Psychology in the Schools Volume 23, April 1986

PERCEPTIONS OF JOB SATISFACTION, JOB STABILITY, AND QUALITY OF PROFESSIONAL LIFE AMONG

RURAL AND URBAN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS STEWART EHLY AND THOMAS M. REIMERS

University of Iowa

A survey was conducted of 231 psychologists from a midwestern state. Investigators surveyed perceptions of job satisfaction, job stability, and quality of professional life. Responses of rural and urban professionals were compared. While resembling urban colleagues in most regards, rural psychologists appear more satisfied with work- ing environments and job policies. Discussion is presented on differences between the two groups on a number of variables influencing perceptions.

Recent surveys of school psychologists’ job satisfaction have focused on a relatively narrow range of variables potentially affecting reported perceptions (Anderson, Hohen- shil, & Brown, 1984; Bennington, 1980; Trenary, 1981; Vensel, 1980). Related attempts at documenting perceptions of professionals in rural areas have been similarly restricted in focus (Huebner, McLesky, & Cummings, 1984). Literature from several professions (e.g., education, mental health services) contains diverse explorations of job-related perceptions and associated factors (e.g., stress, burnout) considered unsatisfactory to professional functioning (Forsyth & Hoy, 1978; Wagenfeld & Wagenfeld, 1981).

Perceptions of stress, burnout, and dissatisfaction have been reported frequently in the professional literature (Pines, Aronson, & Kafry, 1981), though school psychologists have appeared generally favorable in their feelings towards their profes- sion (Anderson et al., 1984). A review of the literature on job-related perceptions sug- gests three broad areas to assess when investigating work sites.

The first and most frequently measured area is job satisfaction, the focus of much of the research discussed above. While studies of professionals’ job satisfaction are clearly valuable, such research often has excluded other job-related perceptions. A second area of study, job stability, is another important set of perceptions, separate from job satisfac- tion (Katzell, 1980). Stability (factors reflecting commitment to a job assignment) can relate to any of a number of organizational components or properties, such as employees’ attitudes, motivation, and performance.

A third set of perceptions, that of quality of professional life, can also influence the employee (Katzell, 1980; Walton, 1980). Perceptions of the quality of working life can reflect aspects of worker involvement, flexibility, reward, and status. Shifts in perceptions of quality can coincide with changes in the work site without influencing perceptions of job satisfaction or job stability. Jobs can be restructured to enhance work meaningfulness, worker responsibility for outcomes, and worker knowledge of results (Hackman & Oldham, 1980).

The current study applied a three-part survey of school psychologists in a midwestern state to identify perceptions related to:

1. job satisfaction, 2. job stability, 3. quality of professional life.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Stewart Ehly, College of Education, Division of Special Educa- tion, N259 Lindquist Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242.

164

Job Satisfaction 165

The investigation was structured to assist administrators (in a state with a large rural population) to develop recommendations to attract and maintain school psychologists in the profession. The intent of the survey was to identify positive elements of en- vironments, not to assign blame to any aspect of professional services. For the present investigation, responses of rural and urban professionals were separated to explore poten- tial differences in perceptions related to job site location. While some evidence has been collected on rural-urban differences, the current study will explore in greater depth the professional’s perceptions of work sites.

METHOD Subjects

of the following conditions were met: State-certified school psychologists from a midwestern state were selected when both

1. their administrative officer distributed survey forms to them, 2. they were employed at least one year as a school psychologist (as determined

by the supervisor of psychologists). All psychologists meeting both conditions received surveys.

The state is divided into 15 administrative units for the provision of support ser- vices. School psychological supervisors in 12 of these units distributed forms to their staff (86% of available school psychologists in the state). In units distributing forms, 76% of the psychologists completed their assigned instruments (total N = 231). The pro- portion of psychologists completing surveys within each agency ranged from 56% to 100%. Demographic information collected on participants included age, sex, type and size of school served, case load, location of schools (urban, rural, suburban), and number of years in the profession (see below).

Subjects specified the number of rural, urban, and sururban schools in which they worked. Location was according to established state guidelines:

(a) Urban =incorporated area with more than 2500 residents; (b) Rural = incorporated or unincorporated area with fewer than 2500 residents; (c) Suburban = population area contiguous to an urban area containing more than 50,000 residents.

According to state figures, population is distributed in the state as follows: 13.9% of residents in areas containing more than 100,000 people; 21% of residents in areas con- taining 25,OOO-100,000 people; 23% of residents in areas containing 2,500-25,OOO people; 41.4% of residents in areas containing fewer than 2,500 people.

Subjects were chosen for subsequent analyses from those school psychologists who worked exclusively in rural and urban areas. Assignment to groups was done by creating a “ruralness” variable defined as (number of rural schools served/combined number of rural, urban, and suburban schools served) * 100. Thus, subjects with a score of 100, or subjects who exclusively served rural schools, were selected for inclusion in the rural group (N=81, 35% of surveyed group). Those subjects who had a score of 0, or sub- jects who served urban and/or suburban schools, and no rural schools, were selected for inclusion in the urban group ( N = 78, 34% of surveyed group). Psychologists who served suburban schools were included in our analysis because some psychologists who served urban schools also served adjoining suburban schools as part of their assign-

166 Stewart Ehly and Thomas M. Reimer

ment. Thus, psychologists who served urban schools exclusively, as well as those who served urban schools and adjoining suburban schools, were included in our analysis. Procedure

The survey was initiated at the request of the state consultant for School Psychological Services so that perceptions of professionals could be reviewed prior to the development of strategies to attract professionals to the state. The state consultant is an agent of the Department of Public Instruction and is responsible for providing support services to each of the intermediate support units. To develop the initial survey form, 14 practicing school psychologists across the state were selected at random from a directory of school psychologists and were interviewed by telephone. The interview contained a series of open-ended questions concerning elements of job satisfaction, job stability, and quality of professional life. Based on initial information, a draft of a form to be distributed to all school psychologists was developed for review. The draft con- tained a number of categories tapping the three target areas, allowing respondents to check off their perceptions under each dimension. The process of developing the form for distribution went through three drafts until the state consultant, survey author, and a group of psychological supervisors were satisfied with the language of the instrument.

Distribution of the form was conducted at a meeting directed by the state consultant. This person requested that area supervisors distribute the form (see description below) to staff members employed as school psychologists for at least one year. Distribution of the form was on a voluntary basis. All 15 area supervisors indicated a willingness to return the form and were contacted if a packet of materials had not been returned by the target date. Three written follow-ups were conducted in an effort to insure par- ticipation of two agencies that were especially remiss in returning forms.

The three sections of the survey were disseminated, following a randomized pro- cedure, to school psychologists as follows: (a) % of professionals received the entire instrument, (b) % received the job satisfaction section only, and (c) % received the job stability and quality of professional life sections only. The division into three versions was requested by the state consultant, who expected a higher response rate given this procedure, rather than asking all psychologists to complete the entire instrument. The state consultant and researchers hypothesized that rural and urban professionals would respond differently to their environment and that these differences would be important to consider in structuring job sites to attract and maintain staff. To survey the dimen- sions of professional life most fully, the research instruments covered a wide array of factors (260 items) potentially influencing perceptions of work environment.

Each rating scale contained seven response options, with a range from very negative (1) to neutral (4) to very positive (7). Sample items with responses were provided at the introduction of each section, to demonstrate an example of response style expectations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 shows demographic characteristics of the subjects in the sample. Complete

data were available from 81 rural and 78 urban school psychologists (N= 159). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a statistically significant difference between the groups on the variables “years of experience as a school psychologist,” F(1, 157) = 8.37, p < .05, and “number of schools served,” F(1, 157) = 6.02, p < .05. An analysis of the remaining demographic variables showed no significant differences between the two groups. Thus, “level of experience” and “number of schools served” were treated as covariates in subsequent analyses of the data.

Job Satisfaction

Table 1 Means for Demographic Variables

167

Total Case Years of* Average Case Load per Experience Number of* Load per Year (all

As a School Schools School in a schools N Age Psychologist Served Year combined)

Rural 81 36.1 7.35 3.83 72.98 112.15

Urban 78 37.33 9.78 6.07 74.02 128.43

*Variables statistically significant at .05 level.

Since the research in this area is quite limited, we had no basis on which to form specific hypotheses as to which variables would be significant. Thus, analyses were ex- ploratory in nature, with the alpha level set at .05. Of the 260 variables examined, 22 (8.5%) were found to be statistically significant.

Subjects were asked to rate their level of satisfaction on a number of variables. To evaluate each of the variables for statistical significance, univariate analyses of covariance were conducted, with “ruralness” used as the independent variable, while “level of experience” and “number of schools served” were used as the covariates.

The ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) revealed several statistically significant differences between urban and rural school psychologists. Table 2 shows the means and F scores of the dependent variables across both groups (rural vs. urban).

Table 2 Means and F-Scores for Dependent Variables

V a r i a b l e s VAR(X) GT VAR(Y) MEANS F SIG.

Directly Working with Children Working within Special Education vs.

Regulations of A.E.A. Developing Areas of Expertise Financial Incentives and Rewards A.E.A. Administration and Policies Quality of Supervision Access to Advanced Education Location of Assignment Member of University Faculty/Staff Personal ControVAutonomy Development and Dissemination of

Professional Materials (national organization)

Disseminating Information/Presenting New Ideas (School Psych./ Supervisor)

Mainstream

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban Urban GT Rural Urban GT Rural Rural GT Urban Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

5.89/5.4 1

4.37/3.83 4.12/3.60 4.82/4.37 3.20/2.80 4.29/3.33 5.29/4.38 4.65/3.50 5.60/4.88 1.97/1.54 6.15/5.51

4.71/3.90

5.71/4.79

4.36

3.99 4.44 4.51 4.02 6.95 8.24 6.24 5.37 4.36 7.83

4.04

8.19

.039

.048

.038

.036

.048

.01

.005

.014

.023

.04

.006

.047

.005

168 Stewart Ehly and Thomas M. Reimer

Table 2 (continued)

V a r i a b l e s VAR(X) GT VAR(Y) MEANS F SIG

Opportunity to Share Experiences (School Psych./Supervisor)

Provides Model of Good Practice (School Psych./Supervisor)

Promotes Profession’s Visibility (School Psych./Supervisor)

Promotes Legislation Favorable to Pro- fession (School Psych./Supervisor)

Provides Leadership for Profession (School Psych./Supervisor)

Provides Feedback on Profession’s Effect (School Psych./Supervisor)

Sets Professional Standards (School Psych./Supervisor)

Unifies the Profession

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

Rural GT Urban

5.5 1 /4.46

5.49/4.46

5.1 5/4.38

4.98/3.92

5.44/4.64

5.10/4.44

5.41/4.59

5.00/4.17

7.11 ,009

9.11 .003

5.50 .021

7.42 ,008

5.72 .019

4.89 .029

6.13 ,015

4.71 .033

Job Satisfaction On the first section of the questionnaire, subjects were asked to rate variables in-

fluencing their level of satisfaction with work activities. On one variable, “directly working with children,” rural school psychologists appear to be more satisfied than psychologists working in urban areas, F(1,104) = 4.36, p < .05. However, it should be mentioned that both groups rated this variable high, with a mean score of 5.64 on a scale of 7. Rural school psychologists also appear to be more satisfied working within special education vs. working within the mainstream, F(1, 103) = 3.99, p < .05. When questioned about their satisfaction with regulations provided by their area education agency (A.E.A.), rural school psychologists expressed a greater degree of satisfaction than did their ur- ban counterparts, F(1,94) = 4.44, p< .05. They also expressed a greater degree of satisfac- tion on the variable “developing areas of expertise,” F(1, 105)=4.51, p < .05, and on the variable, “financial incentives and rewards,” F(1, 105) = 4.02, p - c .05.

There was one variable that was not statistically significant when comparing the two groups, but was perhaps “practically significant .” The variable “opportunity for advancement” had an overall mean of 2.99 on a scale of 7. Subjects were allowed to comment on this variable, and most subjects reported that there was either no oppor- tunity at all for advancement or little opportunity. Job Stability

The second section of the questionnaire was divided into three parts. The first part asked subjects to rate their current level of satisfaction with each variable and the im- portance each variable had in affecting their perceptions of job stability. Rural school psychologists were more satisfied with area education agency administration and policies, F(1,93) = 6.95, p < .05, and were also more satisfied with the quality of supervision pro- vided, F(1, 93) = 8.24, p < .05. Not surprisingly, urban school psychologists showed a higher level of satisfaction with access to advanced education, F(1, 92) = 6.24, p < .05, and also appear to be more satisfied with their location of assignment, F(1, 90) = 5.37, p < .05, than do rural school psychologists.

Job Satisfaction 169

On the second part of the job stability section, subjects were given a list of activities and were asked to rate the likelihood they would be engaged in those activities five years from the present. In general, all variables were rated low, with significant differences between rural and urban psychologists found on only one of the variables. The variable “member of university faculty/staff’ was rated significantly higher by rural school psychologists, F(1, 93) =4.36, p < .05; however, this variable was rated quite low by both groups, with a mean rating of 1.54. Thus, although there were significant differences between the groups, neither group is likely to be engaged in this activity five years from now.

Several other activities received low ratings as well. Those variables and their overall means are as follows: (a) same job, change in status (2.52), (b) same area education agency/different department (outside school psychology) (1.74), (c) private practice (2.45), (d) in clinical/medical setting (2.41), (e) in other helping profession (2.56), and (f) full time graduate study (1.72).

In the third part of the job stability section, subjects were asked to rate each variable that might affect their chances of finding other employment as a school psychologist and/or in positions outside of school psychology. There were three variables that received high mean ratings, but were not statistically significant. These three variables, perceived by subjects as affecting their flexibility as school psychologists, were: (a) past training experiences (X= 5.60), (b) past graduate degrees (X= 5.56), and (c) on the job experiences (X= 5.88). Quality of Professional Life

The third section of the questionnaire was divided into two parts. On part 1 , subjects were asked to rate the importance that each variable had in shaping their impressions of the quality of professional life. There was a significant difference between urban and rural school psychologists on the variable “personal control/autonomy,” F(1, 101) = 7.83, p c .05, with rural school psychologists rating this variable higher than did urban school psychologists. Again, it should be mentioned that the mean score of the two groups was relatively high (5.75). Another variable on which the two groups did not differ significantly, but which had a relatively high mean score, was the variable “seeing change/making a difference” (5.97). Apparently, school psychologists in general feel that their efforts are making a difference.

On part 2 of this section, subjects were asked to indicate the importance that cer- tain individuals and groups have had in affecting the quality of their professional lives. Statistically significant differences were found on several variables within three categories of individuals or groups. The three categories were: (a) National/Professional Organiza- tions, (b) Supervisors of School Psychologists, (c) Department of Public Instruction- School Psychology Consultant.

When psychologists rated NationaVProfessional Organizations, one variable proved to be statistically significant. The variable “development and dissemination of profes- sional materials,” F(1, 93) =4.04, p < .05, was rated more highly by rural school psychologists than by urban psychologists.

Eight statistically significant variables were found within the category, Supervisors of School Psychologists. Rural school psychologists rated each of these variables more favorably than did urban school psychologists, which may suggest that rural school psychologists view their supervisors as having a more positive effect on the quality of their professional life. Variables considered important were: (a) disseminating infor-

170 Stewart Ehly and Thomas M. Reimer

matiodpresenting new ideas, F(1, 87) = 3.19, p < .05, (b) opportunity to share ex- periences, F(1, 86) = 7.1 1 , p < .05, (c) provides model of “good practice,” F(1, 93) = 9.11, p < .05, (d) promotes profession’s visibility, F(1, 82) = 5.50, p < .05, (e) promotes legisla- tion favorable to profession, F(1, 78) =4.72, p < .05, (f) provides leadership for profes- sion, F(1,93) I 5.72, p < .05, (g) provides feedback on profession’s effect, F(1,92) = 4.89, p < .05, and (h) sets professional standards, F(1, 91)=6.13, p < .05.

In the category, D.P.1.-School Psychology Consultant, one significant variable emerged: unifies the profession, F(1,94) = 4.71, p < .05. Again, rural school psychologists rated this variable more favorably than did urban school psychologists.

Rural and urban school psychologists shared similar perceptions of job satisfac- tion, job stability, and quality of professional life across most variables. However, pro- fessional service delivery in a rural location did positively affect perceptions of specific events, with 18 of 20 significant differences favoring rural psychologists. Apparently, rural professionals are more positive in their perceptions of their supervisors (8 of the statistically significant variables involved their supervisors). Supervisors may be influencing the boundaries surrounding professional roles and functions in the rural en- vironment (Jerrell, 1984). Future efforts can explore differences across job sites, and the relationship between supervisors and staff members. Additional influences on the perceptions of school psychologists (degree of education, sex, time in position, etc.) also could be explored to consider potential variations in job survival among professionals.

Generalizability of the data to other states is tentative at best. Given that services are funded in the target state on a regional agency basis, other sections of the country might appear to be quite different in their orientation to service delivery. However, distinc- tions between rural and urban professionals coincide with other reported instances of perceptual differences across psychologists (Anderson et al., 1984; Huebner et al., 1984). The impact of specific variables on satisfaction, perceptions of job stability, and percep- tions of quality of professional life remains to be documented.

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