distant consumers. This ability implies lowtransaction costs and lower barriers to entry and exit. Most con-sumers enjoymore opportunities to access and purchase itinerariesfrom multiple channels (Berne et al., 2012). This evolution of dis-tribution channels, particularly those facilitated by ICTs, resulted ina greater array of choices for the consumer, increased competitionfor distribution participants, and more complex industry structures(Kracht & Wang, 2010).

Advances in ICTs introduced complexity into tourism distribu-tion variously: incorporating additional intermediation players,disintermediating some players by bypassing traditional methods,and introducing re-intermediation, whereby existing players pro-vide value-added services by adapting to changing markets anddeploying new technology (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Althoughtechnology-induced structural changes offer more choices to con-sumers, it also fosters an environment of fiercer competitionamong channel participants (Pearce et al., 2004).

2.2. Travel agencies and sales agents' perceptions of servicecannibalisation

Many industries implemented electronic business methods(Kollmann, Kuckertz, & Breugst, 2009), and introduced multi-channel strategies to counter the increasing importance of onlinechannels; multi-channel distribution has become the norm(Frazier, 1999), but causes conflict among industry actors. Theliterature addresses conflict between distribution channels, sug-gesting sales agents perceive service cannibalisation and conflictbetween channels because of changes to their roles and a reductionin organisational turnover and sales (Canetta, Cheikhrouhou, &Glardon, 2013; Webb, 2002). Notwithstanding the importance ofcannibalisation, few empirical studies address cannibalisation ofdistribution systems due to introduction of online channels(Table 1), and the majority analyses cannibalisation in an organi-sation's multi-channel distribution system, without examining theeffects of cannibalisation on the industry.

Providing alternative distribution channels in the tourism in-dustry (i.e., online [Web-based] and offline [store-based]) generatesan advantage to customers regarding their choices of informationor sales channels. Online channels allow tourism companies to

Fig. 1. Tourism distribution multi-channel.Source: adapted from ITIC (2010).

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342 331

consolidate existing and expand into newmarkets (Ansari, Mela, &Neslin, 2008; Geyskens, Gielens, & Dekimpe, 2002). However,integration of electronic and offline channels brings substantialrisks to the travel industry. Customers might choose travel websitesover travel agencies (i.e., retail outlets) because the online channelprovides more appealing features such as enhanced informationsearches. The Internet provides customers with massive amountsof information concerning service attributes, increased custom-isation, and time savings, reducing the need for human interaction.Hybrid demands through online and offline channels lead to can-nibalisation of sales (Cai, Zhang, & Zhang, 2009; Kollmann,Kuckertz, & Kayser, 2012). Therefore, multi-channel systems havedetrimental effects on travel agencies; sales shift from travelagencies to websites (i.e., aeroplanes, hotels, car rentals, onlinetravel agencies, etc.) when the latter provide features that are moreappealing to customers (Avery, Steenburgh, Deighton, & Caravella,2012). Conversely, online channels increase competition becauseconsumers have better and quicker access to efficient shopping oncomparison websites.

The most important consequence however is the psychologicaleffect that the perception of service cannibalisation has on salesagents (Geyskens et al., 2002). An appropriate definition of thisconsequence within service distribution comes from Sharma andGassenheimer (2009), who define it as a subjective threat posedto sales agents by the addition of an online channel to a company orsector's distribution system. This situation occurs in the tourismindustry when travel agents perceive their roles are threatened bydemand for and sales on online channels by tourism providers (e.g.,airlines, hotels, etc.) and online travel agencies, or online in-termediaries who provide services through websites, therebycompeting with traditional travel agencies. This issue is particularlyrelevant today since the Internet shifts role responsibilities andaffects the security of traditional jobs, which can be motivationallydetrimental to sales agents. In a business-to-consumer (B2C) orbusiness-to-business (B2B) environment, sales agents, once thesole connection to a customer, fear that the Internet will not only

cannibalise their sales and roles, and create conflicts within theindustry, but that it renders them outmoded and eventually re-places them (Porter, 2001).

The consequences of travel agencies' multi-channel strategieshave been examined largely in terms of positive outcomes andoutcomes at company or customer levels, but not of sales agent. Incontrast, the Internet threat perceived by sales agents might lead toconsequences that affect the agents themselves. This study cate-gorises these consequences in terms of (a) individual personality/individual differences (e.g., risk-aversion), (b) individuals' percep-tions, attitudes, and reactions (i.e., insecurity, satisfaction, alien-ation, and effort), and (c) travel agencies' behaviours (i.e., training).

2.2.1. Risk-aversionRisk-aversion is an individual's perception of threat in ambig-

uous and risky situations (Hofstede, 1991). The current trend to-ward globalisation and increases in competition imply growth inorganisations' exposures to competitive pressures (Tybout, 2003).Changes to the tourism sector (e.g., online channels) create theperception of increased consumer options in terms of distribution-channel choices. Concerning travel agencies, perceived competitionin relation to the supply of tourism services through online chan-nels increases sales agents' fear of loss of sales and changes to theirrole or dismissal, thus increasing uncertainty and insecurity at work(Porter, 2001). Di Mauro and Musumeci (2011) hypothesise that anincrease in sales agents' perceptions of uncertainty and anxiety interms of job security create a psychological environment in whichrisk-aversion becomes a dominant behaviour.

Risk-aversion is a consequence of adopting online channels.Recent research focussing on factors affecting the decision toengage in technology adoption by owner-managed travel firmssuggests owner-managers view investments in online platforms asrisky (Spencer, Buhalis, & Moital, 2012). Accordingly, this studyposits that the perception of service cannibalisation by sales agentswho are working in travel agencies is a consequence or an effect ofICTs in the tourism industry. Sales agents who feel cannibalised in

Table 1Research into Internet cannibalisation in the distribution channel.

Authors Focus Results

Avery et al. (2012) Intrabrand competition The authors study the introduction of a retail store and find evidence of cross-channelcannibalisation and synergy. The presence of a retail store decreases catalogue sales but not Internetsales in the short run, but increases sales in both direct channels over time.

Biyalogorsky and Naik (2003) Sales cannibalisation The proposed method determines (1) the extent to which online sales cannibalise offline sales and(2) whether online activities build online equity for the firm. The authors discover that online salesdo not significantly cannibalise retail sales and that the firm's web activities lead to long-term onlineequity.

Coelho, Easingwood, andCoelho (2003)

Multiple channel performance This research considers several indicators of channel performance. The results show that multiplechannels are associated with higher sales performance and lower channel profitability.

Deleersnyder et al. (2002) Intrabrand competition The authors study the effect of cannibalisation on the newspaper industry. The results suggest thatthe addition of the Internet channels affects the circulation of only a few newspapers. However, theauthors conclude that the new channel is perceived as a substitute for the traditional channel,especially when there are few differences between online and offline consumers.

Eastman, Eastman, andEastman (2002)

Sales cannibalisation This paper compares insurance sales agents' scores on an opinion leadership scale and subjectiveknowledge scale with their attitudes towards the Internet. The results suggest that those insurancesales agents with a higher level of subjective knowledge about the Internet are more likely to beopinion leaders about the Internet.

Geyskens et al. (2002) Intrabrand competition The authors examine the total value implications of the addition of Internet channels (as measuredby stock market returns). The impact of cannibalisation on any specific distribution agent is notassessed.

Lee and Grewal (2004) Intrabrand competition The authors develop a theoretical framework for the adoption of the Internet by traditional store-based retailers. The results show that both the adoption of the Internet as a communication channeland e-alliance formation positively influence a firm's performance.

Narayandas et al. (2002) Multi-channel competition The authors review an incumbent business-to-business distributor of electronics components facedwith the entry of more than 50 Internet-based competitors and offer an explanation for why thedistributor prevailed. The unit of analysis is the buyer-distributor-seller triad. The channel activitieswere interrelated such that when each party calculated the costs and benefits of the activitiesoccurring within this three-way relation, they outweighed the net gains from disintermediation orInternet intermediation.

Pfeil, Posselt, and Maschke(2008)

Sales cannibalisation According to the proposedmodel, moderate channel cannibalisation can be a blessing in disguise if itdecreases incentive intensity and lowers expected wage payments. Whether a larger volume of e-sales is a blessing or a curse depends on the relative magnitude of cannibalisation versus marketenlargement and the degree to which the increase changes the composition of offline customertypes with regard to service costs.

Sharma and Gassenheimer(2009)

Sales cannibalisation This study conceptualises and develops a multi-item scale to measure sales agents' perceivedcannibalisation (SPC). SPC is shown not to be universally damaging to commitment. Rather, only in alow-munificent environment does perceived cannibalisation significantly reduce salespersons'commitment. Moreover, the severity of the influence of SPC on alienation from work increases in alow-munificent environment.

Sharma et al. (2010) Sales cannibalisation This study suggests that sales agents' perceptions of cannibalisation negatively influence their effort,job satisfaction, and job performance, whereas relational capital moderates the influence of theseperceptions.

Ward and Morganosky (2002) Multi-channel competition The authors assess consumers' buying and information search behaviours regarding a given productwithin the past six months. The researchers assume that if the primary source of information is theInternet, offline salesmay increase. However, online sales will not necessarily increase if the primarysource of information is an offline medium.

Wolk and Skiera (2009) Intrabrand competition The authors show that Internet channel performance contributes to both financial and strategiccompany performance, with a greater effect on the latter. Customer migration and managerialcommitment to the Internet channel have strong positive influences on financial performance.

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their own channel view a decrease in sales and an uncertain futurefor the travel agency resulting from the arrival of the onlinechannel. Agents might experience aversion to performing newtasks, or exercise a new role in the industry, to counter this threat.Perceptions of threats from an online channel might lead to anattitude of risk-aversion. Therefore:

H1. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the higher sales agents' risk-aversion.

2.2.2. Job insecurityJob insecurity is perceived powerlessness to maintain desired

continuity in a threatened job situation (De Witte, 1999; Sverke,Hellgren, & N€aswall, 2002). In the current business environment,characterised by intense competition and economic and techno-logical changes caused by arrival of the Internet channel, thenumber of sales agents who feel insecure regarding continuity intheir jobs and loss of income has increased (Rothmann & Cooper,

2008). Incorporation of an online channel into an industry in-creases distribution channels available to consumers, thusincreasing insecurity as a result of a range of sales systems (Johnson& Bharadwaj, 2005). The disintermediation resulting from theInternet channel alters consumers' purchasing behaviours, gener-ating insecurity and uncertainty in sales agents' futures, and in therole performed in an organisation (Gulati et al., 2002; Sharma &Gassenheimer, 2009). Existence of an online distribution channelin the tourism industry makes sales agents feel insecure in theirjobs because of a perception of decreasing sales and possible jobloss. Therefore:

H2. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the higher sales agents' job insecurity.

2.2.3. Job satisfactionEmployee job satisfaction is a positive attitude that results from

a person's positive evaluation of job experiences (Brown &

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Peterson, 1993; Homburg & Stock, 2004; Locke, 1979). Bowling,Hendricks, and Wagner (2008) suggest environments influenceformation of employees' attitudes. Changes to an industry such asintroduction of an online channel lead to undesirable competitionthat contributes to job insecurity (Davy, Kinicki, & Scheck, 1997).The threat resembles channel conflicts. Gaski (1984) defineschannel conflict as a channel member's perception that his/herobjective is impeded by another member, resulting in stress ortension. Sharma, Gassenheimer, and Alford (2010) examine channelconflict by addressing sales agents' job satisfaction after an orga-nisation combines an online and sales agent's channel, suggestingperceptions of service cannibalisation correlate negatively with jobsatisfaction. Incorporation of an online channel into the tourismindustry causes sales agents at travel agencies to perceive dissat-isfaction because of uncertainty provoked by competition betweenoffline and online channels. Therefore:

H3. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the lower sales agents' job satisfaction.

2.2.4. Job alienationJob alienation is an attitude whereby an employee expresses

lack of concern regarding work (Hirschfeld, Feild,& Bedeian, 2000).Alienation has been examined principally as a psychological func-tion in a work environment (Clark, Halbesleben, Lester, & Heintz,2010). Changes to a tourism distribution system lead to modifica-tions towork development, learning of new skills, and the nature ofwork, placing greater pressures on employees (Di Pietro & Pizam,2008), in addition to introducing feelings of alienation (Cheung,2005). Job alienation is a psychological variable that appears fromperceived imbalance between effort and results. Sharma andGassenheimer (2009) argue that sales agents' perceptions of ser-vice cannibalisation from the appearance of an online distributionchannel cause them to undergo psychological distancing from theirjobs, leading to job alienation. Therefore, perceptions of cannibal-isation might connect positively to job alienation. Thus:

H4. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the higher sales agents' job alienation.

2.2.5. Sales agents' effortEffort is force, energy, and activity from which work is accom-

plished (Brown & Peterson, 1994), and is classified within the ex-pectancy theory of motivation. According to this theory, the startingpoint for sales agentmotivation lies in expectations that lead a salesagent to make an effort to attain an objective. Within distribution,perceptions of competition between online and offline channelsreduce expectations, leading to loss of motivation and reduction ineffort (Rousseau, 1989). Sales agents' perceptions of cannibalisationwhen faced with online channels reduce motivation to makegreater effort, thus provoking a decrease in the results (Frazier,1999; Sharma et al., 2010). Competition in the tourism industryresulting from online distribution channels suggests travel agentsviewattainment of expectations difficult, and they therefore reduceeffort in carrying out their jobs. Thus:

H5. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the lower sales agents' efforts.

2.2.6. Sales agent trainingTraining is the acquisition of the knowledge, skills, and general

competencies that relate to competencies (Fitzgerald, 1992).

Incorporating online channels in the tourism industry led tochanging requirements for sales agents, who confront more risksand uncertainty. Johnson and Bharadwaj (2005) argue that orga-nisations attempt to improve sales agents' skills for functioning in amulti-channel environment by providing motivational training,access to the organisation's strategies, and education/trainingrelated to technology. Thus, organisations increase sales agents'training to adapt to current, dynamic environments, satisfy con-sumer requirements, and ensure organisational survival(Marimuthu, Arokiasamy, & Ismail, 2009). Travel agencies had toincrease the amount of training given to sales agents to renderthem more competent and offer added value not provided by on-line channels. Therefore:

H6. The higher sales agents' perceptions of service cannibal-isation, the more frequently travel agencies offer trainingprogrammes.

2.3. Moderating effects of type of travel agency

To reach customers through both online and offline channels,the multi-channel approach in the tourism industry creates salesuncertainty among sales agents; the greater the uncertainty andthe more constraints sales agents face, the less likely sales agentsare able to predict behaviours and actions, perpetuating percep-tions of insecurity. Uncertainty reduction theory examines how theaddition of alternatives results in increased uncertainty whenpredicting outcomes, and how these additions might be perceivedas cannibalistic (Planalp & Honeycutt, 1985). However, the type oforganisation might influence effects from changes in the tourismindustry. Goldmanis et al. (2010) propose that the effects ofincreased e-commerce among consumers in a travel market asso-ciate with small travel agencies exiting themarket, but do not affectthe largest agencies.

Literature suggests various disparities among travel agencies,including ownership type. Independent travel agencies are ownedprivately, and consortia and franchises are part of a group. Theprimary differences between these types of agencies lie in theirorganisational structures, management styles, responses to envi-ronments, and forms of competition (Chen& Hambrick, 1995; Man,Lau,& Chan, 2002). A decline in search costsdmade possible by theInternet and improvements to travel-shopping websitesdshiftedequilibrium production in the industry to travel agencies that arepart of a group (i.e., consortia and franchises). Some of theseagencies host the portals that led to declines of independentcompetitors. The effect of consumers' e-commerce is substantial forindependent travel agencies. Thus, the relationship between salesagents' perceptions of service cannibalisation caused by changes inthe tourism industry and sales agents' uncertainty might vary be-tween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises. Thetype of travel agency might moderate perceptions of service can-nibalisation and consequences for sales agents.

2.3.1. Moderation of service cannibalisation and risk-aversionThe literature suggests disparities concerning risk-aversion ac-

cording to organisation size and ownership. Some authors observethat companies with smaller organisational structures confrontgreater risk and uncertainty (Kotey & Slade, 2005; Sardy & Alon,2007). When a business affects the welfare of families andowners directly, owners become risk-averse. This situation arisesmost when leaders are owner-managers of small, autonomousfirms. Independent travel agencies might not be prepared forcontingencies because they are less prone to risk acceptance andtherefore are risk-averse. Sales agents at independent travelagencies have a narrower perception of contingencies that might

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occur in the industry when they begin to participate in tourism(Spencer et al., 2012). Conversely, managers and employees whoare not owners are less risk-averse. Operating under a recognisedand successful commercial formula, sales agents at franchise travelagencies believe they confront less risk. Therefore, sales agents inconsortia or franchises who feel cannibalised by the arrival of on-line channels experience less risk-aversion. Thus:

H7a. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and risk-aversion, there is a differencebetween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises.

2.3.2. Moderation of service cannibalisation and insecurityThe relationship between sales agents' perceptions of service

cannibalisation caused by changes in the tourism industry and salesagents' insecurity might vary between independent travel agenciesand consortia/franchises. Smaller, privately owned companies arenormally more vulnerable to external influences than companiesthat are part of a group because the competitive advantages of theformer are less sustainable when an environment changes (Manet al., 2002). Sales agents in independent travel agencies mightreceive support from their organisations that provides themwith abetter internal environment in which to confront online competi-tion, thus reducing insecurity. Conversely, organisations that arepart of a group lack control of external environments and confrontgreater internal uncertainty. They also experience communicationproblems with sales agents. Although independent travel agenciesenjoy a degree of protection from environmental threats, consortiaor franchises fear their existences are at risk. This circumstancemight lead to greater insecurity in sales agents at consortia andfranchises. It is possible that the relationship between perceptionsof service cannibalisation and sales agents' insecurity is stronger forsales agents who work in consortia and franchises than for thosewho work at independent travel agencies. Therefore:

H7b. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and job insecurity, there is a differencebetween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises.

Fig. 2. Conceptual framework.

2.3.3. Moderation of service cannibalisation and satisfactionThe relationship between perceptions of service cannibalisation

and sales agents' satisfaction might vary according to the type oftravel agency. Travel agencies that are part of a group adoptdisparate control systems, with the objective of increasing theirorganisations' satisfaction (Mellewigt, Ehrmann, & Decker, 2011;Payne, 2006). This behaviour might lead to less satisfaction fromsales agents who work for these organisations. The essence of thisargument lies in the formal rules an organisation imposes on itssales agents. Kalleberg and Van Buren (1996) suggest that smaller,privately owned organisations allow greater autonomy in theworkplace, unlike organisations that are part of a group, whichplace more restrictions on employees. The relationship betweenperceptions of service cannibalisation by sales agents who areworking at independent travel agencies when facedwith the arrivalof online channels and their satisfaction is stronger than in the caseof sales agents at consortia/franchises. Sales agents at consortia/franchises might experience a weaker relationship between per-ceptions of service cannibalisation and satisfaction from the orga-nisations' formal rules. Thus:

H7c. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and job satisfaction, there is a differencebetween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises.

2.3.4. Moderation of service cannibalisation and alienationAlienation literature (Banai & Reisel, 2007; Clark et al., 2010)

suggests sales agents at privately owned organisations experiencegreater difficulty in comparison to sales agents at organisations thatare part of a groupwhenmodifyingwork performance and learningnew skills to confront the online channels. This difficultymight leadto the former feeling especially cannibalised within their ownchannel, and perceiving that their efforts make no difference inachieving their objectives. Thus:

H7d. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and job alienation, there is a differencebetween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises.

2.3.5. Moderation of service cannibalisation and effortConsidering the type of organisation, there might be differences

between effort exerted by sales agents who work at consortia/franchises and that of sales agents who work at independent travelagencies. Companies that are part of a group are often more effi-cient in terms of productivity and employee effort (Misra,Coughlan, & Narasimhan, 2005). Consortia and franchise travelagencies enjoy advantages in productivity because their salesagents make greater effort than those at independent travelagencies. It is therefore possible that perceptions of service canni-balisation by sales agents have a greater effect on agent efforts atconsortia and franchise agencies than at independent travelagencies. Thus:

H7e. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and his/her efforts, there is a differencebetween independent travel agencies and consortia/franchises.

2.3.6. Moderation of service cannibalisation and trainingVickerstaff (1992) suggests that smaller, privately owned com-

panies lack both the structure (i.e., training specialists) and capacity

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(i.e., employees' time and training skills) required to establishtraining programmes. Consortia and franchises have greater ma-terials and economic resources to establish programmes for em-ployees, suggesting that perceptions of service cannibalisation bysales agents at consortia and franchises lead to more training bythese organisations because they have a greater capacity than in-dependent travel agencies to establish it. Therefore:

H7f. In the relationship between sales agents' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation and training programmes offered by thetravel agency, there is a difference between independent travelagencies and consortia/franchises.

Fig. 2 shows the theoretical model the hypotheses suggest.

3. Research methods

3.1. Context of the study

The empirical context of this study is the tourism industry,specifically travel agencies. Few industries exploit e-commerce asmuch as it does. The Spanish tourism distribution system hasexperienced not only incremental evolution, but also radicaltransformation since the rise of the Web. Online travel agenciesincreased sales by more than 20% in 2012, whereas offline sales fellby 2% (Euromonitor International, 2013). The travel industry haslong been taking advantage of opportunities the Internet offers,with nearly 9% of air bookings in Spain being made through web-sites of traditional travel agencies, 32% of all Global DistributionSystem (GDS) air bookings in Spain made through online travelagencies, and 7% of all e-commerce activity being related to travelagencies and tour operators (Amadeus, 2013). Online travelagencies comprise the bulk of online bookings (23%), but the fastestgrowing segment in online bookings is that from travel agencywebsites.

The Internet changed travel distribution in Spain. Direct distri-bution alternatives (i.e., direct mail, telesales, and direct-responseadvertising) existed in Spain, as in many other European coun-tries, prior to the emergence of the Internet. GDSwas the first majorstep during development of digital distribution channels. Thisadvancement has increased competition among hospitality firmsand added intermediaries within the system. Growth of the WorldWide Web since the 1990s changed the online distribution systemin Spain. The Internet era offered the first cost-effective tool fordirect marketing from travel and hospitality suppliers. The inter-mediation system started changing as suppliers began investing inwebsites and booking engines rather than depending on GDSs andtravel agents. Tourism service providers, mostly airlines, have beenpioneers of online commerce, and travel agencies found that if theInternet is an excellent opportunity for direct sales, then it is mostlikely even better for resellers because they offer travellers an easyway to compare, rank, and book offers from multiple providers,thus providing travellers with tremendous added value.

The distribution landscape started to move away from inter-mediation (i.e., GDSs) and toward disintermediation (i.e., websitesand booking engines). Disintermediation increased due to thesimplicity provided by ICTs in transferring functions in the channel,bypassing intermediaries to reach consumers. Disintermediationshould have a negative effect on offline travel agencies. The Internethas favoured the appearance of new intermediaries such asInternet portals specialising in selling tourism products (e.g.,Travelocity, Expedia, Lastminute, Edreams, etc.). Travel retail isfacing a revolution from the growing importance of the onlinechannel.

Travel agencies' structures in Spain are characterised by strongatomisation. Spanish travel agencies split into independent travelagencies and large groups of travel agencies (i.e., consortia andfranchises). The justification for this classification is ownershiptype; independent travel agencies are manager-owned. Althoughtheir business models are different, large groups of travel agenciescreate large management groups to reduce costs, achievecompetitive advantages, and strengthen their positions in themarket (Hosteltur, 2013). Consortia and franchises enjoy access tobetter management conditions because they belong to a largerorganisation. Some offline travel agencies host websites to offerinformation concerning services, but many do not book online.

Sales agents who work at travel agencies play an important rolein Spain. They are professional travel advisers who add value totourism products and save time for customers (Buhalis, 2003). Salesjobs in Spain are regulated to protect the rights of employees.Employee protection legislation includes all types of employmentprotection measures, grounded in legislation, court rulings, col-lective bargaining, or customary practice. Job security provisionsinclude mandatory severance payments and procedural barrierssuch as advance notices, notification of external bodies, andinvolvement of courts if dismissals are contested. However,employee protection legislation does not cover shifting role re-sponsibilities or dismissals occasioned by implementation of elec-tronic business.

3.2. Sample design and data collection

Sales agents who voluntarily participated in the studycompleted a questionnaire in an interviewer's presence. Whennecessary, the primary researcher assisted respondents. Weconfined the population to travel agencies located in six states. Acluster sampling technique was appropriate because the samplingframe was organised by city and travel agency type. Samplinginvolved several steps. Within each state, a two-stage stratifiedcluster sampling method was implemented. During the first stage,sampling was based on travel agencies with stratification by type ofagency (i.e., independent or consortia/franchises). We selected anequal number of travel agencies randomly within each of the twotravel agency types in the principal city. During the second stage,within each travel agency, we selected a number of travel agentsrandomly to reach a sample of 100 from each city, a figure deter-mined by resource availability. The key informant technique wasused to select potential respondents. If there was only one travelagent, that person was selected as an informant. Otherwise, up tothree travel agents were selected randomly from each travelagency. The sample size drawn was 497. Among these, 299 salesagents were working in independent travel agencies, and 198 inconsortia or franchises. The average number of sales agents peragency was two. There were 392 female and 105 males re-spondents, with average work experience in the travel agency in-dustry of more than 10 years. Responses indicated that respondentshad sufficient experience in the travel agency industry to provide abasis on which to respond to the survey.

3.3. Measures

Measures were adapted from or developed based on extantresearch. Individual measurement items for the constructs are lis-ted in the Appendix. All scales were Likert-type items, withresponse categories from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).Sales agents' perceptions of service cannibalisation were measuredby adapting Sharma and Gassenheimer's (2009) sales agents' per-ceptions of service cannibalisation scale. The four-item instrumentassesses perceptions that the Internet poses a threat to agents'

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342336

sales. Risk-aversion was measured using a six-item scale from Raju(1980) and Mandrik and Bao (2005). Insecurity was comprised offour items, measured using an instrument developed by Johnston,Parasuraman, Futrell, and Black (1990). Satisfaction was based onNetemeyer, Johnston, and Burton's (1990) research and oper-ationalised using a three-item scale. Studies fromMiller (1967) andAgarwal (1993) were used to base the job involvement construct asa four-item alienation scale. Training was measured using threeitems adapted from Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt (2002). Effortwas based on a scale from Brown and Peterson (1994), and the scaleincluded items scored on a seven-point frequency scale, rangingfrom 1 (never) to 7 (every day).

4. Findings

4.1. Measurement model

We assessed the reliability and validity of all constructs usingconfirmatory measurement models with the maximum likelihoodmethod due to evidence of non-normal distributions (Satorra &Bentler, 2010). The measurement model, shown in Table 2, sug-gested good fit to the data based on a number of fit statistics(SeBc2 ¼ 1169.9128, df ¼ 532, p ¼ 0.00; root mean square error ofapproximation (RMSEA) ¼ 0.049; normed fit index (NFI) ¼ 0.915;non-normed fit index (NNFI) ¼ 0.946; comparative fit index(CFI) ¼ 0.952; and incremental fit index (IFI) ¼ 0.952). As evidenceof convergent validity, the confirmatory factor analysis indicated allitems related (p < 0.01) to their hypothesised factors, the size of allstandardised loadings were greater than 0.60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988),

Table 2Reliability and validity statistics.

Item Reliability

Cronbach'salpha (a)

Compositereliability (CR)

Average varianceextracted (AVE)

Perception of servicecannibalisation (SC)

SC1 0.924 0.927 0.762SC2SC3SC4

Risk-aversion (RA) RA1 0.959 0.959 0.796RA2RA3RA4RA5RA6

Insecurity (IN) IN1 0.827 0.828 0.547IN2IN3IN4

Satisfaction (SA) SA1 0.956 0.956 0.878SA2SA3

Alienation (AL) AL1 0.961 0.961 0.860AL2AL3AL4

Effort (EF) EF1 0.991 0.991 0.974EF2EF3

Training (TR) TR1 0.834 0.837 0.634TR2TR3

Goodness-of-fit indicators

SeBc2(df ¼ 532) ¼ 1169.9128 (p ¼ 0.00) BBNFI

0.915

***p < 0.01;**p < 0.05; *p < 0.10SC ¼ perception of service cannibalisation; RA ¼ risk-aversion; IN ¼ insecurity; SA ¼ sa

and averages of item-to-factor loadings were greater than 0.70.Findings also suggested high internal consistency. Cronbach's alphacoefficients exceeded Nunnally and Bernstein's (1994) recom-mended threshold of 0.70. Composite reliability represents sharedvariance among observed variables measuring an underlyingconstruct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). A composite reliability of atleast 0.60 is desirable (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988), and this requirementwas met for each factor. Average variance extracted (AVE) was alsocalculated for each construct, resulting in AVEs greater than 0.50(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Evidence of discriminant validity wasprovided in two ways. First, none of the 95% confidence intervals ofthe individual elements of the latent factor correlation matrixcontained a value of 1.0 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Shared vari-ance between pairs of constructs was always less than the corre-sponding AVE (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

4.2. Structural model

Once the model was specified and identified, its parameterswere estimated, and we used various statistics and indices toevaluate overall adaptation of the model. Fit indices fell withinranges for a good fit (SeBc2 ¼ 1216.8356, df ¼ 543, p ¼ 0.00;RMSEA ¼ 0.050; NFI ¼ 0.912; NNFI ¼ 0.944; CFI ¼ 0.949; andIFI ¼ 0.949), according to values Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson(2009) recommend.

Results suggest that sales agents' perceptions of service canni-balisation associate positively with risk-aversion (b ¼ 0.121,p< 0.01) and insecurity (b¼ 0.141; p < 0.05), supporting H1 and H2.However, H3, which states that service cannibalisation decreases

Convergent validity Discriminant validity

Factor loading(robust t-value)

Loadingaverage

Critical pair Confidence interval testVariance extracted test

0.714*** (12.015) 0.868 SA, ALCorr ¼ 0.625Corr2 ¼ 0.3906

Confidence intervalfor ±2s ¼ [0.567,0.683]Corr2SA AL < AVEAL < AVESA

0.897*** (19.242)0.926*** (18.941)0.936*** (18.078)0.894*** (20.283) 0.8920.925*** (22.163)0.922*** (22.837)0.902*** (20.523)0.829*** (17.813)0.880*** (19.119)0.708*** (18.060) 0.7390.776*** (22.700)0.715*** (18.418)0.757*** (20.870)0.936*** (15.550) 0.9370.959*** (18.147)0.917*** (14.988)0.910*** (18.093) 0.9270.937*** (18.824)0.928*** (18.524)0.934*** (20.906)0.977*** (48.873) 0.9870.992*** (48.183)0.992*** (48.931)0.871*** (23.119) 0.7910.829*** (21.183)0.674*** (18.747)

BBNNFI CFI IFI RMSEA

0.946 0.952 0.952 0.049

tisfaction; AL ¼ alienation; EF ¼ effort; TR ¼ training.

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342 337

satisfaction, was not supported (b ¼ 0.142; p < 0.01). Althoughthere was a significant relationship between the variables, it waspositive, contrary to the hypothesis. A similar circumstanceoccurred between service cannibalisation and job alienation(b ¼ �0.092; p < 0.10); the direction of the path was negative, andthus H4 was not supported. Results suggest service cannibalisationdoes correlate with effort (b ¼ �0.051; p > 0.10), and thus H5 wasnot supported. Finally, a correlation between service cannibal-isation and training offered by travel agencies was not found(b ¼ 0.008; p > 0.10), and thus H6 was not supported.

4.3. Moderating effects of type of travel agency

Moderation of travel agency type on the relationship betweenservice cannibalisation and several effects on sales agents wastested using a multi-group, structural-equation approach (Hairet al., 2009). To compare the two groups, it was necessary todetermine measurement invariance. Table 3 shows adjustments foreach of the two sub-samples (i.e., independent travel agencies andconsortia/franchises) according to the confirmation provided by fitindices. Since the data are not multivariate normally distributed,the SatorraeBentler chi-square (SeBc2) was used. Fit indices for theindependent travel agencies were SeBc2(532) ¼ 981.3213,BBNNFI¼ 0.939, CFI¼ 0.945, IFI¼ 0.946, and RMSEA¼ 0.053. In thecase of consortia/franchises, fit indices wereSeBc2(532) ¼ 847.9306, BBNNFI ¼ 0.931, CFI ¼ 0.938, IFI ¼ 0.939,and RMSEA ¼ 0.055. The sub-samples also had the same form.

We then evaluated moderation of travel agency type in thestructural relation. Table 4 shows results of the hypotheses formulti-group analysis through non-standardised estimates of co-efficients, as Jaccard and Wan (1996) recommend. The structuralmulti-group model had good fit (SeBc2(1086) ¼ 1894.2754;BBNNFI ¼ 0.934; CFI ¼ 0.940; IFI ¼ 0.940; RMSEA ¼ 0.055;SRMR ¼ 0.074). Findings suggest moderation for service cannibal-isation and alienation (DSeBc2(Dgl ¼ 1) ¼ 5.859; p ¼ 0.016), sup-porting H7d. Results also suggest that the relationship is strongerfor independent travel agencies (bIndependents ¼ �0.208; p < 0.01)than for consortia/franchises (bConsortia/Franchises ¼ �0.034; p > 0.1).

A synthesis of results from the multi-group analysis is shown inFig. 3, which reflects non-standardised coefficients for each causalrelationship and its significance for both independent travelagencies and consortia/franchises.

5. Discussion and implications

Providing alternative distribution channels in the tourism sectorwith direct (i.e., tourism providers) and indirect (i.e., online travelagencies) interaction allows consumers to choose from a range ofoptions. This situation could lead to sales agents perceiving servicecannibalisation and several other consequences. The relationshipbetween service cannibalisation and its consequences might varywith travel agency type. The objective of this study, therefore, wasto analyse sales agents' perceptions of service cannibalisation and

Table 3Measurement invariance.

Model SeBc2 df Dif. SeBc2

Individual dataset resultsIndependent travel agencies (n ¼ 299) 981.3213*** 532Consortia and franchises (n ¼ 198) 847.9306*** 532

Measurement invariance (n ¼ 497)Equal form 1826.7609*** 1064Equal factor loading 1893.0931*** 1099 41.517

corresponding consequences by considering moderation of travelagency type. Implications of findings for tourism research andpractice are discussed in the following sections, which also identifylimitations of the study and suggestions for future research.

The contribution this study makes is important to academicfields because of a lack of studies that examine sales agents' per-ceptions of service cannibalisation in the tourism industry. Extantdefinitions of multi-channel cannibalisation rely on economicterms (Ward & Morganosky, 2002), but they are incompletebecause they do not consider attitudes toward online channels. Thisstudy adds more value to the term cannibalisation among distri-bution channels because it addresses sales agents' perceptions of amulti-channel system. Findings suggest high degrees of percep-tions of service cannibalisation from the perspectives of salesagents. Lack of studies focussing on the implications of sales agents'perceptions of service cannibalisation suggests a need to developempirically contrasted theoretical approaches to determine theireffects. Following a review of the literature, this study proposes sixconsequences for sales agents in offline travel agencies resultingfrom perceptions of service cannibalisation: risk-aversion, insecu-rity, satisfaction, alienation, effort, and the training programmesoffered by travel agencies.

Although extant research maintains that the arrival of theInternet does not cannibalise sales in offline channels(Deleersnyder, Geyskens, Gielens, & Dekimpe, 2002), this studydemonstrates that perceptions of service cannibalisation correlatepositively with sales agents' risk-aversion and insecurity regardingwork. Important technological changes in an industry might in-crease sales agents' fear of possible changes to their roles,increasing both uncertainty regarding their futures and job inse-curity. The phenomenon can be explained by the fact that travelagents who feel cannibalised, from a decrease in sales and an un-certain future in the travel agency, could experience greater jobinsecurity andmore aversion to carrying out new tasks or taking onnew roles in the industry. These findings are important becausesales agents' risk-aversion and insecurity at work might havedetrimental effects when sales agents conduct activities in travelagencies. These effects often cause employees to become less in-clined to cooperate with travel agencies and managers. Thesefindings accord with extant studies (Di Mauro & Musumeci, 2011;Rothmann & Cooper, 2008).

Some warnings are evident with respect to potential negativeoutcomes of sales agents' perceived cannibalisation on various jobsaspects. This study suggests sales agents perceive Internet channelsas cannibalistic to both current and future sales, contributing totourism literature by highlighting the importance of risk-aversionand job insecurity as factors relevant to avoiding negative behav-iours due to fear of losing a job or experiencing changes to rolesplayed in the industry. Contrary to the theoretical model, percep-tions of service cannibalisation had a positive effect on satisfaction,and negative effects were found regarding service cannibalisationon perceptions of alienation in the company. Although sales agentsperceived a threat of service cannibalisation, it did not appear to

Ddf p BBNFI BBNNFI CFI IFI RMSEA (90% CI)

0.889 0.939 0.945 0.946 0.053 (0.048; 0.058)0.852 0.931 0.938 0.939 0.055 (0.048; 0.062)

0.875 0.936 0.943 0.944 0.054 (0.050; 0.058)35 0.0 0.870 0.936 0.941 0.941 0.054 (0.050; 0.058)

Table 4Multi-group analysis.

Hip. Samplea Multigroup modelb

Structural relation Sample Independent travel agencies Consortia and franchise travelagencies

DSeBc2 p

B standardised T B not-standardised T B not-standardised T

H7a SC / RA 0.121** 1.998 0.173ns 1.529 0.258ns 1.390 0.169 0.68H7b SC / IN 0.141** 2.506 0.071ns 1.003 0.180*** 3.030 1.609 0.20H7c SC / SA 0.142*** 2.703 0.190*** 2.875 0.096ns 0.762 0.444 0.51H7d SC / AL �0.092* �1.918 �0.208*** �2.697 �0.034ns �0.415 5.859 0.016**H7e SC / EF �0.051ns �1.070 �0.092ns �0.583 �0.206ns �1.031 0.288 0.59H7f SC / TR 0.008ns 0.152 �0.010ns �0.081 0.057ns 0.291 0.108 0.74

a SeBc2(543df) ¼ 1216.8356; BBNFI ¼ 0.912; BBNNFI ¼ 0.944; CFI ¼ 0.949; IFI ¼ 0.949; RMSEA ¼ 0.050.b SeBc2 (1086df) ¼ 1894.2754 (p < 0.01); BBNFI ¼ 0.870; BBNNFI ¼ 0.934; CFI ¼ 0.940; IFI ¼ 0.940; RMSEA ¼ 0.055.

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342338

affect relationships with the travel agencies for which they work. Itmight be possible for sales agents to transform negative percep-tions of cannibalisation into motivators. Although Internet chan-nels provide customers with easy access to core business processes,sales agents might develop high degrees of competencies in areasthat Internet channels cannot learn or offer easily. For example, atravel agent might be able to respond to requests and make re-quests using electronic channels as tools to carry out decisionmaking and communication tasks that are unique to the agent'sskill set. Thereby, sales agents overcome stress associated withperceived cannibalisation of Internet channels.

The major theoretical development of this study is that notevery sales agent perceives service cannibalisation to the samedegree. Disparities in perceptions of service cannibalisation couldarise due to the type of travel agency for which a sales agent works,differentiating independent (i.e., privately owned) and consortia/franchise travel agencies (i.e., groups). This study demonstrates thattravel agency type moderates the relationship between salesagents' perceptions of service cannibalisation and alienation,providing insights into factors that shape perceptions whenexposed to additional channels with the potential to performsimilar functions.

Fig. 3. Results of the multi-group structural model.

As H7d suggests, the negative effect of service cannibalisationon alienation reduces when a travel agency is independent. Thisperception might arise because sales agents who work at inde-pendent travel agencies feel stronger attachment to their organi-sations, which might increase enthusiasm at work. Individuals whohave greater familiarity with their place of employment might beless apprehensive about change because they know more aboutwhat to expect from the change. Although this study focuses ontravel agencies, its contribution can be generalised to the extentthat organisations in other information-intensive industries mightlearn lessons concerning how to address service cannibalisationamong employees, especially sales agents.

5.1. Managerial implications

This study reinforces the importance of capturing perceptions ofsales agents, especially concerning job insecurity and other out-comes. Findings offer practical implications and provide recom-mendations for offline travel agencies to counteract negative effectsfrom service cannibalisation. First, a challenge for companies willbe to integrate and coordinate efforts to reduce negative percep-tions by rewarding agents for involvement while providing value tocustomers. For example, firms should re-evaluate their incentivestructures, keeping in mind the value of sales agents' effort and jobsatisfaction. Re-evaluation might mean redesigning an incentivesystem to add security to jobs and consequently greater reciprocitybetween sales agents and the organisation. Sales agents' involve-ment with the company is crucial when perceptions of servicecannibalisation increase, and it is important to create and maintaina positive emotional atmosphere for sales agents because it affectssatisfaction and reduces perceptions of alienation. This recom-mendation is particularly important for sales agents who work inconsortia or franchise travel agencies. Internal marketing isessential for travel agencies that wish to obtain a competitiveadvantage.

Second, it is essential to develop differentiation and customisedstrategies to augment service quality in terms of information andprofessional advice (Martinez & Martinez, 2008). Travel agenciesshould reinvent themselves such that they do not feel threatenedby online distribution channels and remain current with newmarket tendencies. Although online organisations provide con-sumers with easy access such as information searches regardingdestinations and accommodations, sales agents could developgreater competencies in areas for which the Internet is unsuited.Finally, travel agencies should integrate and complement conven-tional sales with online services. A multi-channel approach thatincreases sales might combine with detailed advice on use of theonline channel, representing an opportunity for travel agencies.Investing in both websites and sales agents might yield two

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particularly beneficial results. Such integration would not onlysimplify service for customers, but also motivate sales agents toincrease sales. Greater technology adoption, particularly theInternet, might be the only manner in which travel agencies cancompete in the tourism industry. Perceived social influence andexperience using a channel affects both channel perception anduse. Social influences include observations of the uses of digitalchannels within a society and organisational influence. Thisbehaviour is particularly evident among independent travelagencies in Spain.

5.2. Limitations and further research

This study included several limitations that serve as extensionsfor future research. One limitation relates to the location of thetravel agencies analysed. To generalise results, it would be neces-sary to enlarge the sample of travel agencies, incorporating

Variable Items

Employees' perceptions ofservice cannibalisation

All scale items are adopted from Sharma and Gassenheimfeel cannibalised by the Internet. This research uses a se� I am losing market share to Internet tourist services sa� Large numbers of my present and future customers m� I am losing a large number of customers to competing� I could sell more tourist services if other companies di

Risk-aversion The scale items are adopted from Raju (1980) and Mandrthe risk aversion that they feel in their work environmenagree”.� I do not feel comfortable about taking chances when I� I prefer situations that have foreseeable outcomes whe� Before I make a decision, I like to be absolutely sure h� I avoid situations that have uncertain outcomes when� I feel comfortable improvising in new situations when� I feel nervous when I have to make decisions in uncer

Insecurity The insecurity scale is a modification of the scale used bythe feeling of insecurity in their position in the travel ag“strongly agree”.� I feel secure about my job in this travel agency (Rever� Organisational changes by my travel agency do little t� The new strategy initiated by my organisation threate� I am unlikely to be replaced by my travel agency (Rev

Satisfaction The satisfaction scale is based on the work of Netemeyerfeeling of job satisfaction at the agency and by consideringpoint scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly� In general, I am pretty happy with my dealings with m� I really like working for my travel agency.� I am satisfied with the services I get from my organisa

Alienation Previous research work by Miller (1967) and Agarwal (1descriptions by considering their feelings of alienation indisagree” to “strongly agree”.� Selling tourist services in my travel agency provides m� I really do not feel a sense of pride or accomplishment� I am proud to have done well in selling tourist service� Selling tourist services for my travel agency is a rewar

Effort The scale employed to measure effort is adopted from Braccording to the effort they expend to address the competscored on a seven-point frequency scale ranging from 1� Compared to my colleagues, I put considerable effort i� Compared to my colleagues, I put more hours into my� Compared to my colleagues, I put more effort into serv

Training All scale items are adapted from Bresnahan et al. (2002).received in the travel agency to counter emerging compdisagree” to 7 ¼ “strongly agree”.� My travel agency has undertaken considerable investm� My travel agency has been cross-training our sales for� My travel agency has held workshops for our sales for

agencies located in other countries to compare results and testwhether perceptions of service cannibalisation apply internation-ally. Reverse causality might exist between perceptions of servicecannibalisation and several consequences. Future research shouldanalyse reverse causality between service cannibalisation and risk-aversion; sales agents who are more risk-averse might perceivemore cannibalisation. Another important contribution would belongitudinal investigation into relationships among perceptions ofservice cannibalisation, their consequences, and moderation bytravel agency type. Over time, newconsequencesmight appear, andintensities among these relationships might be modified, includingmoderation by travel agency type.

Appendix. Measures

er (2009). The respondents rate the following descriptions indicating whether theyven-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”.les.ay instead choose to shop for tourist services online.Internet channels.d not sell tourist services online.ik and Bao (2005). The respondents answer the following statements according tot. This study uses a seven-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly

perceive a competitive threat.n I perceive a competitive threat.ow things will turn out when I perceive a competitive threat.I perceive a competitive threat.I perceive a competitive threat.tain situations when I perceive a competitive threat.Johnston et al. (1990). The respondents rate the following descriptions in terms ofency. This research uses a seven-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to

se scored).o threaten the security of my job (Reverse scored).ns my job.erse scored).et al. (1990). The respondents answer the following statements according to theirthe incorporation of the online channel into the industry. This study uses a seven-agree”.y travel agency.

tion.993) is used to design the alienation scale. The respondents rate the followingthe travel agency. This research uses a seven-point scale ranging from “strongly

e with an opportunity to excel (Reverse scored).as a result of selling tourist services for my organisation.s for my company (Reverse scored).ding experience (Reverse scored).own and Peterson (1994). The respondents answer the following statementsitive threat in the travel agency. The effort scale includes three questions that were¼ “never” to 7 ¼ “every day”.nto the sales tasks to address the competitive threat.job to address the competitive threat.ing my customers to address the competitive threat.The respondents rate the following descriptions, considering the training theyetitive threats. This research uses a seven-point scale ranging from 1 ¼ “strongly

ents in training our sales force to counter emerging competitive threats.ce to counter emerging competitive threats.ce to counter emerging competitive threats.

E. Díaz et al. / Tourism Management 48 (2015) 329e342340

Appendix. Descriptive statistics

Mean Standard deviation Levene test

Item General(ntotal ¼ 497)

Independents(nindependent ¼ 299)

Franchises(nfranchise ¼ 198)

Mean difference t p-Value Indep. Franch. F-value p-Value

SC1 5.45 5.44 5.46 0.02 �0.185 0.853 1.071 1.064 0.095 0.758SC2 5.89 5.89 5.89 0 0.006 0.995 1.313 1.266 0.002 0.963SC3 5.93 5.93 5.93 0 �0.025 0.980 1.256 1.304 0.172 0.678SC4 6.23 6.25 6.20 0.05 0.435 0.664 1.240 1.201 0.000 0.989RA1 5.26 5.24 5.28 0.04 �0.352 0.725 1.331 1.512 1.796 0.181RA2 5.36 5.37 5.34 0.03 0.240 0.810 1.351 1.506 0.846 0.358RA3 5.46 5.42 5.51 0.09 �0.658 0.511 1.289 1.395 0.687 0.408RA4 5.37 5.35 5.40 0.05 �0.376 0.707 1.240 1.362 0.534 0.465RA5 5.23 5.23 5.24 0.01 �0.094 0.925 1.156 1.153 0.088 0.766RA6 5.17 5.17 5.17 0 �0.011 0.992 1.159 1.222 0.231 0.631IN1 2.40 2.43 2.34 0.09 0.989 0.323 1.022 0.936 3.838 0.051IN2 2.45 2.49 2.39 0.10 1.100 0.272 1.044 0.916 8.578 0.004IN3 2.40 2.43 2.36 0.07 0.802 0.423 0.947 0.944 0.004 0.950IN4 2.52 2.55 2.48 0.07 0.694 0.488 1.014 1.051 0.986 0.321SA1 6.21 6.17 6.27 0.10 �1.005 0.315 1.067 1.084 0.029 0.864SA2 6.14 6.06 6.25 0.19* �1.925 0.055 1.101 1.074 0.073 0.788SA3 6.19 6.13 6.28 0.15 �1.521 0.129 1.065 1.046 0.011 0.915AL1 2.03 2.02 2.04 0.02 �0.126 0.900 0.985 1.115 1.910 0.168AL2 2.08 2.10 2.04 0.06 0.617 0.538 1.044 1.084 0.192 0.662AL3 2.03 2.07 1.97 0.10 0.920 0.358 1.097 1.087 0.086 0.769AL4 2.08 2.12 2.02 0.10 1.094 0.275 1.084 1.083 1.182 0.277EF1 4.05 4.14 3.91 0.23 1.265 0.206 2.019 2.033 0.066 0.797EF2 3.90 3.99 3.77 0.22 1.234 0.218 1.953 1.986 0.995 0.319EF3 3.90 4.01 3.75 0.26 1.445 0.149 1.942 1.981 1.142 0.286TR1 4.90 5.06 4.65 0.41** 2.488 0.013 1.794 1.846 1.919 0.167TR2 4.72 4.79 4.61 0.18 1.044 0.297 1.838 1.812 0.061 0.804TR3 4.07 4.40 3.57 0.83*** 4.371 0.000 2.036 2.109 0.949 0.330

SC ¼ perception of service cannibalisation; RA ¼ risk-aversion; IN ¼ insecurity; SA ¼ satisfaction; AL ¼ alienation; EF ¼ effort; TR ¼ training; Indep ¼ independent travel

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.12.004.

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Estrella Díaz is Assistant Professor of Marketing at theUniversity of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). Her areas ofresearch include services sector, channel distribution, andtourism. Her research has been published in several inter-national journals. She is also co-author of several bookson Marketing.

David Martín-Consuegra is Associate Professor of Mar-keting at the University of Castilla-La Mancha. His teachingand research interests span market orientation, customerrelationship, services and tourism issues. His researchhas been published in the European Journal of Marketing,Journal of Business Research, Journal of Air Transport Man-agement, Journal of Travel& Tourism Marketing, Journal ofProduct & Brand Management, and International Journalof Bank Marketing, among others. He is also the author

and co-author of several books on marketing. He haswon several awards for his research.

�Agueda Esteban is Professor of Marketing at the Univer-sity of Castilla-La Mancha. Her teaching and research inter-ests cover tourism, demand, cultural management andstrategic marketing. Her research has been published inseveral international journals. She is also the author andco-author of several books on marketing.